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A PR
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Vol. XX No. 1
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リ & ● ' يرمي"
ERSITY EYLON
IEW
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Page 2
Editors E FERNANDO F. LABROOY
P. W. J. K. W. GOONEWARDENA
April,
OONTE
Some Sinhalese Inscriptions of Circa
by S. Paranavitana
Mankanai Inscription of Gajabhāhu II
by K. Kanapathi Pillai
Notes on the Tamil Inscription from Pa I—by K. G. Krishnan, II—by S. Pa
The Philosophy of Relations in Buddhi
by D. J. Kalupahana
COmmorientes
by J. Duncan M. Derrett
The Drainage Pattern and Denudation of the Mahaveli Ganga (Ceylon)
by K. Kularatnam
Plantation Rubber Industry in Ceylon
by S. Rajaratnam
The Rolle of Agriculture in the Econom
Development of Ceylon
by T. Jogaratnam
Sinhalese Technical Terms in Physiolog
Biochemistry
by V. Basnayake. S. R. Kottegoda :
T. W. Wikramanayake
ReVie WS
UNIVERSITY. OF CE
The University of Ceylon was established on til Medical College (founded 1870) and the Ceylon at present the Faculties of Oriental Studies, Agriculture and Veterinary Science. The Univer of Ceylon the publication of the Ceylon Journa its chief means of contact with scientists elsewhe of Medical Science. The University of Ceylon R contact with scholars in literary subjects, to provic in those subjects conducted in the Universit. Ceylon. The Review is published twice a year, welcome. Correspondence regarding exchange University of Ceylon, Peradeniya. The annual copy Rs. 2.50, post free.
 

Manager THE LIBRARIAN UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON
962
NTS
PAGE sixth Century
12 nduvasnuvara rana Vitana 15
InteIP m (1) 19 that period
of mbure, 55 permission Chronology
84
The f 96 called Per
Hiriyala 1C inscription --e tert c 125 Ceylon, 2. V and circa 11.
und
138
156
YLON REVIEW
e 1st July, 1942, by the fusion oft, ulon University College (founded 1921). Arts, Science, Engineering, Medici, ity has taken over from the Govern
of Science, which has been develope re and has also started the Ceylon Jouri, eie Was founded in Order to make Similar e a medium of publication for the research and to provide a learned review for in April, and October. Exchanges are should be addressed to The Librarian, subscription is Rs. 5.00, and a single

Page 3
12
15
19
55
84
96
125
138
156
“evilon
De Touris similar search W for eS are
rarian, single
University of C
ol.xx, No.1
Some Sinhalese Ins
Sixth C
ur have included in this paper eigh I language of about the sixth cent interpretation of a phrase of frequ Lihat period. The decipherment of thes graphs of estampages very kindly place kumbure, the Archaeological Commis permission to reproduce them.
A. Periyakadu-vihar
The first of these records is from t called Periyakadu-vihara, near Nalava Hiriyāla Hatpattu, Kuruņägala Distri inscriptions, in pre-Christian characters the text of one of which has been pu Ceylon, an inscription of a king named I, circa 112-134 A.C.), indited on the re
A.C.2, and a rock-inscription
the first of that name, circa 195-214 A.
published. It was discovered by me . ±e ੦੦ now published is of an
The record, which is of four lines. tion, not one of its letters having bec o har o Che Tirinbiriväva rock-inscr.
Ancient Ceylon, p. 449. Müller, Ancient Inscriptions in Ceylo For an account of the inscriptions at es Section G (CJSG), Vol. II, pp. 178, I Liversity of Ceylon Review, Vol. XIX
 
 

六
Deylon Review April 1962
Criptions of Circa entury
It short epigraphs in the Sinhalese ury, which have a bearing on the 2nt occurrence in the inscriptions of e records has been done from photod at my disposal by Dr. C. E. Godasioner, to whom I am indebted for
a (See Plate III, 3)
he site of an ancient monastery, now in the Ihala Visidekē Kõrale of the ct. At this site there are Brahmi below the drip-ledges of four caves, blished by H. Parker in his Ancient Gamini Abaya (probably Gajabahu ck in characters of about the second of a king named Sirinaga (probably C.), in addition to the epigraph now when I visited the place in 1931, and
estampage prepared at that time.
is in a satisfactory state of preservaome illegible. The script is similar ption of Kassapa I, and the record
n, No. 8.
Periyakadu-vihara, see Ceylon Journal of 80 and 24-5.
p. 96 f, and plate facing p. 95.

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may therefore belong to the last dec sixth century. The ancient name Ekadvara, is contained in this as we at the site.5 This name, it may be founded by King Sabha (Subha, cir are seen at Viharegala near Mahak: of the Anuradhapura District, as att as at the tank called Pahala Kayināțiți
The inscription ends with the number of variant forms, has bee inscriptions from the fifth to seventh by the name of the monastery, our vasa nayanamaha, noticed here for the that the phrase tamaha vasa nayanamal an action which preceded that record the action referred to in the first phras none of the four words contained in tion. Tamaha is the genitive singular o Pali atuna or atta, meaning 'self. Va in the same form in Pali and Prakrit a its meanings is ‘subjection, Naya is di of the -ka suffix, and is found in th meaning debt. The word namaha its present context it is reasonable to form of the Skt. mir-vah which mai form namaha of the present record Sinhalese. The whole phrase may th ended the debt of his subjection, i.e jected to. Now, this interpretation for the phrase cidavi vaharalaya, and i of slavery'.8 It is well known that, one particular class of slave was th mitted himself to slavery on account such instances, the payment of the rendered, would automatically result
5 C.JSG., Vol. II, pp. 178 and 180. 6 Mahdiopaminosa, Chapter XXXV., V. 58. 7 EZ, Vol. III, pp. 162-169. 8 EZ, Vol. IV, pp. 132-3. 9 Rasavāhinã, Part III, Colombo, 1899,

CEYLON REVIEW
des of the fifth or the first half of the f the monastery, the equivalent of P. 1 as in the other two rock inscriptions noted, was also borne by a monastery a 59-65 A.C.)6 of which the remains ligama in the Uddiyankulam Kõraانتے بھی صلى الله عليه وسلم sted by inscriptions at that site as well main its vicinity.7
phrase cidava vaharalaya which, in a found in the majority of Sinhalese centuries. Separated from this phrase record also contains the phrase tamaha first time. It is clear from the context a, ending with an absolutive, refers to edin the phrase cidava vaharalaya. What e was, it is not difficult to determine, for it presents any difficulty of interpretaf tama, equivalent to Sanskrit atman and sa is the same as Skt. pasa, and is found s well as in standard Sinhalese; among drived from Skt. rma with the addition e same form in the modern language, has not been met with before, but in take it as derived from an absolutive y mean 'to cease, 'to end etc. The is the prototype of nina in classical erefore be rendered literally as having ... having settled the debt he was sub1 squares very well with that given Es equivalents, i.e., "caused the cessation in ancient Ceylon, as it was in India, 2 ina-dasa, i.e. a person who had subof a debt that he had incurred.9 In debt, either in money or in services in the cessation of the slavery caused
9.

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SOME SINHALES
by it. The interpretation of the phr 翠 similar phraseology occurring in the i This record and those which follow col 。 that we have given of the phrase cidavi
consideration for the first time in the - scription. rt"P
Tex
තළහයහ වසන නග තමහ වස ණය , නමහ එකදේරරජමහවහර වි
-දව වහරලය
Transc
Talahayaha wasana Naga tamaha vasa ņaya namaha Ekadora-raja-maha-vahara ci-dava vaharalaya 11
Transl:
Naga12 residing at Talahayals sett caused the cessation of his slavery in
B. Galkäț
Five inscriptions in the Sinhalese incised on a rock at the site of an ancie miles south-west of Polpitigama, in District. These records are included
10 There are faint traces of the -stroke inherent a, are rarely shown graphically.
ll. After this are visible faint traces of phrase ma pala sava satanata was contained in
12 Pali Nága. 13 A tank named Tullahaka, is mentioned place. The last syllable, which is the locative
14. Pali Headydra.
 
 

E INSCRIPTIONS
ase is also supported by that of the inscriptions that follow in this paper. inclusively establish the interpretation vaharalaya etc, when it came up for : course of the decipherment of an
【t
cript
ation
led the debt incurred and
the royal monastery of Ekadora.14
iyāgama
script of about the sixth century are nt monastery at Galkatiyagama, four the Hiriyāla Hatpattu, Kuruņägala as No. 101 in the List of Inscriptions of ci, though medial vowels, other than the
the letter na. It is not impossible that the
the last line of this record. . . . . .
in the inscription of Gamaņi Abaya at this 2 suffix, may be read as -hi.

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forming Appendix F of H. C. P. Survey for 1911-12, p. 118. They W. Nicholas who has prepared eye records has been prepared by the A have been indited close to each oth inscribed area, and two on the right right hand side is in letters much la the letters of this record have been
in a satisfactory state of preservation each in the records numbered II an this period, that which is written i the records under discussion is th Andaragolåval6. It is very rarely t the medial vowels, apart from the a symbol. Records No. I and III har other records;, they thus provide us the change of c to s, a phonological in the language of the later period.
In records I, III and V, we come (or sadeva) vaharala (or veharalaya). in a similar position, but the letter ke engraver. From the context, it app as naya namaha of the Periyakadu-vi is obviously derived from Sanskrit ri suffix-lea. The word in that form phrase lekam karā ņa vū dāyakgenā padaya. 19 Kena is to be derived fra formed by the suffix -ya instead of addition of the conjugational affi "having diminished or decreased, ol a word meaning debt, it would exp back. The word that would be app
15. Historical Topography of Ancient an Po UCR, Vol. XII, p. 104, plate facing 17 See Sigiri Graffiti, Oxford Universit. 18 EZ, Vol. II, p. 92. In Wickremasin lekam karāņavā dägyak genä which fails to 1 read above, the phrase means "having exami
19 D. B. Jayatilaka's Edition, p. 172. 20 Sigiri Graffiti, op.cit. Vol. I, p. cliii.

CEYLON REVIEW
ell's Annual Report of the Archaeological lve also been noticed by the late Mr. C. copies of them;15 an estampage of the chaeological Survey. The inscriptions r, three of them on the left side of the side. That on the upper section of the ger than those in the others. Some كمقدم vorn away. The other four records are
The engraver has omitted one letter III. Among the dated inscriptions of characters approximating to those in e rock-inscription of Dathopaissa at hat the Writing shows strokestoindicate which is inherent in every consonantal re sadeva in place of cadeva or cidevi in with one of the earliest examples for
change which had a widespread vogue 7
across the phrase na kena before cidavi In No. III also the phrase na kena occurs
" . 2 has been inadvertantly omitted by the 2. ears that na kena has the same meaning , , hara inscription dealt with above. Na - - *、
- -
la, without the adding of the pleonastic occurs in the Mihintale tablets, in the 8 and also in the Dampiya-aluva-gala)m an absolutive form of the root ksi the grammatical -tva,20 and with the था । -na (*ksinya). It would thus mean "having made an end of. Used with ress the idea of having settled or paid ropriate in such a contextin the modern
i Mediaeval Ceylon, JRASCB, NS, Vol. VI,
p. 95.
Press, 1956, Vol. I, p. lxxxiiiif. he's edition of this inscription, the reading is cognize na as a separate word. As correctly, ed accounts and recovered any debts incurred."

Page 7
F SOME SINHALES
language is geva, the absolutive of the * form of the root kȘi to which the conj The phrase na kena, thus, has the same
* کی۔ Inscriptions numbered III and IV مسر - vaharala. In several other unpublishe word sayamala occurs in a similar posi Ο in place of vaharala in the Andarage
light on the meaning of the word records as siyanala). Paha in dasi-p "noose or bondage, with which the S
saya or siya as equivalent to Skt. svayam 'self-bondage, that is, slavery that one consequence of a debt or some othe compound sayamala gains support by period, 22 of the phrase ala-mala vahara anya. Compare alle davase for Skt thus be slavery enforced by others, as d
Text23 (See
කහබය පටය සමන ගන ණ කෙන සදෙව වෙහර-ලය මහ පල සවස
-තනට වයවය
Tran.
Kahabaya pataya Samana Gana na kena sadeva vehara-laya maha pala sava-sa-tanata Vayavaya
21 UCR, Vol. XIX, pp. 102 ff. 22 For example, in an unpublished ins p. 134.
23 No attempt has been made in the rea they have not been graphically indicated.
 
 
 

E INSCRIPTIONS
i verb geva, going back to a causative ugational affix -na has not been added. : meaning as naya namaha.
contain the word sayamala before d inscriptions of this period also, the tion. The compound dasi-paha, used lava inscription, 21 throws welcome tayamala (which also occurs in some aha has been equated with Skt. pāśa Sinhalese mala is synonymous. Taking , the compoundsaya-mala would mean has voluntarily taken upon oneself in r reason. This interpretation of the the occurrence, in a few records of the tla, in which ala would stand for Skt. anyedyus. Alamala-vaharala would listinct from that voluntarily accepted.
Plate I, 1)
script
scription from Raiaήgane. See EZ, Vol. IV,
dings that follow to restore the vowels where
5

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UNIVERSITY O
Tı
Samana Gana24, a resident of from him, caused the cessation of
be26 for the good of all beings.
Text (S
දපුලදෙරන සම|-න ගන ණ [කෝ']න වදෙව
· සයමල වහර–ල පල සවස
-තනට
Tra
Dapula-derana Sama-na Gana ņa [ke*|na cadeva sayamala vahara-la pala sava-sa
-tanata
Tra
Samana Gana of Dapula-derana. caused the cessation of his self-imp is given to all beings.
Text (Se
1. කහපුය පටය දස[ග]|ප 2 –ය ණ කෙන සදෙ[ව*] වහර,[ල] 3 පල සවසතනට
24. This personal name occurs in the ne in this period.
25 The place name Kahabaya of this r Kahapuya. These appear to be locative connected with Skt. Kåsyapa, P. Kassapa.
baya or Kahapuya, without pataya which fo
the place of vasana, residing in of No. IV. gyin,.
26 Vayavaya is veva in standard Sinha

CEYLON REVIEW
nslation
ahabaya,25 having settled the debt (due is slavery. May the fruit of this action
三 ܨ ̄ ܐ ܝ
e Plate I, 2)
nscript
having settled the debt due from him, - " osed slavery. The merit of this action
1slation,
III e Plate I, 3)
it record as well as in a number of documents
cord is found in Nos. III and IV in the form orms of a stem Kahabi or Kahapu, possibly Comparison with No. IV indicates that Kahalows, is the place name, and that pataya takes
Possibiy pataya is derived from Skt. prasthå- f
Se.
6

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University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XX, No. 1.
 
 

PIATE I
April 1962
seu IeogÁsję>[[es) qe s
uosqdȚIOSUII

Page 10

, , |-

Page 11
SOME SINHALES
Trans
1 Kahapuya27 pataya Dasagap. 2-yana kena sadeva*) vahara და ა. 3 pala sava-satanata
Trans
- Dasagapaya, a resident of Kahapi him, caused the cessation of his slave beings.
I Text (See
1. කහපුය වසන දය [ණ කො-]]
2 –න වදෙව සයමල වහ3 –රල පල සවසතනට
Tran
1 Kahapuya vasana Daya28 iņa 2 -na cadeva sayamala vaharala pala sava-satanata- 3 چ .¬i¬ 1
Trans
Daya, residing at Kahapuya, ha caused the cessation of his self-imp given to all beings.
, Text (Set [ගjරගමය
· වසන රය-න ගන ණ කෙන චි{දවි වහ]රල [ප]ල ස[වසත]නට
27 C. W. Nicholas (JRASCB, NS, Vo. Y. but there is no i-stroke attached to the first
28 This name may have contained anot
V
ܢܠ
 
 
 

INSCRIPTIONS
cript
-
al
lation
Iya, having settled the debt (due from ry. The merit of this is given to all
V
Plate I, 4)
script
ke
lation
ving settled the debt due from him), losed slavery. The merit of this is
V
Plate I, 5)
... VI, p. 100) has read this name as Kihapu,
letter.
her letter or two after ya.
7

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Tra
1 [Garagamaya 2 vasana Raya3 -na Gana na kena 4 cidavi vaharala 5 pala saIvasatanata29
Tra1
Rayana Gana, residing at Gar: from him, caused the cessation of to all beings.
C. Ari
Two inscriptions in the Sinhale incised on a rock called Maduvegal. Divigandahe Korale of the Hiriyala inscriptions are included as No. 10 Appendix F of H. C. P. Bell's Anna Ceylon for 1911-12. Estampages Archaeological Department in 1959. Inscriptions copied during that year. letters which have been blurred son factory state of preservation. Som formation; the script may be ascribe Dathopatissa.32
With regard to language, the has not been found in any other do of naya and means for the debt; paya kind of debt. Paya means foot, an the phrase tamaha vasa naya namaha i above. The phrase paya-vasa-naya which one's foot is subjected. Wha
29. There are traces of letters of a sixth
30 This might have stood for Girigana
31 ASCAR for 1959, p. 52.
32 Compare EZ, Vol. IV, plate lil fac: p. 94, IV.

CEYLON REVIEW
nscript
slation
gamaya, 30 having settled the debt due his slavery. The fruit of this is given
bagasvava
se script of about the sixth century are in the village of Arinbagasväva in the Hatpattu, Kurunagala District. These 10 of the List of Inscriptions forming al Report of the Archaeological Survey of of them have been prepared by the
and numbered 7 and 8 in the List of 31. With the exception of two or three newhat, the two records are in a satisle of the letters are rather cursive in d to a period between Kumaradasa and
hrase paya-vasa-nayata in record No. I cument. Nayața is the dative singular -vasa must therefore denote a particular i vasa has been explained in discussing in the Periyakadu inscription dealt with
would therefore mean 'a debt for tis intended by the expression becomes
line. In Pali.
ng p. 114, and UOR, Vol. XIX, plate facing

Page 13
SOME SINHALESE
clear from the phrase at-pa-vahalafinscription, from one who has gon hands or with feet'.33 The Galapat. services, which the slaves attached to monks, by the phrase at-pa-mehe ser thus appear that in old Ceylon when stood between him and his master w perform, whether it was manual labc going on errands, which involves th this connection that the record uses t ment that the debt was liquidated. ) saya means hundred' and di having
having performed a hundred journe the monastery, it is to be understood
Another unusual phrase occurri pavatavaya. The last word is an ab ducted, of which the subject is vah, language), the trustee of the monaster that by naya-narada was meant a forma on the occasion of manumitting a sla with the Sanskrit root mir-ai to driv it is pertinent to note that the Sama, pouring butter-milk on the head of a
Another interesting form is maya the context, it is clear that mayala is the pronoun me, in the masculine gender the modern Sinhalese meyala or me) Originally, however, this suffix would
araccilla36.
33 EZ, Vol. I, p. 247. Wickremasinghe’s went out to do menial work, is too free, and of the Words used.
34 EZ, Vol. IV, p. 206, l. 13 of text, and 35 P.T.S. Edition, p. 1001, Takkan sise р. 60.
36 See also Sigiri Graffiti, op.cit., p. ccxiv.
 
 
 
 

E INSCRIPTIONS
giyakugen in 1. 21 of the Vevalkatiya 2 out for slavery (by working with) i-vihara rock-inscription specifies the the monastery had to render to the vices by hands and feet'.34. It would a person became a slave, it was underhat particular type of work he had to ur involving the use of the hands, or e use of the feet. It is significant in he phrase yana saya di before the state(ana in this phrase is Skt. yana 'going, given'. The import of the phrase is ys, on errands and other needs of
ng in Inscription No. I is naya narada solutive form meaning having conara-ladana (vehera-laduvan, in the later y’. The context would thus indicate laction by the trustee of the monastery ve. As such, narada may be connected e out or away. In this connection, ntapasadikass refers to the practice of slave when he is given his freedom.
la (meyala) in Inscription No. II. From genitive singular of the demonstrative
As such, it may be compared with ala-ge, where the suffix -la is plural. have been honorific, as in the modern
rendering of this phrase, from those who does not bring out the particular significance
page 210, note 2. āsittaka-sadisā” va honti, See also EZ, Vol. V,

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Text (Se
දෙකෙණ37–එරෙය කසප පස මහවහරට පයවසණයට38 ය-න සය දිගි9 එ ණ38කෙන$9 සඳ මයදව වහරලදන ණය 38නරද ප
-
Tra
Dekeņa37 -ereya Kasapa Pas maha-vaharata paya-vasa-n: -na saya di 39 e na38 kena39 s Mayadava vaharaladana na)
Tra
Kasapatl of Dekena'2-erey journeys44 on account of the debt b. of Mayagara, 46 and having thus se his slavery, Mayadava, 47 the trustee the ceremony of debt-driving,50
37. The symbol read as de looks like gru. 38. The cross stroke at the middle, whic
is not perceptible. It is possible that the sc in other records.
39 The stroke for the medial vowel h different from that in other places of this re väva inscription of Kassapa II referred to a
40 Sιαία υι. 4l Kasapa is Sanskrit Kasyapa, P. Kc Pali is not certain.
42 Skt. Daksina, P. Dakkhona, Elu Da, 43 Di, literally “given.” - 44 Yana saya, see discussion above. 45 Paya-vasa-nayata:- This phrase h 46 To be read as Meyagiri =Skt. and P 47 Read Mayadeva; Skt. P. Mägha-dev 48 Vahara-ladana :— In later langu: received the monastery’. The plural form 49 Pavatavaya, in later language paval verb, being the prototype in the sixth cen presupposes a form *pavatavayi, and that a due to vowel-assimilation.
50 Naya-marada. See discussion in the

CEYLON REVIEW
-
Plate II, 1)
මයගරරජ–
په ي = 28 ته خنډه ) .
දව40 වහරල
)තවය
inscript
Mayagara-raja
yata:8 уaadeva40 vaharala a38 -narada pawatawaya
islation
inding his feet45 to the royal monastery tled that debt, caused the cessation of
having completed43 a hundred
: of the monastery 48 having conducted 49
-
h distinguishes the cerebral na from the dental, ribe wrote na instead of na, which this word has
as been assumed. The symbol for da here is bord; but this form for da occurs in the TimbiriDᎤᏙᎾ .
SSClpC. The equivalent of Pasai in Sanskrit or
242.24. ) ;
is been discussed in the introduction. Meghagiri.
ge, vehera-laduvan, literally, one who has s no doubt honorific. d. It is possible that pavatavaya is a finite ury of the classical Sinhalese pävätvi, which he in the last syllable has been changed to
Introduction.
O

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University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XX. No.
 

PLATE IT
1, April 1962
43. I
gųỊA-n þessess.Ioas qe usoņdȚIOSUII se AğAseổeqųIỳ qe suosąds IOSUI

Page 16

ཉིད་དུ་

Page 17
SOME SINHALES
Text (See
සි දෙකණඑරෙය කසප පස මයගර රජමහවහරෙ මයල වස ණ වේ[කන] සි-දෙව වහරල -
Trans
Si Dekana-ereya Kasapa Pasa Mayagara raja-mahavahare mayala vasa Iņa (kjena -deva vaharala
Trans
Hail ! Kasapa Pasa of Dekaņa-ei this personage was subjected to the the cessation of his slavery.
12 ܢ
51. It will be noticed that Inscription Nc but for the omission of certain phrases cont document was set up by the person who was the temple. The names of places and person translation of No. II, see notes on the corres
1
 
 

INSCRIPTIONS
Plate II, 2)
cript
si
lation
reya, having settled the debt by which royal monastery of Mayagara, caused
S. PARANAVITANA
. III is identical in subject matter with No. I, ined in the first. Perhaps the more detailed manumitted, and the other by the trustee of are the same in both. With the text and the bonding readings and names of No. I.
1.

Page 18
Mankanai Inscripti
HIS inscription was discover
Trincomalee district about ei The slab on which the inscr Archaeological Museum at Anuradh
The record is in two parts. Th but in the second part certain lines : the inscription contains 22 lines of The second part ends with the follov
The script is Tamil with a few
kings such as Sri Jayabhahu, Gajabh
name Mānāparaņa is written in Tam
The language is Tamil. But it c such as Tel Vecar, Kiratu, Naratu ve Tel: Vecãr is probably from Sinh. T land named Tel’.1 The word Vey, vē, vehe=Skt. vīth or vītlī, Pkt. vi changes into airiai in Tamil. This i tāna is from the Skt. words vihāra a has become wikka by the assimilation
adverbial participle kulțuttu from the word culuravu is used in the sense of the same as the ones found in the Sou and twelfth centuries. No pulli is u inscription.
The inscription is issued by Gaja in the 43rd regnal year of his predec This way of dating records from the
*I am indebted to the Archaeological Comm this inscription. I am also obliged to The mand, for assisting me in solving some of m l. See discussion on the word Veva -sara 2. See Wickramasinghe, EZ, Vol. I, pp 3. See Iraiyaņār Kaļaviyal Urai Cūt. l

of Gajabhahu II
d in the village of Mankanai in the ht miles north of Trincomalee town. ption is written is now kept in the pura.
e first part is in fairly good condition; nd letters are damaged. Each part of writing incised between parallel lines. sing Sign:
ド Grantha letters. The proper names of
ihu, are written in Grantha. But the l characters.
ontains some words of Sinhalese origin ar, Veyaka and Verattana. The word - el väisara. It means “the agricultural aka may be derived from Sinh. word - ". hi, vihiya.2 The Sanskrit word agia s used in the sense of anai vow. Veratnd sthåna. The Sanskrit word vigna of gn into gg, D kk. The Tamil past Nkutu- is used as a finite verb. The oath.3 The writing and the style are h Indian Tamil records of the eleventh sed to indicate the consonants in the
hahu (A.D. 1131-1153), but it is dated essor Jayabhahu (A.D. 1108-1145/6). date of the coronation of a dead king
issioner for granting me permission to publish Archaeological Department of India, Ootaca7 doubts in reading this inscription. by S. ParanavitanainEZ, Vol. IV, pp. I 24, 125.
5 fin. 13. - -
2

Page 19
University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XX, No.
நன
Mankanai Inscription of Gajabha.
 
 
 
 

1. April 1962 PLATE III

Page 20

S i
- Y- A 1 1 p ܐܸܢ ܠܲ– t]
ܘ `` ܕ /ܢ 1 ܓܠܝܢ
I
2
2
2
Sc Provi part and as C. aega

Page 21
,
MANKANAI INSCRIPTIC
is known from other epigraphs.4 Th bhahu, it is known from the second p scribed on stone by Manaparana alias \ in the Southern Country.5
The object of the record is to reg
as paddy lands to one Mintan Korran, the
I
the palace.
Text
1. ശ്ച ഫ്ലി முரீ அ
2. பைய சலா மெ 3. கபநமரான ச 4. ககர வாததிக 5. 6ாருரீ 6للا (بعOرا لالات آ]ل 6. தெவறககு யாண 7 டு சயா ஆவது தி 8. ருபபளளி ச சிவிை 9. g5 LIIT fl6) 5600T 5 fT 10. ணரி மிநதன கொ
11. sり』Q「万6T」のg@」「T
12 "2 aga」Tess圧○。 13. விதமாக இ (ட) ட இ 14. த தெல வெசாரும 15. கிரது நராது வெ 16. சாரு ம இதில நாற 17. பால எலலை பெரு 18. UsT6T LO2 6OJIT 19 வறு தெவா வெய 20. க வெரததான பரி 21 S 2, 61) 9 Uflg|TSSTLD
22, 1ாக இடடருளிந.
4. See S. Paranavitana, EZ, Vol. II, pp 5. See H. W. Codrington: A Short H
** Southern Country according to him beg:
Province, developed into Mayarata. In the part of Matale, the whole of North Western I and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. At the time as certain parts of Trincomalee district. I negala district it is referred to as G56örg

ON OF GAJAB HAHU II
bugh the record was given by Gajaart of the inscription that it was inVirabhahu 1196 A.D. who was ruling
gister the donation for life of certain overseer of the palanquin bearers of
Transliteration
I
SWasti Sri 8,
paiya, calame ka panmarana, ca. kkaraVarttika,
懿
! Sri Jayabhāhu
te varkku yāņi
tu 43 avatu ti
ruppaļļic civi
kaiyāril kaņkā ņi Mintan Ko
rranen Gajabhä
12. hu te var enakkujī
13. vitamäka, i(t)ta i 14. t telvecārum 15. kiratu narātu. Ve 16. cārum itil nār 17. pālielai peru
18. māļ Gajabhā
19. hu tevar veya
20. ka verattana pari
21. tta bhimi tainam
22. āka ittarulina.
200-202. istory of Ceylon, p. 13 and p. 58. The term an in the south of the present North Central 12th century it extended over the western Province and the greater part of the Western of this inscription it went probably as far in the Panduvasnuvara, inscription of Kuruf) Gl) Iš Gðg. (South Ceylon).
3

Page 22
UNIVERSITY OF
Text
நிருபதி (த) (ந) குறிபபு ககு மான பரண தெ
62 JD Ug 60 J
* T 6D-2, GG56) UT
6
7. செயதது செ 8. ய லெனறு 9. அருளி திருமு l0. 5LD 61J 55 IT 11. டடிச சிலா 12. லெகம டுர
13. யது குடு 14. அது இது
15. ககு ஒருவி 16. ககஞ செ(ய) 17. (லெநறு) ளம 18. திப புததரா
19. ஞஞை வ 20. லலவ (ரை) 21. யன சூளு 22. றவு.
Trans
Hail! In the 43rd year of Abh Sri Jayabhahu Deva, the agricultural cultural land named Naratu were giv of the palanquin bearers of the Roy. for life. The four boundaries surrou. the lands belonging to the vihara of the main road. These (the agricultur
To this notification issued by t "May the wishes of the king Gajabh a royal letter to inscribe this (donatio
ment should be done to this wish. enlightened Buddha. This is the oat
1.

CEYLON REVIEW
III
Transliteration nirupati (ta) n kurippu kku Mānā, paraņa, te
var Gajabh
āhu te var
6
7. ceytatu ce 8. yaleniru 9. aruļi tirumu 10. kam varakka, ll, ttic cila 12. le kam Ce 13. ytu kutu
14. titu ittu
15. klku Oru Vi 16. kkañ ce(ya) 17. (lemru) lama 18. tip puttarā
20. llava (rai) 2il, yan cūļu
22 raνια
lation I
ayasala Megha Varman, the Emperor land named Tel, Kiratu and the agrien to me Mintan Korran, the overseer ll Bed-Chamber, by Gajabhāhu Deva inding these (the agricultural lands) are Gajabhahu Deva which is situated on allands) are given as donation to me.
I he king, Manabharana Deva ordered ahu Deva be accomplished' and sent n) on stone, ordering that no impedihis vow is taken in the name of the h taken by Vallavarayan.
K. KANAPATHI PILLAI

Page 23
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VOLU
PUBLISHED FOR T BY THE CEY COLO
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/ERSITY CEYLON VIEW
ΜΕ XIX, 1961
EE UNIVERSITY OF C EY LON ON UNIVERSITY PRESS MBO, CEYLON

Page 24
Editors :
C. W. AMERASINGHE
P. E. E. FERNANDO
K. W. GOONEWARDENA
UNIVERSITY OF 'C
The University of Ceylon was established on the College (founded 1870) and the Ceylon University Faculties of Oriental Studies, Arts, Science, Engine Science. The University has taken over from the Ceylon Journal of Science, which has been developed elsewhere and has also started the Ceylon Journal of was founded in order to make similar contact with S of publication for the research in those subjects cond review for Ceylon. The Review is published twice welcome. Correspondence regarding exchanges shou Ceylon, Peradeniya. The annual subscription is Rs. 5
 

Manager
THE LIBRARIAN
UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON
EYLON REVIEW
st July, 1942, by the fusion of the Ceylon Medical College (founded 1921). It has at present the bring, Medicine and Agriculture and Veterinary Government of Ceylon the publication of the as its chief means of contact with scientists Medical Science. The University of Ceylon Review cholars in literary subjects, to provide a medium ucted in the University, and to provide a learned a year, in April and October. Exchanges are ld be addressed to The Librarian, University of 1.00, and a single copy Rs. 2.50 post free.

Page 25
UNIVERSITY
Volume XIX (1961), No. I
Index to Contributors, Titles, Key wo
Aeneid. Some "asides' in the Aeneid. By C. AMARASINGHE, C. F. Political offences in the AMERASINGHE, C. W. Some “asides” in the Ae
American communalism. Ceylon and Amel student historiography.. By David Chalm
Andaragollava, Rock inscriptions at Timbiriv
Sanctuary. By S. Paranavitana.
ARASARATNAM, S. William Hubbard, fellow p. ~ം 1703.
Ceylon and American Communalism : an essa
David Chalmers.
CHALMERS, DAVID, Ceylon and American Co
historiography.
COATES, WILLIAM AMES. The Languages of Ce COATES, WILLIAM AMES. Thomasin and the Re Colombo. The functional zones of the Colom
Colombo townscape ; some aspects of its morp
DERRETT, J. DUNCAN M. Preemption in Tesa
residual law.
Dharma Parakramabahu, The emperor of Ce the Portuguese in 1505. By S. Paranavitar
Emperor of Ceylon at the time of the arrival C
Parana Vitana.
Extradition, Political offences in the law of ext
 

FR CEYLON REVIEW
ages 1-94), No, II (Pages 95—229),
ls of articles, and Authors of Reviewed books.
No. W. Amerasinghe. .. ... I aw of extradition. . . . III
leid. - - - - ... I ican communalism : an essay on ծTS. - - - - ... I
iva and Andaragolläva in the Vilpattu
II risoner of Knox in Kandy, 1660
I
y on student historiography.. By
I mmunalism : an essay on student
I
flon in 1946 and 1953. ... I
ldleman. - - ... I
o city, By B. L. Panditharatna. II
logy. By B. L. Panditharatna. I
alamai : a problem in choice of
III
Dn at the time of the arrival of
I
the Portuguese in 1505. By S.
I
lition. - - II
PAGES 68-75
195-228
68-75
40-44
95-104
30-39
40-44
40-44
81-91.
61-67
138-166
45-56
105-116
10-29
10-29
195-228

Page 26
UNIVERSITY OF CEY
Functional zones of the Colombo city. By B. L. Pandit
GERSHEVITCH, ILY A. The Avestan hymn to Mithra. Re
Wijesekera. - - -
HARDY, THOMAS. The return of the native. A critic
Reddleman. By William Ames Coates...
HUBBARD, WILLIAM. William Hubbard, fellow priso
1660-1703. By S. Arasaratnam. - -
Ivory cabinet in the archaeological museum, University C
tilleke.
JACOBS, HANS. VVestern Psychotherapy and Hindu sādhanā
A. Wijesekera. - -
KALUPAHANA, D.J. A prolegomena to the philosophy (
Karttikeya-cult. A study of the Karttikeya-cult as refle
Puranas. By K. Kailasanatha Kurukkal.
KNox, ROBERT. William Hubbard, fellow prisoner of K
By. S. Arasaratnam. - - -
KURUKKAL, K. KAILASANATHA. A study of the Karttik
Epics and the Puranas. - - - -
Languages of Ceylon in 1946 and 1953. By William A
Leslie de Saram Collection. An Ivory cabinet in th
University of Ceylon. By L. Prematilleke.
Mannar, gulf of. The north-west passage between Ces
Nicholas. - - - -
Nasalization in the verbal endings in spoken Sinhalese. NICHOLAS, C. W. The North-West passage between
NICHOLAS, Cyril Wace. Obituary. By S. Paranavit
North-West passage between Ceylon and India. By
Paccaya. A prolegomena to the philosophy of relati Kalupahana. - - - -
Palk Strait. The north-West passage between Cey Nicholas. - - - -
 

DN REVIEW
No. PAGES atma. . . . . III 138-166
wed by O. H. de A.
- - ... I 93 ܝܠ ܐ
in : Thomasin and the
I 61-67
r of Knox in Kandy, t
- ... I 30-39
Ceylon. By L. Prema
- - ... I 76-8O
Reviewed by O. H. de
,,直 92
f relations in Buddhism. III 167-194
cted in the Epics and the
- - - . . II 131-137 ܝܠ ܐ
nox in Kandy, 1660—1703.
- - ... I 30-39 ། ། ། ya-cult as reflected in the " -س
- - . . II || || 131-137
mes Coates. . ... I 81-91
archaeological museum,
... I 76–80
on and India. By C. W.
- - - - ... I 1-9
By M. W. S. de Silva. II 117-130 eylon and India. ... I 1-9 la. - - ... I 94 W. Nicholas. ... I 1-0)
s in Buddhism. By D. J. . ܠ - - . . , III 167-194 and India. By C. W. < - - - ,,瑾 1-9

Page 27
UNIVERSITY
PANDITHARATNA, B. L. The Colombo town PANDITHARATNA, B. L. The functional z
Parakramabahu IX (1491—1513). The empe of Portuguese in 1505. By S. Paranavit
PARANAVITANA, S. The emperor of Ceylon :
guese in 1505. - -
PARANAVITANA, S. Obituary : Cyril Wace
PARANAVITANA, S. Rock inscriptions at Tiri
the Vilpattu Sanctuary.
Political offences in the law of extradition.
Portuguese. The emperor of Ceylon at the
1505. By S. Paranavitana.
Preemption in Tesawalamai : a problem i
Duncan M. Derrett.
PREMATILLEKE, L. An ivory cabinet in the ar
Ceylon.
Prolegomena to the philosophy of relations in
Residual law. Preemption in Tesawalamai :
By J. Duncan M. Derrett.
Rock inscriptions at Timbirivava and Andar.
By S. Paranavitana.
Sinhalese language. Nasalization in the verba
M. W. S. de Silva.
Some asides' in the Aeneid. By C. W. Ame
Study of Karttikeya-cult as reflected in the Epi natha Kurukkal. - - -
Tesawalamai. Preemption in Tesawalamai:
Duncan M. Derrett.
Thomasin and the Reddleman. By William
Timbirivāva. Rock inscriptions at Timbirivil
Sanctuary. By S. Paranavitana.
Vilpattu. Rock inscriptions at Timbiriviva .
Sanctuary. By S. Paranavitana.
Vistas in Astronomy. Vol. 4. Reviewed by D.
William Hubbard, fellow prisoner of Knox in
ratnam.
Zones. The functional zones of the Colombo
 
 

DF CEYLON REVIEW
NO,
ape : Some aspects of its morphology. I
les of the Colombo city.
r of Ceylon at the time of the arrival la. - -
the time of the arri Val of the Portu
Nicholas.
birivava and Andaragollava in
y C. F. Amarasinghe.
ime of the arrival of Portuguese in
choice of residual law. By J.
haeological museum, University of
Buddhism. By D. J. Kalupahana.
a problem in choice of residual law.
gollava in the Vilpattu Sanctuary.
1 endings in spoken Sinhalese. By
asinghe.
is and the Puranas. By K. Kailasa
a choice of residual law. By J.
mes Coates.
a and Andaragollava in the Vilpattu
ld Andaragollava in the Vilpattu
7. A. S. A.
andy, 1660-1703. By A. Arasa
ity. By B. L. Panditharatna. . .
I
II
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
PAGES
45-56 138-166
10-29
10-29
94
95-104
195-228
10-29
105-116
76-80
167-194
105-116
95-104
117-130
68-75
131-137
105-116
61-67
95-104
95-104
229
30-39
138-166

Page 28
רנו.
 

Page 29
CO
UNIVERSITY
Volume XIX, 1961.
No I. The North-West Passage between Ceyl
The Emperor of Ceylon at the time oft
Parana Vitana.
William Hubbard, Fellow Prisoner of
rathan. - - -
Ceylon and American Communalism.
The Colombo Townscape : Some aspe
ratina.
Thomasin and the Reddleman. By Wi - Some Asides in the Aeneid. By C. W
An Ivory Cabinet in the Archaeologic.
Prematilleke.
The Languages of Ceylon in 1946 and 1 Reviews | Obituary
No, III.
Rock Inscriptions at Timbirivava and
By S. Paranavitana.
Preemption in Tesawalamai : a Prol
Duncan M. Derrett,
Nasalization in the verbal endings in Sp
Study of Karttikeya-cult as reflected in
natha Kurukkal.
The Functional Zones of the Colombo ( A Prolegomena to the Philosophy of Rel Political Offences in the Law of Extradit
Review
 

NTENTS
OF CEYLON REVIEW
No, I (April); No. II (October).
on and India. By C. W. Nicholas. e Arrival of the Portuguese in 1505. By S.
Knox in Kandy, 1660-1703. By S. Arasa
By David Chalmers cts of its Morphology. By B. L. Panditha
Ilian Ames Coates.
". Amerasinghe.
al Museum, University of Ceylon. By L.
953. By William Ames Coates.
Andaragollava in the Vilpattu Sanctuary.
lem in Choice of Residual Law. By J.
ken Sinhalese. By M. W. S. de Silva. he Epics and the Puranas. By K. Kailasa
ity. By B. L. Panditharatna. - - tions in Buddhism. By D.J. Kalupahana. on. By C. F. Amarasinghe.
PAGE
10
30
40
45
61.
68
76
81.
94
95
105
117
131.
158
167
195
229

Page 30


Page 31
-
Notes on the Tam
Pandu Va
I
N the course of my preparation of a collected and reported in the ye.
inscription in Sinhalese engrave stambha of the Rāmanāthaswamin ten This inscription was kindly deciphered me with an elaborate note, translation inscription is dated in the reign of Niss into the area around Ramesvaram. logical Commissioner of Ceylon conti of this king from Paiduvasnuvara. Professor Kanapathi Pillai, in the pa to examine a photograph of this inscrip logical Commissioner, Ceylon, to Epigraphist for India. When I com inscription with the Professor's article
have been missed. Hence I place bef - ܓܕ
attention.
At the outset I may say that the in in the long viruttan style that was prev in question. The text is given below
1 தென்னிலங்கைக் கோன் பர
தினகரன் சுறவி லணந்த
1 A. R. Ep., 1905, Appendix B. No. 90. 2 The inscription is being edited by Dr. S. Epigraphia Indica. I 3 Report for 1951, p. 44 and No. 19 of Appe
4 Vol. XVIII, pp. 157-162. 5 This has been read as vittai. 6. The text here is given in Tamil characters; characters. - 星 *
 
 

il Inscription from
SIQUIVC11 ́C1
volume of South Indian Inscriptions r 1905. I had occasion to study an i on the ball-pitha near the dhvajanple at Ramesvaram in South India. by Dr. S. Paranavitana who furnished and transliteration of the text.2 This ahkamala and refers to his expedition The Annual Report 3 of the Archaeolins a reference to another inscription This inscription has been edited by ges of this journal.4: I had occasion ftion which was sent by the Archaeothe office of the Government pared the results of my study of the 2, I found that some important points ore scholars a few points that deserve
Scription is in verse. It is composed alent in South India during the period
in the form of a verse6 :-
ாக்ரமபாகு நிச்சங்கமல்ல ற்
கியாண்டஞ் சிற் வத்தையிS லுத்திரட்டாதி
யழ்பக்கம்
Paranavitana in a forthcoming Volume of the
ndix. ET. -
in the original, some parts are written in Grantha
5

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UNIVERSITY OF
2 பொன்னவன் தின நற்சாதே
பொற்பமர் கொயில் மு
3 அன்னவை திகழ ஐவர்கண்ட
தென் பராக்ரமன் மேனை
4 மன்னியசிறப்பில் மலிதரு ம
அமைத்தான் பூரீபுரநகரு
In the verse given above I have i from the Professor's. One of the in the inscription is the expression tirup, been read as tiruppiyan leading the in the latter part of the compound. son of Mēņai Sēnēvi-nātan. The in The medial 'i is clear enough on t important reading, affecting the inte expressions matimän paicarat maku is clearly a corrupt form of maki will be seen that there is no Sinhales author. Matinian Paicarag are only meaning the wise and the repository that no name like Kulantey occurs in t of tennilarikai the adjective “ten si understood as such with reference to i Country.
The Tamil inscription from Pai. Kanapathi Pillai (UCR, Vol. XVIII, the fifth year of a king styled Parakra the seventh day of the paksa and on the month of Tai When the sun hac mention of so many astronomical de points to the possibility of ascertaini western calendar, and thereby identify
1.

CEYLON REVIEW
யாகத்தில் உயர்தரு போதி
மாதவற்கும் னிவராலையந் தெனறந்திகழ்
சாலையுஞ் சயித்தம் -ன் வனு பெரி இலங்கை
அதிகாரி அலகுதடயத் னச் செனெவிநாதன்
திருப்பியரன் ழகாற் பராக்ரம அதிகாரிப்
பிரிவுன வளர்தர நள் மதிமான் பஞ்சரன் மகிழ்ந்தேய்.
incorporated my readings which differ portant differences in my reading of paiyaran in line 17 of the text. It has professor to suspect a Sinhalese word In fact it means the “illustrious grandext reading is "malitaru's in line 18. he plate. The last but not the least rpretation as well, is in the last few Intey. The expression nakulntey linte o (LD@ji iš 3 g5—gladly). Thus it e word nama " as pointed out by the the qualifying epithets of the donor (of strength. 2). It may also be noted he text. Regarding the interpretation ould be taken to mean 'south and ts topography in relation to the Tamil
K. G. KRISHNAN
I
duvasnuvara, edited by Professor K. pp. 157-162), refers to a Thursday in mabāhu Niccańka Mallar, “which was which the Naksatra was Uttirattatiin gone into zodiac Capricorn. The 'tails applying to the day in question ng its exact equivalent in the modern ing beyond doubt the ruler mentioned
6

Page 33
ܬܘ ܐ ܬܐ ܝ ܓ
TAMIL INSCRIPTION FRO
in the epigraph. Professor Kanapathi P. tendent for Epigraphy, Ootacamund, S. two dates which fall within the reign as 'the nearest equivalent date of the rect 1188 or Thursday, the 3rd January, 119 of Nissarinkamala, is preferred, and on
ears the record is dated is identified wi
Now, referring to Swamikannu Pi on January 7, 1188, the tithi was Sukla 7 hours and 30 minutes on the previous minutes on the following day. But th Revatī, and not Utara Bhādrapada (Ut and 25 minutes on January 6, which v On January 3, 1191, which was a Thurs ended at 1 hour 45 minutes. So this d. the Naksatra on that date also was not U at 18 hours 15 minutes on Wednesday, J. two dates was one on which the sun ent The expression tinakaran curavil anain stating that the Thursday referred to w it fell within the period when the sun v the astronomical details given in this re rectly to a day within the reign of Nis
has been fixed from reliable data as fro)
In these circumstances, I commun Epigraphy, Ootacamund, and Sri K. G. tendent for Epigraphy, has favoured m of 23 May, 1962) from which I quote th
* I have given below the three of date given in the Paiduvasnuv period in which the inscription cau graphy : -
- 1 = 1191 A.D., Janu moment, follow
ended at 76 of t
2 = 1215 A.D., Janu
ended at .33 of p
3 = 1218 A.D., Janu
V ended at 95 oft
༈
17

M PANDUVAS NUVARA
illai, quoting Dr. G. S. Gai, Superinputh India, as the authority, suggests of Nissarilkamala (1187-1196 A.D.) ord, namely Thursday, 7th January, 1. The latter, being the fifth year his ground the king in whose regnal th the well-known Nissarihkamala.
llai’s Indian Ephemeris, we find that 'th, the 6th tithi having ended at 23 day, and the 7th tithi at 1 hour 30 e Naksatra on January 7, 1188, was irattadi) which had ended at 8 hours vas a Wednesday, not a Thursday. day, the sixth tithi of the Śukla-paksa ay may be taken as the 7th tithi, but Jttara Bhadrapada, which had ended anuary 2nd, 1191. Neither of these ered the Zodiacal sign of Capricorn. ta need not, however, be taken as Tas a Makarasarimkranti day, but that vas in the sign of Capricorn, Thus, scord do not work out exactly corSankamala, the duration of which m 1187 to 1196.
icated with the Superintendent for . Krishnan, M.A. Assistant Superine with a letter (D.O. No. 530/1980 e following relevant extracts:
: probable equivalents for the details ara inscription within the limits of n be assigned on grounds of palaeo
ary 3, Thursday f.d.t. (tithi ending ing day) .03; the star Uttiraț țādi he previous day. ary 8, Thursday f.d.t. 17; the star revious day. ary 4, Thursday f.d.t. 29; the star he previous day.

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UNIVERSITY OF
I may now inform you that was supplied by Dr. G. S. Gai ( Professor Kanapathi Pillai (Vic subsequently when I read thro Ceylon a copy of which you identified the king with Parak is mentioned in the Tiruvend the probable equivalents given able to clinch the issue.' Within the period to which t graphically, no date is found to w exactly correct, and if we are to be January 4, 1218 A.C. appears to be day was a Thursday, and the tithi cur tithi having endedat 8 hours 10 minu (Uttirattadi) had ended at 22 hours to the beginning of a Thursday or that have been suggested.
The expression Tennilaikaik kot pretation of king of South Ceylon throughout his reign of nine years If the date of the record be taken as fifth year as king of South Ceylon wa to power in 1214 A.C., at a time period of political turmoil, and con Island, while Māgha was dominat Nissarinkamala of our inscription Co of Ceylon who lost his life in 1230, against the allies of the Colas (UHC be noted that Patirāja Deva, the pa is eulogised in that work as he whi with the great wall that is his arm.
If the phrase tinakaran curavil a search for a Makara-Sankranti day, also applied, then it would be impos period to which the record has to b and we have to conclude that there is In that case, the record ceases to be of and the identification of the ruler n based on chronological grounds, cea

CEYLON REVIEW
I worked out the first equivalent which four office in response to a query from e Note 4, p. 158 of his article). But ugh your book A Concise History of kindly sent me, I found that you have
ramabahu Nissankamala (p. 283), who
ipuram record of Rājarāja III. With by me in this letter, I hope you will be
he inscription can be assigned palaeohich the given astronomical details are satisfied with only approximate results, referable to January 9, 1191 A.C. This rent on that day was 7th Sukla, the sixth tes. The Naksatra Utara Bhadrapada 45 minutes on the previous day, closer a seventh tithi than on any other dates
1, if it be given its most obvious inter
will not apply to Nissarhkamala, for he was sovereign of the whole Island. January 4, 1218 A.C., the ruler whose is current on that date, could have come
when the Island was going through a -
tinued to rule the southern half of the ing the north. The Parākramabāhu uld thus have been the Parakramabahu ighting on the side of Kopperunjinga, I, p. 684). In this connection it may Tron of the author of the Sidat-sañgarā ) protects the whole of South Ceylon
lainta does in fact make it necessary to to which the other astronomical details sible to find out such a date during the 2 assigned on palaeographical grounds, some error in the astronomical details. importance for chronological purposes entioned therein with Nissarilkamala, es to be valid.
S. PARANAVITANA 18
s

Page 35
The Philosophy
in Buddhi دیا۔
THE THEORY OF RELATIONS PR]
YHE theory of Relations formu
altogether unknown in the Nika an attempt to show that the ori bution of the Abhidhammikas to Budd of the theory of Relations. But a care would not warrant such an assumption Nekayikas were not unaware of this as we find implicit references to most of th As mentioned in the prolegomena2 the of the attemptmade by the Abhidhamm on a more philosophical and firm found by the criticism the other schools of Prompted by ethical and practical cons pains in the analysis of these relations
described the manner in which some th
The study of the early Nikaya text ambiguous and synonymous use of t terms is made by the compilers of the N of the doctrines explained there need fu tion. The elasticity of the use of terms of many of the important doctrines. explain different, at times divergent, terms are employed to denote the same of terms in the Nikaya method of expc compared with the Abhidhamma.
The same problem arises with reg In the Nikayas it is used synonymously
1. ERE. Vol. X. p. 649. 2. University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XIX
19

of Relations
Sm ( I )
E-SUPPOSED IN THE NIKĀYAS.
lated in the Abhidhamma is not yas. Mrs. Rhys Davids has made ginal and most constructive contrihist thought lies in the formulation ful examination of the Nikaya texts As is evident from the texts the pect of the theory of 'causality, for Le relations discussed in the Patthana. theory of Relations is the outcome likas to place the doctrine of causality lation. This was no doubt induced thought levelled against Buddhism. iderations the Nekayikas spared no But as occasion demanded they ings are related to the others.
s involves some difficulty due to the terms. No systematic selection of ikaya texts with the result that some rther elucidation and clearer exposihas necessitated the re-examination Sometimes the same term is used to concepts. At other times different concept. Lack of clarity in the use psition has been a great drawback as
gard to the use of the term paccaya. vith hetu and several other terms
, No. 2, pp. 167ff.

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UNIVERSITY OF
like kāraņa, sambhava, pabhava, nidā Nikayas to denote the concept of mination the early Buddhist teacher denote this concept of cause.
1. Hetu-paccaya
The first of the twenty-four Abhidhamma is the relation by way is a term that is used profusely in th dition. It is there used in a very gen form of cause. It had not assumed invariable or root condition as in t more general application of the ter where it is used to denote the ro greed (lobha), hatred or aversion (do roots of evil conduct (akusala miila) : conduct (kusala milla). From this it attitudes, to wit, greed, aversion, an way of root-condition (milatthena).
2. Arammana-рассауа
References to the relations by v Nikaya texts. Moreover they are forms or relations which are only various kinds are said to be related object.4 It is also mentioned that i (aram mana) consciousness would not rebirth and the consequent sufferi (salayatana) comprehending the exte individual by way of object. The cipient.
3. Adhipati-paccaya
References to certain attitudes d not rare in the Nikaya texts. The
3. M. I. 47. 4. S. II. 65-Yañca kho bhikkhave cete
etiam hoti viññāņassa țhitiyā, ārammaņe sat 5. ibid. —Tasmim patițțhite viññāņe vir 6. M. II, III-12.

CEYLON REVIEW
na etc. All these terms are used in the cause in general. Without any discris made use of terms current in usage to
-” స్వా forms of relations enumerated in the . ofroot-condition (hetu paca)a). Hetu e Nikaya texts to denote cause or Coneral sense comprehending as it were any the more specific or limited sense of the ne Abhidhamma. But along with this m hetu ve come across some instances ot-cause. In the Sammadithi Suttas, sa) and confusion (moha) are treated as and their opposites as the roots of good should become evident that these three confusion are related to evil action by
Jay of object are found in plenty in the explicitly stated unlike most of other. implicitly referred to. Concepts of to consciousness (viiiana) by way of in the absence of this objective support develop and thus there would not be ng.S Again the six spheres of sense onal world are related to the perceiving percept serves as an object for the per
ominating the minds of individuals are particular nature of the actions of an
ti, yañca pakappeti yaica anuseti ārammaņam i patit tha viiiiianassa hoti. ülhe āyatim punabbhavabhinibbatti hoti.
20
༽ལས་ཀྱང་

Page 37
PHILOSOPHY C
individual is always due to the nature Some attitudes like craving (tanhā), des minds of individuals and thus confine t cases these attitudes such as tanha are sa way of dominance.
.5
False view (miccha dithi) also serve ing and this is clearly illustrated in the that certain individuals observe certain (govata) because their minds are domin so they would be able to attain hap instead of their attaining happiness the various forms of suffering.
4. Afifiamafia-paccaya
The doctrine of rebirth being one philosophy, the Buddhists were compe a being is reborn. They were not at saying that it is a phenomenon which lopment of extra-sensory faculties. attempt being made to describe the w is said in the Mahanidana Sutta10 that name and form (nāma rūpa) i.e., the It existence and vice versa. 11. In the abse grow into maturity. It is clear fro existing between viriana and namarily The one cannot exist without the
the other too falls or is destroyed.
5. Anantara-рассауа
According to the Buddhist concep in this world, that is permanent or sub (anicca), and is changing every mom things (dhamma) as arising and passin
7. M. I. 48-49; III. 19. 8. M. I. 388 f. 9. ibid. 10. D.III. 55 ff.
1. ibid. 56. 12. Thag. vv. 23,379; It. 120.
21
 

F RELATIONS
pf the attitude dominating his mind. ire (chanda) are said to dominate the nem to suffering (dukkha).7 In Such id to relate themselves to dukkha by
as a dominance-condition to sufferKukkuravatiya Sutta 8 where it is said practices like the posture of a cow ated by the false view that by doing piness.9 According to the Buddha, y are led on, by their false views, to
of the corner stones of early Buddhist led to explain the process by which ble to silence the sceptic queries by Bould be perceived only by the deveCherefore in the Nikayas we see an ray in which rebirth takes place. It : consciousness (viiiana) depends on
psycho-physical personality for its since of one, the other cannot exist or in this description that the relation a is one of reciprocity (airiamania). other. If one falls or is destroyed
tion of sarihsara there exists nothing stantial. Everything is impermanent nt. This led them to conceive of g away. 12 There is nothing that is

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UNIVERSITY OF
static, not even the body made oft nothing is completely destroyed o. away there is arising. This is more arise, pass away and arise once agai changes is explained by a very striki who, roaming in a forest, leaves on other. 13 This simile explains one v dhist theory of change. Accordin between arising and passing away (dhamma). One thing gives rise to of contiguity (anantara) which Wasl as a condition (рассауа).
6. Nissaya-paccaya
The Nekayikas were aware oft is obtained between consciousness (i. The question is raised by the Budd would develop or grow if it does physical personality.14 If the psych there, consciousness would be rende on which to stand. Once again vo which consciousness rests. 15 Hence instance and volition in the other, s paccaya) to consciousness.
7. Vipaka-paccaya
Instances are not wanting wh lamentation are given as the result C results of birth (jati). The nature this world is impermanent. Henc Therefore the relation that decay an (vipāka). -
8. Ahara-paccaya
This is another form of relatio texts. Four things are said to serv 13. s. II. 95; sin. 791—Kapī va sākhan I 4 D. II. 63.
15. S. III. 65. 16, ibid.

CEYLON REVIEW
he four elements. On the other hand, annihilated. Along with the passing so in the case of the mind. Thoughts 1. The rapidity with which the mind ng simile. It is compared to a monkey : branch of a tree and gets hold of an- is ry significant characteristic in the Bud- . g to it there is no break or interval r passing away and arising of a thing another immediately. Hence the idea iter formulated by the Abhidhammikas
he fact that a relation of dependence too ifinana) and name and form (namaripa). la as to whether consciousness (viiiana) not find a foot hold on some psychoo-physical personality (namarupa) is not red baseless, without a support (patitha) lition (cetana) is said to be the basis on the psycho-physical personality in one
erve as a dependence-condition (nissaya
ere decay (jara), death (marana), grief, frepeated birth.10 They are the direct of the world is such that everything in e decay and destruction follow birth. death etc. bears to birth is one of effect
that is explicitly given in the Nikaya e as food for the beings that are born
pamuñcam gahāya.
22

Page 39
PHILOSOPHY C
(bhita) and those to be born (sambha (kabalinkara ahara) gross or subtle (ol (phassa), (3) volition (manosañcetanā) an
The first one is the most evident <-->* ဖုန်း being is sustained by material fo
a being by way of food because to a is fed and nourished by the impressions to him.19 Again volition (manosariceta, to an individual because, according to
volition plays a major role in the pro being. It is the food that sustains the istence in sarihsara.20 While all these th is already born, the last one, i.e., cons the being who awaits rebirth. The psy would not develop if it is not fed a Consciousness is said to be a food and a
These are some of the more impo supposed in the Nikaya texts. With t the Abhidhammikas, far removed from ever-fluid reality, began to take a moi of the theory of causality. Their tim investigations that they carried out int. mena are inter-related. Theiro’s was a pursuit. Although the religious aspec was not cared for, yet in fairness to the they laid bare, made explicit the ph Nikayas. They can be said to have pla firm and philosophical foundation.
Buddhaghosa makes an attempt t findings of the Abhidhammikas by put dha himself. After analysing the theor Buddhaghosa raises a problem which i.
17. M.I. 48; S. II. 11, 13, 98 ff. 18. S. II. ll. 19. SA II. 23. 20, ibid. 25 2. ibid. 22, ibid, 25-26.

RELATIONS
est). They are-(1) material food ikam vā sukhumam vā), (2) contact (4) consciousness (viññāna). 17
Form of food. The physical body d. 18. Then contact relates itself to reat extent the individual character that he gets from the world external a) is also considered to serve as food the Buddhist conception of Sarhsara, longation of Sarinsaric existence of a psychical body in its continued exings serve as food for the being who iousness (viiiana) serves as food for cho-physical personality (nama-ripa) ind nourished with consciousness.21 lso a condition for future birth.22
rtant forms of relations that are prehe development of scholastic activity the flesh and blood actuality of the te keen interest in this second aspect e and energy were absorbed by the o the various ways in which phenophilosophical rather than a religious t, i.e. the living of the religious life, Abhidhammikas it must be said that losophical problems implicit in the ced the theory of causality on a more
give authority and sanctity to these hing it back to the time of the Budy of conditionality (paticcasamuppada) in actuality depicts the stage in which

Page 40
UNIVERSITY O
the Abhidhanmikas were led or (pathana naya). He says, "At this that ignorance (avija) is the cause of to ask of which of them and in Wil: clearing the stage for the introdu he goes on to say that in order to c
enumerated the twenty-four forms
9. Sarvastivadin theory of Relat
It is also significant to note th from the main. Theravada traditic Abhidharma Pitaka is quite differer Theravadins, recognise only four 1 four relations are (1) root-conditio (3) dominance-Condition (adhipati) It appears as if the Theravadins went existing between phenomena, whil with the analysis of the most impo to them were only four in number.
DEFINITION OF THE TERM
Since the greater part of the I rich and varied contents of the Sutt. variety of interpretations. As the a religion and philosophy professed necessity arose for a precise and Ca This was all the more necessary in V religions and schools of philosophy in which they attempted to present The richness of the philosophical Co for the possibility of divergence o indicated by the early history of the The store house of words and tern preted in various ways. Ambiguit
23. Vism. p. 532.
24. Mãdhyamika, Kãrikã. I. 2; Abhidh
Catvārah pratyayā hetuś ”Cālambanamanantarann Tathaivādhipateyañ, ca Pratiyayo nāsti paicamaņ.

CEYLON REVIEW
to formulate the theory of relations tage the objector might say, we accept dispositions (sankhara). But one ought at way (kathan) it is the cause 223 thus tion of the theory of relations. Then punteract this objection the Buddha has rs சி
of relations.
OS
ut the Sarvastivādins, who branched off in after the Third Council and whose t from the Abhidhamma Pitaka of the elations (pratyaya) and no more.24. The (hetu), (2) object-condition (ālambana), and (4) contiguity-condition (anantara). further to anaylse every form of relation e the Sarvastivadins were quite satisfied tant forms of relations which according
PACCAYA IN THE ABHIDHAMMA
Dhamma was taught in a free style, the as occasionally lent themselves to a wide words of Buddha gradually grew into by an increasing number of people the Iegorical presentation of the Teachings. iew of the fact that other contemporary were turning out their own literature he doctrine precisely and systematically. intent of the Buddha's discourses allowed opinion and this actually happened as emergence of the schools of Buddhism. is found in the Nikayas could be intery of words presented a serious problem.
armakoşa. III. 6 l.
24

Page 41
PHILOSOPHY
Classification and definition ar necessities of precise logical thinking. dhammikas who made an attempt to classify, define and select terms. Pre notable feature in the Abhidhamma terminology, including a system of
credit of the Abhidhammikas.
As was pointed out earlier the Bu were agreed that nothing can be pro that every dhamma is the product of terms hetu and paccaya 25 Which vere and which were very widely used selected the term paccaya to denote the term hetu to denote the root-cause of came to mean any form of cause or c
Then the necessity arose for the concept of paccaya. Buddhaghosa paccayo,26 i.e. that form which the (f comes. The term thiti (occasion) is paccaya27 and is defined as that by di stands.28 Whatever state that stands o state, the latter is called the cause of many circumstances necessary for the a carpenter and the instruments with which are very necessary for the pr things they could hardly be called existence would not lead to the pro called causes or conditions only if the chair. Any such thing, among a g render service to, has no influence ov under the category of cause or condit
25. These two terms were used in the Nika M. L. 442, 444; II. 45, 74; A. I. 55 ff; 66, 2
26. Vism. p. 532; Tikap. I. Il-12. Suma in defining the term paccaya-paticca, phala term phalam (effect or fruit), in the definitio
27. As is evident from the use of the comp 28. Tițțhati phalam ettha, tadāyattavuttit
2

DF RELATIONS
the necessities of logic, the prime Hence it fell to the lot of the Abhibuild up a system of philosophy, to ision in the selection of terms is this exts. The development of a technical efinition and classification lies to the
ddhists, especially the Ābhidhammikas luced by the action of a single CâUSC, at least two causes. Out of the two used to denote the concept of cause in the Nikayas, the Abhidhammikas various causes, restricting the use of the lly. After this only the term paccaya ondition.
definition and clear exposition of the xplains it thus—paţicca eta Smā eti ti ruit or effect) derived (from a cause)
used synonymously with the term spendence on which the effect (fruit) r arises through not letting go another the former. There are, for instance, production of a chair, to wit, wood, which he works. If these conditions oduction of a chair are mere passive causes or conditions. Their passive duction of a chair. They could be y are helpful in the production of the roup of conditions, which does not er, the effect cannot be thus included
1O11.
yas synonymously, e.g., ko hetu ko paccayo 00; IV. 151 ff. -
ngala, goes a step further than Buddhaghosa m eti etasmā”ti paccayo—thus including th n. Ab Vin. p. 133.
round term paccayatthiti. Abvn. р. 133.
aya. ibid.
5

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UNIVERSITY OF
It was because of this that Bud their definitions of the term paccayab of rendering service.29 According service to the standing or arising of condition.30 Where one dhamma l to another dhamma, that first name the last named. Thus a paccaya is "assisting agency' (upakaraka). Thi dition possesses by which it renders sakti). 31 Paccayasatti is the power o arising of another dhamma. This is standing of the Buddhist philosophy note in that tradition to the present of paccaya satti was so essential for b dhammas that were analysed into Sadaw32 expands it as follows
Just as an heir normally inheri so does a succeeding unit of conscious the impressions of the expired unit.
The same is believed with regi which produces a tree also possesse which is of the same kind. Hence i in the psychical sphere but also in the is spoken of as a force, vim, influen term (paccaya-satti). . ܦ ܢ
A careful examination of this t to this power or force of the condit be distinguished from one another. function of the condition, the type or Thus a root-condition (hetu-paccaya) (mūlathena).
29. Wism. p. 532; Tikap. I. Il-12-Upa Abvn. p. 137—Upakārațțhena pacca, 30. Yo hi dhammo yassa dhammassa țh paccayo—Vism. p. 533; Tikap. I. ll-l2.
31. This term was coined by Ariyavamsa, -See Mrs. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Psychol
32. JIPTS. 1915-1916. p. 37.

CEYLON REVIEW
dhaghosa and his successors extended y saying that it has the characteristic to them only that state which renders a state only is said to be its cause or by its arising or persistence is a helpgr d is the (causally) relating dhanno-Aܔ
not only a relating thing but also an s ability or power that a certain conelp to the effect is thus called satti (Skt. r potentiality a dhamma exerts in the of the greatest importance to an underI of change and it has remained a key day. The formulation of the concept ringing about synthesis of the various discrete units in the Vibhanga. Ledi
its the property of his deceased parent, ness inherit all the energy, the functions,
ard tΟ material units. A mangO seed 5ܓ
the potentiality to produce a mango · t is a law that reigns supreme not only spheres of physical world. This legacy
ce of the paccaya, or causally relating
heory would show that it is according ion (paccaya) that the conditions could It is the paccayasatti that describes the nature of service it renders to the effect. renders service to the effect as a root
kārako lakkhaņo paccayo. УО. itiya vå uppattiya vä upakarako hoti so tassa
a notable Burmese teacher of the 15th century ogy 1924. p. 196.
അി t
26

Page 43
PHILOSOPHY (
Taking a tree as an illustration w firmly established themselves in the gi the soil and water, carry that sap righ the tree develops and grows for a long fruit.33. In the same way greed (lob) - desirable things and drawing up the es them conveys that essence to the co burst into immoral acts and words. immoral (akusala) acts and words by
Thus it is clear that greed fulfils til of immoral acts. The service that it service rendered by a root to the tree.
Instead of the use of the term dhammikas in keeping with their C coined the new term paccayuppanna34 comes into existence due to the inter
THEORY OF RELATIONS
The Patthana enumerates twent Here we meet with a very exhaustive ways in which things are related.
10. Root-condition (Hetu-paccaya)
Out of the twenty-four forms c relation by way of root is the most in tions (paccaya) that could properly be is used by the philosophers of the \
conditions in the sense of assisting age
Greed (lobha), hate (dosa) and con
disinterestedness (alobha), amity (adosa) in the Abhidhamma as the root cond
33. Abvn. p. 137-Uddhan ojan abhiha phalanm gacchati paVattati Vuddhim Virülhinqn
34. Tikap. II. 23. 35. Bertrand Russell-Our knowledge of t
See. Chapter on the Notion of Cause. .27 .Tikap. II .36 ܨܠ
ד

OF RELATIONS
fe see that the roots of a tree, having round and drawing up sap, both from it up to the Crown of the tree so that time until it blossoms forth and bears ha) having firmly established itself in sence of pleasure and enjoyment from incomitant mental elements till they Therefore greed (lobha) is related to way of root-condition.
he function of a root in the production renders to the effect is similar to the
phala to denote the effect the Abhionception of the plusality of causes to denote the resultant or that which lay or concatenation of conditions.
S IN THE ABHIDHAMMA
y-four forms or modes of relations. s and detailed treatment of the various
f relations, the root-condition or the nportant. It is one of the few condicalled a 'cause in the sense, the term Western world.35 The rest are mere }ncies.
fusion (moha) and their opposites, viz., and intelligence (amoha) are described tions.36
Urantena mūlena, viya, pādapo tappaccayam
āpajjati.
he External World.

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UNIVERSITY OF
According to the Nikayas the (akusala) while the last three are the Abhidhammikas who were trying to a more firm footing discussed this co good and bad (kusala and akusala) in causality of a human being. Henc related to the mental and material q life-time as well as to the mental and at the initial stage of the conception
According to the Nikāya theo material body as well as the mental by the mental qualities (viiiriana) ( (namarupa) assumes a certain indiv characteristics because of the influe belonging to the previous life. If th or influenced by one or the other o then the resultant (pacCayuppanna) m. nourished by these conditions just as t stern and other parts. Therefore i there would be no more rebirth jus nourished by the roots. Thus lobh important causes or conditions for cycle of existence. This is not all.
They serve as root Conditions fo are produced during life-time too. Now so long as he does not dispelt and thoughts regarding this woman nection it should be noted that acts a material qualities for we find kayavir the category of derived matter (upad matter.37. In short, his whole beha the material qualities as well as the 1 greed for that woman. Because gr because it serves or assists in the aris it becomes a hetupaccaya. The rest in
Sale 121C. -
37. Vism. p. 448.

CEYLON REVIEW
first three are the condition of evil conditions of good (kusala). But the place the philosophy of life (bhava) on indition not only in relation to what is this life but also with regard to the e for them lobha, dosa, and mnoha are ---- ualities produced by the mind during material qualities produced by kamma of a human being.
ty of the conception of a being, the qualities that one inherits is influenced of the previous life. The individual iduality with its bodily and mental nce of this psychic element (vinana) at consciousness were to be dominated f the conditions (paccaya) given above aterial and mental qualities are fed and he root of the tree stimulates the whole in the absence of these root-conditions t as a tree would not grow if it is not a, dosa and mnoha Constitute the most the propelling of an individual in the
 ി.
r the material and mental qualities that Suppose a man is in love with a woman. he lustful thoughts, all his acts, words, will be rooted in lust. In this conind words come under the category of iniatti and vacivinitiatti included within a ripa) in the Abhidhamma analysis of viour is conditioned by greed or lust, mental qualities being rooted in lustful eed or lust serves as the root and also ing of these states of mind and body, lay be explained and understood in the
ܓܼ

Page 45
ཅི་
PHILOSOPHY O
Transporting the essence, thus, the operate upon the component parts, so at the desirable object etc.
With regard to the other three suppose a man sees danger in sensual thought for the woman. In doing so in him. Therefore instead of the im arose formerly, now arise pure acts, w in disinterestedness (alobha).
Thus lobha and moha, which in avija, are the entire roots of all three the incidental consequence of greed is
The two elements of intelligen respectively termed wisdom and the e roots for the dissolution of the round
11. Object-condition (Arammana-p
A phenomenon (dhamma) which phenomenon by way of an object or Could cling or hold fast (alambiyat) is
Just as a weak person (dubbalo puriso) r
on a stick or holding fast to a rope, ex (cetasika) arise only with an objectives
In the empirical world Buddhism interdependent. Mental phenomena dependent; the one cannot stand with festation of mental phenomena some non. This objective basis is worthy of l is nothing in this world that would not
The object of consciousness is sai object of thought. The former is sub form (cakkhu viññeyya rūpa), audible sou
38. Tikap. I. p. 1 f. 39. ibid. I. p. 12 f; Vism. p. 533; Abvn. 40. Vism. p. 533; Abvn. p. 138.

F RELATIONS
e three elements lobha, dosa and moha
that they become happy and joyful
elements, alobha, adosa and amoha, pleasures and gives up that lustful disinterestedness as regards her arises pure acts, words, and thoughts that ords and thoughts having their root
the Nikayas are given as tanha and rounds of misery. Hate (dosa) being only a root of evil.
ce and disinterestedngss which are lement of renunciation are the entire
pf misery (dukkhakkhaya).
ассауа) assists or renders help to some other
presentation on to which the latter
said to be related in this manner.38 nakes an attempt to stand up leaning ven so mind (citta) and its co-efficient upport,39
holds that everything is relative and (nāma) and mater (rūpa) are interhout the other. Thus for the manikind of objective support is a sine qua being examined for it is said that there become the object of consciousness.40
ld to be either an object of sense or
divided into five classes, viz., visible ind (sotaviññeyya sadda), odorous Smell
p. 138.

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UNIVERSITY OF
(ghānaviññeyya gandha), sapid taste (ji (kaya viñeyya phothabba). These se upakaraka dhamma) for the arising of C smell, taste and touch respectively. I related to the five classes of conscious
The object of thought consists of
They are
(1) all classes of consciousness
(2) all states of mental co-effic
(3) & (4) all kinds of materi sensitive (pasada) or subtl
(5) all terms expressive of con (6) пibbдта.
These can be termed ideas of dhammaramтатта. 42
All these sensibles or objects of objects of thought, past, present, ful conventional (samnut), the relative cendental (lokauttara) are object-condit to the seventy-six classes of Conscious are the pacCayuppanna dhamma.
In the same way the actions (kan and the sign of destiny (gatinimitta) pres serve as the object Conditions and are known as the life-continuum (bhavan that the dying Consciousness (cuticit rebirth Consciousness (patisandhicitta) which are presented to him at the m consciousness of a person who has at are these objects not presented, for in he passed away with consciousness find
41. Tikap. I. Il-2. 42. Abhs. p. 13. 43. BPR. p. 10. 44. S. L. 120 ff.

CEYLON REVIEW
vhāviññeyya rasa) and tangible matter rve as the basis or support (paccayaonsciousness (viiiana) of sight, sound, Hence these five classes of sensibles are ness by way of object (arannana).41 』 ܓܬ
six classes.
citta), ents (cetasika),
al qualities (rupa), whether they are e (sukhuma).
Cepts, and
reflection and are collectively called
sense, past, present or future and all
ture or outside time, comprising the - ' (paticcasanuppanna) and the transions and are causally related severally, 2 ܓܵܠ tness known as mind cognitions which
ima) the sign of action (kammaninitta) sented to a man at the moment of death : causally related to the consciousness ga).43. It is clear from this description a) of an individual cannot generate without the support of these objects oment of death. Only to the dying ained final emancipation (parinibbāna) the episode of Godhika it is said that
ing no basis (appatitthitena viññānena).“

Page 47
PHILOSOPHY C
It may be pointed out that this relatic a standpoint that is opposed to orthc positing of a substance or agent. Bu (arammana) involves no correlate of me also to the subject. The ever-changi garded as the relating thing (paccaya) a gates are the related thing (paccayuppa. the concept of the specific relation.46.
12. Dominance-condition (Adhipati
Buddhism by making the ethical c the motive and not upon the external p
of karma. The aim was no longer to the motives that inspire them. The E Indian ethics by insisting on motive a The value of our actions are determined Causality of moral behaviour was also
explain clearly. Therefore in the stat into account of the motives which dom for the formulation of the dominance
* ܥ Taking into consideration the pa material and mental (i.e. ideas of reflect of an individual, the Buddhists distingu or dispositions like intentions, will, e consciousness of an individual. There is of two varieties, to wit,
(a) objective dominance (arannan
(b) co-existence dominance (sahajā
The first accounts for the impres: the mind. The external world presen
agreeable objects. One's behaviourist by these objective presentations. The woman, quoted above, would illustr; object (arannana), in this case, the won
45. CP. p. 2. 46. JIPTS. 1915-1916, p. 25. 47. Tikap. II. 13.
 
 

F RELATIONS
n involves a subject, thus indicating dox Buddhist philosophy, víz, the ; it should be noted that the object taphysical import; and this is applied g object or objective process is rend the ever-changing mental aggrena),4S the only constant factor being
paccaya) haracter of an action dependent upon erformance transformed the doctrine attend to the external actions but to uddha made the greatest advance in s the standard of moral judgement. 1 by the motives which inspire them. a problem that the Buddhist had to ement of causality they had to take inate the mind. Hence the necessity Condition (adhipati paccaya).
't played by objects (aramana) both on), in dominating the consciousness ished them from such mental attitudes to., which arise spontaneously in the fore, according to them, dominance
1 adhipati), ta adhipati).47
ions created by external objects on ts us with various agreeable and disherefore to a great extent determined e simile of the man in love with a ute this relation too. The external han, generates in the man a great lust

Page 48
UNIVERSITY OF
or attachment. All his behaviour is which he longs to possess. He wou other person who tries to win overt causality of his rash conduct, the wo act by way of objective-dominanc paccaya dhamma and the behaviour of are the рассауирратӑ dһатӑ. It is causal relation of objective dominanc otherwise they do not. But those jhānas are never lacking in high est obtained.
Apart from this, there are certai sciousness and which are said to arise a Intention or desire to do, will, ener are said to fall into this category. I that even such mental concomitants well as mental. But because of the which overshadow 48 the objects that along with consciousness the distinct nance and co-existent dominance.
The potency of the objects to coi co-efficients by which the objects are
13. Relations of Contiguity and II Samanantara-paccaya)
Orthodox systems of thought in only to explain the process of perce menon of rebirth.50 Such a conce for whom the philosophy of chang doctrine of insubstantiality (anatta) w of change, has remained the key in Theravadins up to the present day problems for the Buddhists. The di of change with the doctrine of contii were equal to the task. The philos
48. Yada hi chandam dhuram chandam je
*va adhipati, no itare—Tikap. II. 13.
49. Brhadāraņyaka Upanişadı. III. 7. 50. ibid. VIII. 2.

CEYLON REVIEW
hus dominated by this external object ld go to the extent of murdering any hat woman. If we are to explain the man whom he loved is related to that e. Hence the woman becomes the
the man, his acts, words and thought’ 、
- - • 1 : SC 1 -- "-- "-- said that objects of sense exhibit the ܬܠ
e only when they are highly regarded, who reach the various stages of the eem for the sublime states they have
in attitudes which dominate our conlong with Consciousness (sahuppadana). Σy OY effort, reason and investigation But in the ultimate analysis it appears are generated by objects, material as lominating influence of these attitudes I gave rise to them and which persist ion is made between objective domi
trol these states of mind and its mental
highly regarded is called adhipaccattha.
mmediate Contiguity (Anantara-and
India posited an unchanging Soul not ption49 but also to explain the phenoption was abhorred by the Buddhists e was one of vital importance. The hich is the corollary of the philosophy ote especially in the tradition of the
This no doubt created enormous
fficult task of reconciling the doctrine
nuity had to be faced. The Buddhists ophic importance of the relation of
thakam katvā, citam pavattati tadā chando
32
ན།

Page 49
PHILOSOPHY O
contiguity and also of immediate conti they enabled the Buddhists to disp unchanging entity, a soul, not only in but also in explaining the problem phenomenon of rebirth, quite consister
The Buddhists who psychologise explain how thoughts arose one after ti giving up their characteristics. To acc two relations according to which the preceding Consciousness and its mental in the immediately preceding mome
(pacCayuppanna) which is the succeedin. comitants which have just arisen, by w
contiguity.51 The relations that obtai ceases and the other that arises withou relations of contiguity (anantara) and in
Sumangala, in his celebrated wo that the preceding consciousness is able as are similar to its own, to succeed in t Ledi Sadaw, while expounding the p }
ܛܓܢ
in the phrase, "similar to its own th similarity in respect of having the facult
The ability on the part of the prece thought-moments as are similar to its not a mere Sequence Or SuCCCSS10n 1n t between the two correlated things. O1 also a spatial relation where causality is consciousness towards the succeeding co the successor, is like a parent towards it the predecessor in the mental sequence successor appears. Moreover, the succ
51. Tikap. II. 3—Yesam yesann dhammānam dhammā tesam tesam dhammānam anantara-(s
52, ibid. 53. p. 138—attano attano anantaram ar purimaniruddho dhammo anantarapaccay Tikap. I, 13.
54. BPR. p. 24.
w
33
 

F RELATIONS
guity is evident from the fact that pense with the conception of an explaining the perceptual process
of personal continuity, i.e. the
tly.
'd without a psyche thus had to
he other without an interval, yet not count for this they formulated these relating subject (paccaya) that is the Concomitants which have just ceased nt is related to the related object g consciousness and its mental conay of contiguity and also immediate in between these two, the one that it a pause or gap, are said to be the mediate contiguity (samanantara).52
ik, Abhidhammatthavibhavini, says to cause such states of consciousness he immediately following instant,53 hilosophy of relations, 54 says that e word similar is meant to express cy of being conscious of an object.
ding thought-moment to cause such Dwn, is the paccaya Satti, for there is ime without any causal connection the other hand it is a temporal and also obtained. Thus the preceding insciousness, the predecessor towards s offspring, with the difference that ceases to be as such, the moment the eeding unit of consciousness inherits
anantará ye ye dhammä uppajjanti, te te amanantara)-paccayena paccayo.
nurūpacittuppādajananasamatthio purimao samanantarapaccayo ’ti ca vuccati.

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UNIVERSITY OF
all the energy, functions and impress way as an heir inherits the property
It is important to note that thi relation of immediate contiguity pr with birth and ending with the dissc throughout the whole space of recu throughout the cycle of evolution, see the relation of contiguity existing and rebirth consciousness (patisandhi related to the following life-contin and this life-continuum is again rela life-continuum and so on with the r after the attainment of the Path of , the five aggregates (khandha-parinibb
more strictly speaking, does not ceas
Sumangala refutes the theory he contiguity (anantara paccaya) refersto of immediate contiguity (sanananta lation.57 According to him there i regard to the things they refer to. them is merely verbal,58
14. Co-existent Condition (Sahajā
That which arises helping or ass: said to be a co-existent condition.59 illustrate this relation.60 When a 1. with the lighting of the lamp. Wh. with its heat and light. In this case heat by way of co-existence. Caref
55. JIPTS. 1884. p. 37. 56. BPR. p. 24.
57. Yam pana keci vadanti atthănar samanantarapaccayo ’ti.—Abvn. p. 138.
58. Byañjanamatten’eva hii nesam vises niruddhass’eva, adhivacanann; na hii nesann 59. Tikap. II. 14—Uppajjamāno saha sahajāta-paccayo. Abvn. p. 138—attano a sahuppādabhāvena paccayo.
60. Abvn. p. 138.

CEYLON REVIEW
ions of the expiring unit, in the same of his deceased parent.
s relation of Contiguity as well as the
evail not only in this life, beginning olution of the material body, but rig. Na se
iring existences of an individual, right with unbroken continuity. Hence we between death consciousness (cuticitta) I citta). Thus rebirth consciousness is lum (bhaviga) by way of contiguity; ted in a similar way to the subsequent est.55 Ledi Sayadaw opines that until Arahatship and the final dissolution of āna) this continuum is not broken, or e for ever.56
'ld by some people that the relation of the spatial relation and that the relation ra paccaya) refers to the temporal re
s no difference between the two with
Whatever difference there is between
ta-paccaya) sting the arising of another dhamma is
The example of a lamp is quoted to
amp is lighted, the light comes along en a lamp is burning, it burns together the lamp relates itself to the light and ully analysing some phenomena which
ntarataya anantarapaccayо, kālāinantaratãya
so; atthato pana ubhayampi samanantaraatthato bhedo upalabbhati-ibid.
uppajjamānabhāvena upakārako dhammo
nuppattiyā . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sahuppan nanan
34

Page 51
PHILOSOPHY OF
arise together with their effects, or, in o cause their effects to arise simultaneou relation.
তg The paccayasatti in this case is the at s--. šip, in the simile quoted) to give rise and heat) simultaneously with the arisin
The fourimmaterial aggregates (ari to one another in this manner. So are t But here it must be noted that there is to co-existence but also a relation of recip only do the elements of cohesion (apo), along with the arising of the elements (
cannot exist in the absence of the others as by way of co-existence, psychological at the birth of a being. The one does n.
But in the case of material qualities life-time, they arise along with conscio the four great elements related to the de
15. Mutuality-condition or the Relati
mafifia-paccaya)
Mutuality-condition or the relation respects similar to the relation by way of important feature to be noted in this relat are mutually relating and related. Th (paccaya) and also as the related object ( mutuality condition or atitiamaiійа раCCa)
The example of the three sticks is t tion.64 When three sticks are set upri
their upper ends, each of them depends C
61. Tikap. II. 14. 62. As mentioned earlier, the material qualit.
and deeds of an individual (cp. vaci viññatti, kć matter).
B3. Tikap. I. 36.
4 AbVn. p. 138-Aiamaian upattham kārakadhammānam upathambhaka bhāvena pa
35
 

RELATIONS
ther words, phenomena which also
sly, the Buddhists formulated this
bility on the part of the paccaya (the to the paccayuppanna (i.e. the light g of the paccaya.
pino khandha) are said to be related he four great elements (maha bhita). be obtained not only a relation of rocity (annamarina paccaya).01 Not heat (tejo) and motion (vayo) arise of extension (pathavi) but they also ... So are related, mutually as well data (nāma) and material data (rūpa) ot arise nor exist without the other.
62 which are born of mind during usness but not vice versa. So are rived material qualities (upadarapa).
on by way of Reciprocity (Afifia
by way of reciprocity is in some co-existence (sahajāta paccaya). The ionis that both terms of the relation ey function as the relating subject pacCayuppanna). Hence it is called (1.63
sually quoted to illustrate this relaght leaning against one another at n, and is depended on by, the other
es referred to here, are nothing but words ya viññatti included under the category of
hayamānamn tidaņçdam viya , attano upa“cayO.

Page 52
UNIVERSITY OF
two. Hence each serves as a pacca of them falls, the rest will fall
reciprocity or mutuality should be
The Tikapathana05 says that
Firstly, the four non-material aggre ally related. The mental properti vibhavini, cannot arise in the abs consciousness and depend on Cons other hand consciousness is not abl properties. The knowledge of th only when the mental properties a comitant factors of consciousness.
Secondly, the four great eleme and mutually related. The elemen of heat (tejo) and of motion (vāyo) a to form the material body.08
Lastly, at the birth of a being
(nāma) and the Corporeal data (rūpa related.69
But a relation of reciprocity is material qualities born of mind a and derived material qualities wher.
16. Dependence-condition (Nissa
That which serves as a standi some other thing is said to be the too may appear to be similar to th difference. The simile of the tree trate this diference very clearly.
65. I. 3. 66. P. 40-Na hi tam cittena vinã âr sabbam anupajjanato.
67. ibid.-Cetasi bhavam tadāyattavu 68. Tikap. I. 3, 14. 69. ibid. 70. Abvn. p. 138–Tathã hi sahajāta. hoti. Cittajaripanam sahajatapaccaya, paccayubhāvīnam mahābhūtānañ ca añiñ
71. Tikap. II. 15. 72. ibid.; Abvn. p. 139.

CEYLON REVIEW
ya as well as the paccayuppanna. If One at the same time. The relation of
understood in a similar way.
the relation of reciprocity is three-fold.
- - 3 gates (cattaro aripino khandha) are mut-e
es, according to the Abhidhammatthaence of consciousness.66. They arise in ciousness for their existence.67 On the e to arise without the correlated mental e existence of consciousness can be had re manifest. It is because they are con
ints (cattaro mahabhita) are interdependent t of extension (pathavi), of cohesion (apo), are all related, each contributing its share
, (okkantikkhane), the psychological data
) which go to constitute it, are mutually
not obtained between consciousness and ld also between the four great elements : we find only a relation of co-existence.70
ауа-рассауа)
ng ground or basis for the existence of dependence-condition.71 This relation e two previous relations. But there is a as well as of the painting 2 would illus
ammanagahanasamattham. A sati citite sabbena
titikann.
paccayabhavi yeva koci aiinamaññapaccayo na bhāvino nāmasa upādārūpānam sahajātaamaiapaccaya bhāvassa anuddhat attā.
36

Page 53
PHILOSOPHY OF
The earth is the basis or standing g could grow. Therefore the earth b (nissaya paccaya) and the tree, the eff case of the relation of co-existence, the nor is the earth dependent on the tree f
tion of reciprocity. Similarly the&& گئے
്
rܕ ܐ
ར
YS
on which it is done becomes the basis bases (āyatana), viz., eye, ear, nose, tongu conditions for the six elements of co. objective basis depending on which arise all these objective bases serve as the dept ness and the mind cognitions.73 But heart as the dependence-condition of m
17. Sufficing-condition (Upanissaya
The emergence of the concept of paccaya bears testimony to the fact that the Abhidhammikas in scholastic work purpose for which the dhamma was p1 scholastic work, completely divorced would contain an analysis of the reality from an objective standpoint. Altho pitaka appears to have this stamp of scho pnikas making an attempt to account analysis of phenomena. The upanissa desert of dry scholasticism to give conso with a religious bent of mind.
Buddhaghosa defines the sufficing It is a synonym for strong reason. Hen being a strong reason is to be known as
Sufficing condition, according to t (1) Object sufficing condition ( (2) Immediate sufficing conditi (3) Natural sufficing condition
73. Tikap. I. l5. 74. Infra. p. 34.
5. Vism. p. 536. 6. I. 15.
37

RELATIONS
round depending on which the tree ecomes the dependence-condition 2ct (pacCayuppanna). But as in the earth does not arise with the tree or its existence as in the case of the painting for which the cloth (pata) (nissaya). In psychology, the five le and body, serve as the dependence gnition (viññāna dhātu). Whatever consciousness and mind-cognitions, 2ndence condition for the consciousLedi Sadaw Wrongly considers the ind cognitions.74
рассауа)
sufficing condition or the upanissaya in spite of the keen interest taken by yet they were not unmindful of the reached by the Buddha. A purely from the ethical and religious life, of man and his surroundings viewed ugh the bulk of the Abhidhamma lasticism, yet we see the Abhidhamfor religious consciousness in their ya paccaya stands as an oasis in the lation and peace of mind to the man
condition as "excessive dependence. ce that state which renders service by
the sufficing condition. 75
he Tikapathana,76 is three-foldarатапиратissaya), on (anantarilpanissaya), (pakatúpanissaya).

Page 54
UNIVERSITY O
Out of these, object-sufficing influence of the object (arammanda For example, a man having practis holy day, reflects thereon with di behaviour with due regard.78
That object with due regard to is, as a rule, the strong object a says, "Dominant influence has th Sufficing Condition of the object, tl
Immediate sufficing condition guous condition (anantara paccaya)8
But out of all these, the mosti (pakatipanissaya) which accounts f social life, past, present and future.
All classes of consciousness, p. external, together with their concC and concepts, are said to be natu: to-as the case may be—to all the ConComitants.
It is significant to note that sciousness of the present dependin; continuity of the influence of past of the people is here explained cau: who had passed away and has atte preached and the succession of disciples who had all achieved the fluences the present generation of p into consideration this influence o generation, the Abhidhammikasi of this religious consciousness form
77. Tikap. II. 15.
78. ibid.
79. Vism. p. 536.
80. Tikap. II. 16. 8l. Once again these refer to behaviou

FR CEYLON REVIEW
2. Condition is similar to the dominant "hipati)77 without making any difference. ed charity, observed the precepts and the le regard. He reflects on his past good
- _&"హిజ్ఞా
which mind and mental properties arise mong objects. Therefore, Buddhaghosa e meaning of being fit for due regard, hat of a strong reason.”79
is the same as the immediate or conti0 treated above.
important is the natural sufficing Condition or the whole of the religious, moral and
ast, present and future, internal as well as omitants, all material qualities,81 Nibbana ral sufficing Conditions, severally related present classes of consciousness and their
this relation accounts for religious cong on the past as well as the future. The : traditions and institutions for the good sally. The tradition of the Lord Buddha lined Nibbana, the Dhamma that he has disciples beginning with his immediate goal of the religious life, no doubt ineople for the cultivation of good. Taking f the past on the behaviour of the present in their attempt to explain the causality ulated the relation of sufficing condition.
r, bodily and verbal.
38

Page 55
PHILOSOPHY C
In the same way, our forefathers, in teachers, erudite monks and brahmins, and august kings, are also causally rela way of natural sufficing Condition, eit eğil, or for the experience of pleasure O
- - - - p-fiem this that the sufficing condition (
social as well as religious life. This is
The acquirement of happy existe of the Path (magga), Fruition (phala) a in the future, are also natural sufficin generation of men for the cultivation beneficence, virtue, etc., Again with men till the soil, Sow seeds in the rainy which require labour and intelligence, their completion of the work. Now t to be got are future natural sufficin exertions.
Just as past history exerts a grea
present society by way of a sufficing c.
or ideals to be achieved definitely ser generation.
It is also possible that evil conduc condition for the cultivation of moral very rarely do we come across peopl one of the three roots of evil, to wit, immoral deeds such as murder, theft, s from the slumber they begin to rept consciousness of guilt has a powerful try to avoid such transgressions in f Cases of this type are not wanting. T in the Pali texts, is a shining example
On the other hand morally good conduct by way of sufficing conditio standing or otherwise, performs mora as generosity, kindness etc. But bec.
༈ 39
 

DF RELATIONS
heir respective capacities as parents,
eminent philosophers and powerful ted to the succeeding generations by her for the cultivation of good or of of pain. It becomes clearly evident Explains causally the evolution of the not all.
nces and wealth, and the attainment ld Nibbana which are to be enjoyed g conditions, related to the present of meritorious deeds such as charity I the hope of reaping crops in future, season; or do various kinds of work with the hope of getting money upOn he crops to be reaped and the money g conditions related to the present
it influence on the evolution of the ondition, even so future expectations ve as a cultural force for the present
t(akusala kamma) serves as a sufficing ly good deeds (kusala kamma). Not 2 who, being under the influence of greed, hate and confusion, Commit landering etc. But once they awake 2nt on what they have done. This cultural force due to which people 1ture and lead a morally good life. he example of Angulimala, recorded f this cultural force.
conduct relates itself to morally bad h. A man, may be through underly good and wholesome actions such use he is conscious of his own good

Page 56
UNIVERSITY OF
deeds he may disparage and revile path of virtue. Thus for his imm a natural sufficing Condition.
Although the philosophy of R the Buddhists had kept in mind the theory and practice. The relation causal status to religious consciousne
18. Pre-existent condition (Purej
The prior existence of some p. phenomenon is recognised by this arising of a thing by way of prior e. Just as the sound of the violin arises the sounding necessitates the pre-exi violin bow, so also those thoughts w into being owing to the presentatio at the five doors which are no other ing to the Tikapațțhāna, 83 the bases || cognitions and the concomitant mei So also are the external objects prest tions related to the latter by way of
19. Post-existent condition (Pacc
That which serves as a support fi menOn which has Come intO existe condition.84 For example, growth continued sustenance such as manure not grow. In the same way this bo kamma, requires continued sustena material food, contact, volitions an body it would not develop or cor serve as post-existent conditions fo body which has already come into c
| 82. Tikap. II. 17—Pațhamataram uppajj
83. I. 4-5. 84. Tikap. I. 17— Purejātānam rūpad
arūpadhammo.
85. ibid.

CEYLON REVIEW
others who do not cultivate the same bral deeds his moral actions served as
lations (paccaya) is a theoretic one, yet inseparable connection existing between by way of sufficing condition giving ss clearly points to this.
ata-paccaya) henomenon to give rise to some other relation. Helping or supporting the sistence is the function of this paccaya.82 only when it is played with a bow, and stence of both the violin strings and the hich arise at the five sense-doors, spring n of the five respective objects of sense than the five bases. Therefore, accordayatana) of sense are related to the sense ital qualities by way of prior existence. anted to the mind and the mind-cogniprior existence.
hajata-paccaya) or the continued sustenance of a phenonce earlier is said to be a post-existent
and development of a tree necessitates and water. Otherwise the tree would dy, which is due to the working of past nces. If the four kinds of food, viz., di consciousness, were not to feed this tinue to exist. Therefore these foods r the growth and development of the Xistence.85
tvā vatamānabhāvena upakārako dhammo.
ammānam upatthambhakațțhena upakārako
40

Page 57
PHILOSOPHY O
20. Habitual-recurrence condition (A
The term asevana is here used in repetition. Anything that causes its accept its inspiration, for them to g. ಅಕ್ಟೋf೪Y and force, is called a habitual c
When a person engages himself in and incessantly, he becomes proficient himself in that craft he gathers more a ledge of that craft. For example a ca the first time. But when he goes or experiences that he has gathered earlier the first chair serves as a habitual recu which is more efficiently done. The of perfection of the second chair is due fore they said that the first chair has the later. This is the paccaya satti.
In the same way moral behaviou behaviour of the present and future. tive consciousness, apperceptions etc., behaviour and consciousness.87 If a r (metta) once, later he would be able
degree of perfection. Even so with r.
One very important feature to be among things of the same order only obtained between two different thing cussed above, the construction of a tal by the earlier Construction of a well completely different thing. The exp a well would not be helpful in making
This relation accounts for the gr: fection of an individual with regard to actions which have been repeatedly p. istences causally relate by way of habit
so, ibid.
87, ibid. I. 5. 88, ibid. I. 44; Abvn. p. 139.
t
 

F RELATIONS
sevana-paccaya)
the sense of habituating by constant resultants (paccayuppanna dhamma) to in greater and greater proficiency, ondition.86
s some craft continuously, repeatedly in it. Sometime after he engages nd more experience as well as knowrpenter makes a chair, let us say, for to make a chair after that, all the would come to his help. Therefore rrence condition to the second chair Abhidhammikas saw that the degree nothing but to the first chair. Therepotentiality to produce a better chair
r of the past is related to the moral So are immoral behaviour, inoperarelated to their respective forms of nan were to develop loving-kindness to develop the same with a greater egard to the others.
noted in this relation is that it exists 7, among likes. The relation is not gs. 88 If we consider the simile disble would not, in any way, be helped
or any such thing. The well is a erience gathered while constructing
a table.
dual down-fall and the gradual perhis behaviour. Moral and immoral rformed or cultivated in former exlal recurrence, to moral and immoral

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UNIVERSITY OF
actions of the present existence for t respectively. With the cessation of any other attitude, its force does not ( thought. Therefore, every succeed existence, becomes more vigorous o
The importance of this relation consistent manner in which it explai psychology of memory is causally e explanation of the manner in which or come to ruin, which is so essenti. is very consistent and true.
Mrs. Rhys Davids commenting "In time this original quarrel with Buddhism it became an irrational de to his instruments, body and mind. he scrutinized. The baby was en rejection of the divinity in the self, the spirit using mind and body was
How unfounded this statement tion by way of habitual recurrence, Zing the existence of a permanent se being potential becomes actual, the man, Consisting offive fleeting aggre as Buddhahood. The relation by w this process very consistently and acc recurrence is found among all trans zeal and effort, exerted for a long p a high degree, that many great and accomplishment and that even Budd importance of the relation by way C
21. Relation of Kamma (Kamma
The need for the formulation of mikas because they had to explain Ca i.e., the doctrine of moral responsi
s9. The Book of the Kindred sayings. I

CEYLON REVIEW
heir greater improvement or worsening a thought inspired with lust, hate or cease. Its force pervades the succeeding ing thought-moment on Coming into in account of the former's habituation.
becomes evident on account of the quite ins the phenomenon of memory. The xplained by this. More than that, the a man may gradually attain perfection al for the inculcation of religious ideas,
on the Khandha Samyutta says89 thus, the Atmanist position diverged. In nial of the man as man; he was reduced
The scrutinizer of these became what nptied out with the bath. With the
the self himself, the man, the person, also rejected.
is if we take into consideration the relalet along the others. Without recognilf, the spirit or divinity in man, which : Buddhists were able to explain how gates, could attain to such divine stature ay of habitual recurrence alone explains jurately. As such a relation of habitual cient, insubstantial phenomena, manly eriod of time, have developed to such difficult labours have reached complete hahood has been attained. Such is the if habitual recurrence.
рассауа)
this relation was felt by the Abhidhamusally another very important doctrine, bility. Moral as well as immoral life
II. Viii.
42
ܐܰܝܟ݂

Page 59
سبخصخصة .
2N
t
PHILOSOPHY
were given causal status in the Nikāy of causality to explain the causality C The Abhidhammikas by formulating modation to this doctrine in their the
Here kamma refers nothing but
or cetana).91 When any at place, volition determines, fashions, to perform their respective functions every action. Unlike the other Col dhism emphasised the importance of festation of volitions which are expr mental. It went to the extent of ex
Relation of kamma is two-fold, and co-existent (sahajata).93
The psycho-physical personality to be due to the volitions of the pas which have the potentiality to give r the next existence are said to be relat by way ofkamma. It is the activity to the new being. Therefore the nati by the nature of the volitions. Thos to give rise to a new being in the asynchronous kamma-relation.94
On the other hand there are ce unwholesome (akusala) which arise These volitions which arise togethe ted to the thoughts by way of co-exi paccaya).95 for, the activity of the vol thought itself. Even so with regard
Out of these two different classe asynchronous kamma relation, expl
90. A II. 28. 91. Tikap. I. 45—Kamman’ti cetanākamr 92. A. III. 415—Cetanâham bhikkhave k. 93. Tikap. II. 18.
94. ibid. 45-46.
95. ibid. . 46.
 

OF RELATIONS
as. Application of the general theory if moral behaviour was done earlier.90 g the relation of kamma gave accom
·ory of causality.
to the peculiar function of the volitions stion of thought, word or body takes patronizes, or causes its concomitants . Because of this, volition dominates temporary schools of thought, Budvolition rather than the outward maniessed in behaviour, bodily, verbal and
laining kamma as volition.92
to wit, asynchronous (nanakkhanika)
which arises in this existence is said t existence. Therefore these volitions ise to a psycho-physical personality in ed to that psycho-physical personality (kamma) of the volitions that gives rise ure of the new being is also determined e volitions which have the potentiality next moment is therefore called the
rtain thoughts, wholesome (kusala) or along with the volitions themselves. r with the thoughts are said to be relastent kamma relation (sahajäta kamma itions continues to exist along with the to verbal and bodily behaviour.
s of kamma relations, the first, i.e., the ains how sometimes a virtuous man,
nam ceva. See Abvn. p. 139. amman vadämi.

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UNIVERSITY OF
even an arahant who has attained pe undergo suffering. It also explains t in the tradition, which says that ev psychic powers (iddhi), could not escap kamma relation, the kamma signifies cease though the volition ceases, butl AS soon as it obtains a favourable opp conditions are available,97 it takes effe
22. Relation of Effect (Vipaka-pacc:
It may appear as if there is hardl kamma-relation or even the relation b For vipaka is used in the sense of vip or youth to maturity. That which infant stage is called the vipakapaccaya, kamma relation.
The difference lies in the fact tha also the relation by way of habitual a sine qua non for their function. B (vipaka) this effort on the part of ma without any effort, automatically,9. those thoughts which are said to be a
23. Relation by way of Food (Ahare
The relation by way of food is t yas. 100 But the Ābhidhammikas wil unlike the early Buddhist teachers, though food has the power to produ relation is not so much that, but the come into existence. 101 The main
96. J.A. V. 125 ff; Dh.A. III 65 f.
97. Tikap. II. 46—Avasesapaccayasamāyo
98. Tikap. II. 18—Nirussāhasantabhāvená dhammo.
Abvn. p. 139—Payogena, asādhetabbat
nirusāhasantabhāvā honti.
99. Abhs. p. 1.
100. M. L. 48; S. II. 11, 13, 98 ff.
101. Abvn. p. 139–Sati hi pijanakabhāve kiccam.

CEYLON REVIEW
rfect happiness (parama sukha), has to he legend, handed down to posterity ren. Moggallāna, who possessed such e his assailants.96 In the asynchronous quite a peculiar energy. It does not atently follows the sequences of mind.
ortunity, and when the other necessary
:Ct.
aya) y any difference between this and the y way of habitual recurrence (asevana). 1ccana or change of state from infancy has attained maturity after being in an This is the same as the asynchronous
it in the case of the kamma relation as recurrence, the manly zeal or effort is ut in the case of the relation of effect n is not necessary. The effect comes 8 so that this relation accounts for utomatic (asaṁkhārika).99
-рассауа) he same as that discussed in the Nikano formulated the theory of relations, specified the function of food. Even ce something, yet the function of this supporting of that which has already
function therefore is not production
ge sati phalam uppädeti. a nirussāhasantabhāvāya upakārako vipāka
aya kammassa katatta nippajamanamattato
· upatthambhakattan eva aharassa padhana
44
ག་

Page 61
*
PHILOSOPHY
but sustenance. Although food has yet it has a greater power in giving say a relating thing (paccaya) nourishe to enable it to endure long, to develo of support. Thus it becomes clear t
possesses a producing power, the pov
r
ܓ
Material food, both gross and s the material body because it strongly qualities by nourishing them so that t reach their full life-term.
Contact is an ahara because it st and enables them to stand firmly and the essence extracted from desirable activity of mind is an ahara in that it execution of deeds, words and thous ahara inasmuch as it predominates in giving continued support to the psy
24. Control-condition (Indriya-pac
The twenty controlling facul (itthindriya) and masculinity (purisind and material qualities by way of d controlling faculties or powers whi (pacCayuppanna dhamma), causing the (i.e., those of the paccayas) are called ya). 105 Ledi Sadawi’s comment on According to him, "Indriyas are so ca What is sovereignty ? It is the abili follow itself always in its own care the performers of lordship called sove
Herein the twenty controlling one the normal life and the other, th
102. ibid.—Janayanto 'pi āhāro aviccheda 103. See list at PED. (PTS) p. 122. 104. Tikap. I. 18.
l05. Abvn. p. l39. 106. Quoted by Mrs. Rhys Davids. See C
4
 
 

OF RELATIONS
the power to give rise to something continued sustenance. 102 That is to sits related thing (pacCayuppanna) so as p, to flourish, and to thrive by means hat though the causal relation of food Ter of supporting is predominent here.
ubtle, serve as a condition (paccaya) to holds up the group of internal material hey may exist firmly, endure long and
rongly holds up its co-existent things endure long, by nourishing them with 2 and undesirable objects. Volitional furnishes courage and stimulus for the ghts. So is consciousness which is an all thinking about an object as also in cho-physical personality (nama-rapa).
сауа)
ties 103 (indriya) excluding femininity riya) are said to be related to mental ominance (adhipatiyatthena). 104 These ch exert their influence on the effects : effects to adopt their characteristics controlling conditions (indriya-paccathe term indriya is very explicative. led because of sovereignty (or control). cy to make all that is connected with it er. Thus indriyas are the exercisers, breignty over this and that function. 106
faculties explain two processes of life, e religious life.
vasena, upatthambhento va jarneti.
P. pp. 228-9.
5

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UNIVERSITY OF
Mind (manas) together with the si massa) and also its opposite (donanassa) functioning of the normal life process.
The various forms of consciousne gustatory and tactile are controlled by ear, nose, tongue and body. These over their respective forms of consciou and so on, because each sense depen organ be weak, the sense is weak. A are not here speaking of the sense of si a certain Control over that sense of sig
The importance of mind (manas) a Buddhism from its very inception, as the Dhammapada. 108 It is manas tha operate according to their nature and the operation of the sense. Mind or psy existent mental properties, in addition senses. Mind or psychic life exercise properties in infusing life, i.e., in th continuity. Mind exerts its influence it is their meeting-place, their refuge (
Serenity of mind (sonanassa) is a evaluation to the whole of conscio intrinsic nature of the psychic process. sciousness (kusala citta) and because ofi and the feeling of happiness and east
man’s mental life. 111
The third, i.e., the vital force (i. and not an entity or a substance (dra which the factors associated with it liv of guarding. It is the controlling for
107. CP. p. 229. 108. Mano pubbaṁgamā dhammā mano seț4 109. M. I. 295; S. V. 218. 110. Broad, C. D.-The Mind and its place III. Dhs. p. 11.
4.

CEYLON REVIEW
ense faculties, Serenity of mind (somaand vital force (jivita) account for the
iss such as visual, auditory, olfactory,
their respective faculties, to wit, eye,
organs exercise a controlling power 1sness. Eye Controls sight, ear hearing is upon its respective organ. If the ccording to Mrs. Rhys Davids, 107 we ght, but of the eye itself, as exercising ht etc.
s a controlling faculty is recognised in is evident from the opening verse of it makes it possible for the senses to which, in addition, assists and helps chic life exercises control over its coassists and helps the operation of the is control over its co-existent mental le matter of their prolongation by on all forms of consciousness because pațiisarana)109 “the unity of conter’.110
certain mood which gives a specific usness without interfering with the It is found in a healthy form of Conts association with joy and enthusiasm e (sonanassa) it is an embellishment to
ita) is the kinetic energy of a process vya) existing per se. Life is that by e. It is a control because of its nature ce in the continuity of a process that
ha manomaya, etc.,
in Nature (1937) p. 212, 585.

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سعود
t
PHILOSOPHY O
is already going on. "Vital force has processes which are not separated fror going on, the actuality of maintainin; operates is the very process which has t
With the help of this controlling dhists were thus once again able to ex sorting to any permanent entity such as
The rest of the controlling facult Buddhists recognised the necessity of from an initial moral state rising to t spiritual development by a process o The concept of energy only gives a de certain times and under Certain circum and more decisive than others. Those may gain in strength and ability to exerting control over other function ev, (indriya paccaya). Faith (saddha), ener Centration (samādhi), knowledge (paññã
For example, faith or certitude (sad (indriya paccaya) in the sense of exertin inasmuch as it overcomes that which is
deserve OU respect. It is the forerur
a decent and respectable life, observes spiritual culture. Even so with regard serve as controlling conditions.
The exclusion of the two sexes, 11 the female (itthindriya), which come u plained by Ledi Sadaw thus, "Becaus paccaya has three kinds of functioning maintaining. . . . . . . . . Now the two said three functions. Therefore they : this relation of control.'114 But yet not controlling conditions (indriya pacca (indriya) because they have something
12, ibid.
ll3. Tikap. I. 18. 114. BPR. pp. 69-70.

F RELATIONS
the characteristic of guarding those in it, the function of keeping them g them, and the basis on which it o be kept going on. 112
Condition (indriya-paccaya) the Budplain the process of life without re
a soul or a self.
lies explain the religious life. The energy in the religious life starting he top-most rung in the ladder of f gradual training (anu pubbasikkhā). scriptive account of the fact that at stances Certain processes are stronger functions, processes or factors which work their proper course, thereby ents are called controlling-conditions gy (viriya), mindfulness (sati), con) etc. are all controlling conditions.
dha) becomes a controlling condition g its sovereignty Over its opponents not trustworthy and which does not iner of him who makes gifts, leads the Uposatha and begins the way to to other controlling faculties which
3 namely the male (purisindriya) and inder the controlling faculties, is exse they have none of a paccaya. A to wit, producing, supporting, and sexes do not execute any one of the are not taken as a paccaya-dhamma in it must be said that though they are aya) yet they are controlling faculties
of the controlling power. At the

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UNIVERSITY OF
period of conception, one or the o controls all its personality, i.e., the and this personality tends toward may be.
25. Contemplation-condition (Jhā
Those things by means of whic at attentively, are the relating con seven constituents of contemplatio (vitakka), sustained application (vicar nassa), hedonic indifference (upekk. serve as the conditions (paccaya) by dually trained to do something.
Just as an archer-who from a arrow into the bull's eye of a small hand, making it steady, directing it in view and attentively looking (ol through the bull's eye or thrusts itint an enemy has got to ponder over this again. A pleasurable interest and . getting rid of this enemy and these ir and at last gathering up courage he, of murder, would stab him or bring is so with regard to every conscio psychology of a man who attempt person, who intends to take away t minded person, for, he requires plen (though misdirected) to commit such never be able to do it.
These constituent factors are a acts. No moral deed such as chari lacking these necessary constituen considering fully the value of ger pOOr, etc.
This is more so with regard to t courage is necessary to give up the
15. Tikap. I. 51.

CEYLON REVIEW
her of the sexes produced in the being five aggregates produced by kamma, masculinity or femininity as the case
та-рассауа) ܠ ܢܡܔ7 ܀
the mind is able to view closely, look litions (paccaya) in this relation. The (jhananga), to wit, initial application i), pleasurable interest (piti), joy (somala) and one-pointedness (ekaggata), 115 means of which the mind could be gra
distance is able to send, or thrust an arget-holding the arrow firmly in his towards the mark, keeping the target rather aiming at it) sends the arrow O it; even so a man intending to murder act, its consequence etc., over and over a joy arises in him at the thought of turn prompts him to continuehis effort with his mind concentrated on the act harm on him by some means. This
is act of killing. The analysis of the
is murder would reveal this. Such a he life of another, cannot be a feeblety of courage and continued reflection a thing. If his mind wavers he would
sine qua non even in the case of moral y could be executed by a feeble mind ts. Only after viewing attentively, erosity one is able to give alms to the
he practising of the religious life. Great pleasures of the family life in order to
است.
-

Page 65
PHILOSOPHY O)
embrace the life of an ascetic. A man in though he appears to take a sudden decisi would reveal how he pondered over t tended upon the worldly life. Withou one cannot take to this new life of a reli
-r adopting a life devoted to religiou
by these contemplation-conditions if o perfection. Thus a yogi or one who to control his mind and attain supernor. release has got to direct his mind toward keeping the kasina-object in view, thrus constituents of jhana.
Therefore all classes of consciousn senses), 116 their concomitants and mat the seven Constituents are the things 1 sciousness refers to mental behaviour, w and vocal behaviour. Closely viewing actions of body, of word and of mind refers nothing but to the absence of th the inability on the part of these conte the effects (pacCayuppanna).
26. Path-condition (Magga-paccaya)
The constituents which serve as sta sidered by the Abhidhammikas as con the power of clearing the ground and stage. The path may be leading to the of happiness. The stages of the path attainment of the respective goal, i.e., of consciousness and mental qualities i. tioned mind are effects (paccayuppanna a
The eight constituents of the Not (sammā dițihi)117 are the conditions for til state, the state of Supreme happiness. wrong aspiration, wrong endeavour a to be conditions (paccaya) resulting in t
lill 6. ibid. 17. ibid., II, 52.
ll 8. ibid.
s
49

R RELATIONS
ever does so all of a sudden. Even on yet the analysis of his psychology he disadvantages and the misery atit such pondering and consideration gious mendicant. Once again even is pursuit, one has got to be assisted ne is desirous of attaining spiritual ractises contemplation with a view nal powers by which he could attain ls the object, making it steadfast and t the mind into it by means of these
ess (with the exception of the five erial qualities in Co-existence with related (рассауирратта): Here conhile material qualities refer to bodily : an object a person carries out his without failure. Failure therefore, ese conditions or in other Words to mplation-conditions to give rise to
ges on the path to any goal are conditions (paccaya), for each stage has assisting the reach of the succeeding realm of misfortune or to the realm serve as conditions (paccaya) for the suffering or happiness. All classes co-existence with the hetu-condihamma).
le Path beginning With right view he attainment of the highest spiritual On the other hand wrong view, nd wrong concentration 118 are said he attainment of misfortune.

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UNIVERSITY OF
27. Association-condition (Samp
This explains the unitary na not an aggregate but a continuou mental facts or congeries of states. the continuum. Consciousness is rather it is in many, one being pro: broken up into separate parts or di suggests; nor compounded, as Mr. seems to imply. But it does adn. sideration, and this or that phrase languor, determination etc., The I mena in this manner because the Ā so in order to understand more ful any permanent entity behind consc of consciousness which could no moments they formulated the assoc the unitary nature.
According to this relation, all perties mutually relate themselves Association, according to the con four ways, viz. having one base simultaneous arising (ekuppada) and
The four immaterial aggrega in this manner. If we take one co sight of a red flower, we see that a be found merging into one in this
This instance of complete (vedanā), assimilation (saññā), voliti feeling of awareness as also a pleas the same time there is discriminati one recognises that it is a flower passive function. On the other ha mind which desires to have the f of consciousness Cannot be separat one object and also cease together.
119. Robertson, G. C.-Elements of Psy 120, ibid. 121. Tikap. II. 19.

CEYLON REVIEW
ayutta-paccaya) ture of consciousness. Consciousness is is whole or continuum, a succession of In attending to a state we break up the in Ot necessarily in one state at a tine; minent. Mind is not a thing that can be - visions, as Professor Bain's 19 procedure Spencer's 120 phrase composition of mind it of being held apart, in idea, for cor: being distinguished, i.e., a tooth-ache, Dhammasangani, analysed mental phenobhidhammikas felt the necessity of doing ly the nature of the mind, the absence or iousness. But knowing fully the nature t in actuality be anaylsed into discrete iation conditions and thus tried to explain
classes of consciousness and mental proto one another by way of association. mentary to the Patthana, takes place in (ekavatthuka), one object (ekárammana), 1 synchronous Cessation (ekanirodha). 121
tes are said to be related to one another omplete unit of consciousness such as the Il the four non-material aggregates are to complete perception.
erception includes within itself feeling on (sankhara). With the perception arises urable or painful or neutral feeling. At on depending on past experience because and also a red flower. This is more a nd there is the more active function of the ower for one's own self. These aspects ed for they arise together, depending on
chology (ed. by C.A. F. Rhys Davids), 1896, p. 19
50

Page 67
PHILOSOPHY O
The essential homogeneousness c here upheld, as a corrective against att distinctions. Visiana includes and in gates, for according to Buddhist psycho
- ie purposes of analysis between two o
to see further separateness would be a drew water at the delta where the fiv Ganges water, this is Jumna water'.122
28. Dissociation-condition (Vippayut
While the relation by way of asso nature of consciousness which for pra Buddhists into four non-material aggr sociation explains the duality of mir relation of dissociation also refutes the to consider material elements as the pro ing the close connection, the interde relation helps to keep them apart.
By being a support for the manif same time being dissociated from cons a dissociation condition (vippayutta p
material elements.123
29. Presence-condition (Atthi-pacca
The state which renders service by presence is called the presence-conc characteristic of the present time becaus according to Ledi Sadaw,125 by being called moments (khana).
This may appear to be a redund becomes clearly evident when we consi Abhidhammikas were expounding. A upheld the view that causality consists The presence of several causes or cond the arising of a phenomenon was thus 1
122. MA. II. 345. (Commentary to the Mah:
Il 23. Tikap. II. 20. 124. Tikap. II. 20; Vism. p. 540.
125. Op. cit. p. 81.

IF RELATIONS
f consciousness would seem to be aching too much weight to analytic volves the other three mental aggrelogy there is only a logical distinction r more main phases of consciousness ccording to Buddhaghosa 'as if one e rivers enter the sea saying this is
Eta-paccaya) -
ciation illustrated the homogeneous ctical purposes was analysed by the egates, the relation by way of disnd (nāma) and mater (rūpa). The claims of the Idealist who is prone jection of the mind. While explainbendence of mind and matter this
estation of consciousness, and at the ciousness, material elements become accaya); so is consciousness to the
ya)
y being a support to a state through lition (atthi-paccaya). 124. It has the e it causally relates itself to its effect, present in the three phases of time
ance. But yet the usefulness of it der the nature of causality that the s reiterated earlier, they unanimously of a concatenation of several causes. ition which assist in various ways in recognised. The presence-condition
a Vedalla Sutta).

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UNIVERSITY OF
(atthi-paccaya) refers to those variou giving rise to a phenomenon. T conditions may vary, for exampleb yet there is an underlying unity o
in that all of them are present at th
30. Absence-condition (Natthi-p
The mental states which havo render service by giving an oppo material states which arise imme absence-conditions (natthi paccaya). 1
The Abhidhammikas who we of consciousness, were also able to of the same calibre at the same tij different forms of contact (phassa) has to give way to the other. The giving an opportunity for the othe absence-condition.
31. Abeyance-condition (Vigata
(Avigata-paccaya)
The first, i.e., the abeyance-co absence-condition (nathi-paccaya), 1. presence-condition (atthi-paccaya). described in another way may appe who does not take any delight in the nature of the attempt made by t ciate the methodology that they ad
In the first place it should be 1. terms of language something that Therefore they made an attempt to describe it in every possible way haustive as possible.
126. okāsassa dānena.—Tikap. II. 21. I 27. ibid., II. 2 I.
l28. Abvn. p. l40.
129, ibid.

CEYLON REVIEW
s causes which are present at the time or hough the functions of these causes of 7 being reciprocal, dependence, food, etc. I uniformity in these several conditions, 2 moment of giving rise to the effect.
ܓܠ¬
ассауа) e ceased quite immediately and which ortunity126 for the proceeding of non
diately after themselves are called the 27
re able to see the homogeneous nature see the non-arising of two mental states me. For example there cannot be two aking place at the same moment. One trefore that mental state which ceases by r to come into existence, they called the
baccaya) and the Continuance-condition
indition, is defined in the manner of the
28 and the second, in the manner of the
29 Why the same process should be lar to be a problem to the critical student repetitions. Only if we keep in mind he Abhidhammikas we are able to appreopted.
oted that they were trying to explain in could not be described by such symbols. look at it from every possible angle and so that the description would be as ex

Page 69
PHILOSOPHY O
The presence-condition (atthi-pact paccaya) describing the causal process C process which is compared to a flowing of the Existentialist by taking into consi at the moment they described some thir
+ၤူမျိုး၃:့်ပူမျိူး Although the e y this, yet they did not describe fully
Reality as mentioned earlier was coi comparable only to a flowing stream. abeyance (vigata) and continuance (aviga
keep in mind this nature of the reality (nathi) may point to the momentary points to gradual disappearance. In th (avigata-paccaya) explains continuity (atthi-paccaya) for the latter is prone to
REFERE
(All Pali texts referred to are the ed unless specifically
.Anguttara, Nikāya : ܪܓܬܐ
AA : Manorathapūraņī, Ah Abhs : Abhidhammatthasah; AbVn : AlbohidhammatthaVibol
mattha-sahgahaby D. Pariñasara, a
Aths : Atthasalini, Dhamma BIPER, : Buddhist Philosophy CP ; Compendium of Phil
thasangaha, by Sh (London), 1910.
D ; Dĩgha Nikāya.
DA : Sumangalavilāsinī, D DhA. : Dhammapada-atthak Dhis : Dhammasanganī.
It ; tiivuttaka.
JA ; Jataka-atthakatha.
JIPTS : Journal Of the Pali T.
Μ : Majjhima, Nikāya.
MA : Papaicasūdanī, Majl Miln. : Milinda-Pafiha–ed. T
PED : Pali-English Dictiona
RV : Rg Veda.
S : Sanyutta, Nikāya.
SA : Saratthappakasini, S.
Sin : Sutta Nipäta.
53
 

F RELATIONS.
Jaya) and absence-condition (natthiould not do full justice to the liferiver (sota). Adopting the attitude deration facts as they were presented tgs as presence-conditions and others xistentialist position is well preserved the reality that they had to explain.
nceived in the form of a flux (santati) The significance of the two terms ata) becomes more explicit when we that is being described. Absence destruction, while abeyance (vigata) he same way continuance-condition petter than the presence-condition convey the idea of permanency.
D. J. KALUPAHANA
NCIES
Litions of the Pali Text Society, 7 mentioned).
guttara-atthakatha.
gaha (JPTS. 1884). navini-Commentary to the AbhidhamVidyodaya Tika. Publication, Vol. I, edited nd P. Vimaladhamma (Colombo), 1933. sangani-atthakatha. of Relations-Ledi Sayadaw. Dsophy-Translation of the Abhidhammatwe Zan Aung, edited by Mrs. Rhys Davids
igha-atthakatha. athā.
ext Society.
hima-atthakatha.
Trenckner. ry (Pali Text Society's edition).
ahyutta-atthakatha.

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Thag : Theragātha. Thig : Therigātha. Tikap : Tikapatthana, in UCR : University of Ce Սd . : Udāna.
Vin. : : Vinaya, Pitaka .
Vism : Visuddhimagga

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cluding the commentary of Buddhaghosa. ylon Review.
a

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് YNE of the more exciting of the fu O advising on law-reform. The
the proposed cures are for the mis patiently: in other words the drafted justified. All too often the lawyer acts : like this, he says, "the courts will almo The lay public is expected to make up it what are the symptoms of its complain lawyer will suggest possible prescription other people's suggestions. A gift for seldom put to employment in our gov all know that judges and textbook-writ often than they could wish.
Apart from the relatively straight the public needs, and what it wants (til
later drafting the legislative measure w. there is a more difficult task of adoptin
technical problem, particularly a problen
Erwhich no public demandmanifestsitse
local precedent to serve as a guide. Th
a reliable instinct, and the legal drafts. lightly from what his countrymen have without notable discomfort. Naturally introduced rashly and inconsiderately: y old rule, however antique, deserves to rei like India, Burma, Indonesia, Malaya, wł way, or under active consideration, or unification of private laws is bound to sooner or later, be a demand for recons enjoyed, or endured, for centuries-and or more must go to the wall. A prefer be justified. In these technical context that the rule used by a majority commu country, because in terms of jurisprude
rity's rule may happen to be better.
55
 

ientes
inctions of the lawyer in our society lay public expects to be told what chiefs which it has ceased to endure egislation has to be explained and is a prophet. "If you pass a section st certainly react as follows...... 22 s mind what it wants, to determine t, to search for a remedy, and the is and (more happily) comment on
brief, lucid, draftsmanship is not brnmental departments, though we Eers profess to admire its results less
orward task of determining what hey do not always coincide!), and hich should meet the requirement, g a legal rule for the solution of a in which recurs none too frequently, lf, and there is no stable and ancient le maxim Nil innovandum CΧρICSSCS man rightly prefers not to depart : lived with and by for many years 7 it seldom happens that rules are without a demand for a change the main undisturbed. But in countries nere codification has begun, is under in a country like Ceylon, where come sooner or later, there will, ideration of rules which have been of several quite practical rules one ence will be inevitable, and it must s it does not by any means follow Inity will be the best for the whole nce or comparative law the mino

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In the first volume of the Uni writer had the pleasure of discussing fication of a slayer from taking a different communities of India, O assumed to have different views as yet the very basis of the exclusion in doubt, and the subject was as di the world were found to be incom too soon, without the aid of amy would not want to follow her with the writer wishes to tackle the less blem, jurisprudentially speaking, of tion of property, which arises whe that it is uncertain which survived technical legal problem, which can sentimental or religious leanings, tions. If we can find the answer it and if systems of law fail to adopt they have failed to approximate t and it should be fun to cope with
The problem ar
If the king of Utopia were th would he apply his mind to the about 2 Let us suppose that in which may pass by testamentary supposition but inevitable for ou a father and son go out fishing. question is what should happen to heirs which would include the son and the heirs of the son will take t estate, the heirs of the son, of Cours he has predeceased. If the son die heir in which case the sons asset cluding the son) along with the fa proved to have died simultaneous has been doubted) the estate of e. cluding the other. If we do not k It makes a good deal of difference t

R CEYLON REVIEW
versity of Ceylon Law Review the present that troublesome problem, the disqualibenefit as a result of his crime. The r indeed any other country, cannot be to the propriety of excluding the slayer:
its extent and results were found to be s, fficult as the remedies in various parts of patible. In that case India had legislated ble comparative legal research. Ceylon out a careful investigation. In this paper sombre, but otherwise very similar prothe legal position, in the field of acquisiin two persons die in such circumstances the other. Here again we have a pure not possibly be aided by local preferences, communal prejudices, or national tradiwill be true for all countries and all times, it they will be faulty to the extent that O it. This is something of a challenge, Lt.
ld a solution in vacuo
inking of legislating on this subject how problem : Firstly what is the problem Utopia people have private possessions or intestate succession (an incongruous I present purposel) Let us suppose that Neither returns in the morning and the their assets. If the father died first his (for he must have died after) will inherit; he son's assets plus his share of his father's e, not including the father himself because d first the father might well be his nearest s will pass to the heirs of the father (exther's assets. If they could somehow be lly (if that is a practical possibility, which ach will go to his heirs respectively, exnow which died first what are we to do : to surviving relatives, dependants, friends.
56

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charities, the State. There are two (1) which survived the other, or (2) wi A comedian may suggest that there Butlet us take the case of a couple, side in the front seat of a car, and b
.in the opposite direction at sp ܐܢܬܬܐܸܮܵܐ appened that one survived the other
sciousness together, life may have re or vice versa. We know that life ca beating, a fact of which surgery has advantage. But Courts do not proce in penal and other somewhat untyp is no practical doubt whether eithers can readily be satisfied that neither sui is no doubt whether either survived different case, of a house collapsing were on different floors, or were to apartment. The conscience of the c no doubt whether either survived:
either survived and if so which. The the other. Thus in our first examp in our second example both doubts ( ever have a third case whether one c fishing-vessel founders and most oft the darkness they hear a voice callir found, by a process of elimination,
One has been heard calling, not the ot readily be satisfied that one, the caller as to which it was. Thus, though t that one survived the other, so that di
It may be submitted that the Ut the types of doubt and the nature oft principles and objects of the law whi possibilities : A benefit may accrue fact cannot be proved. Benefits ma conditioned to accrue upon a variety of a person may be not merely his q person's qualification for gaining or the non-survivorship of a person.
perty by will to his wife, but if she
 

RIENTES
possibilities: we may be in doubt ether either survived, and if so which is no difference between (1) and (2). perhaps man and wife, sitting side by sing struck simultaneously by a lorry bed. As a matter of fact it may have for though both may have lost conmained longer in husband than wife, in remain even though the heart stops recently been able to take profitable ed upon theoretical possibilities except ical contexts. In our car-crash there urvived. The conscience of the court vived the other: in other words, there and if so which. But let us take a in an earthquake. The two deceased gether in a basement or ground-floor ourt is not easily satisfied that there is indeed there is every doubt whether re is also a doubt whether one survived le doubts (1) and (2) are not present; 1) and (2) are present. We can howLoubt is present but not the other. A he crew are saved. As they move in g, but it cannot be recognised. It is that two men were left in the water. her. The conscience of the court may survived the other, but there is doubt nere is no doubt for practical purposes oubt (2) is absent, doubt (1) remains.
opian monarch will, after establishing he problem, apply his mind next to the ch have to be satisfied. What are the or fail to accrue, because a particular y come from various quarters and be of conditions. The very survivorship ualification for benefiting, but another
reason for losing property. So also For example, a father may leave prodoes not survive him, to his daughter.
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Or he may leave property to his da survive his daughter, to a charity at to a friend until his mother shall sur absolutely to his mother. If in all th die in Such circumstances that t satisfied as to survivorship the testa be frustrated. And this is certainly a provided against, where possible by
which the testator could not have pro by the interference of the State. T readily enough. The intentions of ought to be given effect according t trated by accidents that could hardly
What of intestate succession 2
pass to those who need and merit it. satisfactorily provided for in all syste that for which human institutions regulated intestate shares and individ protect1On Or maintenan CC-prOV1S1On a reality in very many cases if not all. circumstances leaving a doubt as to S of the law, and the ideal is often qui that a father with several children by stances with his newly-married youn his children are on bad terms. If, acci the surviving spouse takes a share of benefit quite unexpectedly and unme. survived her husband, or if the cour sumption that she must have survive has actually happened) where two sp him up, and see him married and start die in the circumstances stated, and survived the other, the property of e each, and if either or both of them m or otherwise for the welfare of the a death of the survivor of them, the p because there has been no survivor.
The insurance cases are particul that the beneficiaries under the terms
5

CEYLON REVIEW
1ghter for life, and if his son does not solutely. Or he may leave property vive his brother when he bequeaths it ese examples the people Contemplated he court's conscience cannot be tor's or settlor's intentions may well in eventuality to be avoided and to be general legislative provision. Defects vided against ought to be made good he king of Utopia would grasp this a testator, lawful and irreproachable, o their tenor, and should not be frushave been within his contemplation.
The property of each deceased should
This universal principle, not entirely ms of law, is founded upon the ideal, strive. By a mixture of carefully lal adjustments on the basis of family for dependents, the ideal can become Cases of persons dying together, or in urvivorship, put a spoke in the wheel ite simply frustrated. Let us suppose his first marriage dies in such circumg wife, with whom and whose family ording to the applicable system of law, the estate, the wife's relations would citoriously if they could show that she t were prepared to act upon the pre2d him. Or one may take a case (as ouses adopt informally a child, bring ing a family of his own. If they both it is impossible to hold that either ach will go to the blood relations of ade provision by testament, insurance dopted child and his family after the
rovision will come to nothing simply
urly tiresome. It frequently happens of the policy were so nominated be
8

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cause they could take the benefit and the insured. A man insures his life in will, in the hope that a fund will beco approves, and for the use of a person and his beneficiary have saved and ev
__ might be fulfilled. If the bene
ܨܠ
or in such circumstances as we have c benefit may very well be taken by pe1 of the insured. The wife may not be life has been insured at the expense of policy will go as on the husband's survived by the application of some ru that as she cannot benefit personally, fund, it will go to her relations whom had not the slightest intention of bene
For this reason wills and other d provide for the contingency of two "contemporaneously. This is a mistak the death was actually simultaneous, operate. In one of the more interestir arising in the last half-century this Rowland, a case in the English Court o
NWill to his wife, directing "in the even
or coinciding with my own decease” a brother and a nephew. T's wife in to T with a gift over to a niece of he which disappeared, and no evidence w even the date, of their deaths. The cl to establish that T died coincidentally v opined that for practical purposes th within the meaning of that word as use His brother judges held otherwise, ; academic lawyers are likely to agree) t was rejected, on the ground that they condition: the wife had not either pre her husband-for, for all anyone kney
1. Re Rowland (deca). Smith v. Russell and o considered at 233 L.T. 295 (June 1st, 1962).

RIENTES
employ it in ways contemplated by much the same way as he makes a me available for purpose of which he whom he trusts. Frequently both he en suffered in order that these intenficiary dies along with the insured, iscussed throughout this section, the sons quite outside the contemplation held to survive her husband, whose both of them, and the benefits of the intestacy; but if she is held to have le-of-thumb principle it may happen nor supervise the application of the
the insured, and indeed she herself.
iting.
ispositions are often drafted so as to
persons' dying 'simultaneously or te, for if it is not possible to prove that stc., as is usual, the condition cannot g cases on the subject of commorientes was pointed out strikingly. In Re f Appeal in 1962, T left his estate by t of the decease of my wife preceding his estate should be divided between hade a similar will leaving her estate rs. T and his wife were on a vessel as forthcoming as to the manner, or aimants under the gift over wanted vith his wife. Lord Denning, M. R., deaths must have been coincident d by that testator executing that will. und by a majority (with which all he claim of these conditional legatees :ould not prove the happening of the deceased or died coincidentally with v, she might have survived on a raft
thers (1962] 2 All E. R. 837 (C.A.). The case is

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days after her husband was eaten by neous deaths can occur no one doub is to be found in In re Pringle, 2 when sisters were simultaneous when they bomb which struck the place in whi
Thus our imaginary legislator v various principles must be satisfied. their effect, although the legatee did intention was to benefit the legatee o' is evidently personal there can hardly the legatee did not predecease (so th to which we shall return, there wou bequest) and yet did not survive lon in respect of the enjoyment and f question. The benefits of an insul favour of the beneficiary named in it and can exercise volition in respect c
Is it likely that one short, simple ments ? A proposition that each s property or estate of the other migh does not cope with the situation wil the other deceased, the heirs of the la out of the estate of the propositus, ca we suppose a father dying together his own, the natural and proper de would be to his grandsons. But if be neglected in distributing the esta themselves in competition with otl unfavourable terms, since they cant cause the latter did not predecease t a presumption were introduced that to have survived, the grandsons w share as his own heirs-unless, of c. elsewhere on the understanding tha for his sons. It must be recollected law,3 and the somewhat similar Indi
2. In re Pringle. Baker v. Matherson (1946) C 3. The Wills Act, 1837, section 33. Sectio 4. Indian Succession Act, 1925, section 109.

CEYLON REVIEW
sharks. That coincidental or simultats, and an instance of such a rare event Cohen, J., held that the deaths of two were shown to have been killed by a ch both of them were together.
vill be aware that for various purposes Legacies ought, if possible, to be given not survive, if it appears that the real r the legatee's heirs. Where the legacy be any justification for its vesting when lat, except for an important exception ld not be an automatic lapsing of the g enough to exercise adequate volition urther disposition of the property in tance policy ought not to operate in unless that beneficiary actually survives f the amount.
proposition would meet these requirehould be neglected in distributing the t seem to meet many objections, but it here, because of the non-predecease of atter, who might well expect to benefit in be excluded from benefit. Thus if with his son, which son leaves sons of volution of the property of the father we introduce a rule that the son should te of the father the grandsons will fiind her relatives of the propositus on very not represent their deceased father bethe propositus. On the other hand, if ; in such cases the son should be taken ould then take their deceased father's ourse, he had disposed of his property it his own father would be providing | in this connexion that under English lan law, a legacy to a descendant does
沮。124。 in 32 enacts a very similar intention.
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not lapse if that descendant predecease the legacy vests as if the descendanthac A similar effect is achieved by the r institutus sine liberis decesserit in Scots ]
mditions will be read into a testament Scots law a person to whom the ہوا۔ حالات
purpose), and it is in no way an innova in the marginal and embarrassing cast decease the testator because of the 'sin
We have already seen that on v provisions, presumptions to be applie have serious limitations. Before conje enact as his commorientes rule let us rev connexion in various countries. A would be bulky and tiresome, and it v and jurisdictions which are relevant South East Asian countries contempla We shall look first to the Roman law dition, then to the Jewish law, the r attracted by no means the attention discussions of the Islamic lawyers, wh
in Ceylon, Malaya and Indonesia : interesting meanderings and empiri world, within which India must for til
The Roman and C
One of the less satisfactory feat the subject of cominorientes is the pat which the Roman and Romanic prece in which Scots judges have dismissed upon them.0 is perhaps not so hard to U judges have on occasions had ample the civil law might not supply, in pc actual rules, some guidance of a mor
5. Gloag and Henderson, Introduction to the II section. 25.
6. Drumond’s Judicial Factor V. H. M. Advocat Clerk Cooper. See also Mitchell's Executrix v. Go 1 ܓ

RIENTES
the testator leaving lineal heirs, but died immediately after the testator. ule of construction called conditio si law.5 It is therefore established that tin favour of the issue of a descendant testator stood in loco parentis for this tion to secure some such favour even as where the descendant did not preultaneous or similar death.
ery practical grounds rule-of-thumb d for want of evidence in every case, *Cturing what an ideal monarch would iew briefly what has happened in this
completely comprehensive survey Vill be sufficient to covér the countries to the situation of Ceylon, amongst ting wholesale revision of private law. and countries of the Roman law traemarkable provisions of which have they deserve, then (very briefly) the ose opinions cannot but be of interest and finally the complex but highly cal tinkerings of the Common Law
his purpose be comprehended.
ivil Law Solutions
res of the common-law case-law on ronising and incompetent manner in lents are reviewed. The testy manner the civil law material as not binding inderstand. But English and American justification for considering whether int of principle if not in point of the e than superficial character. Perhaps
Latv of Scotland, 4th edition, 529, Testate Succession,
e [1944] Session Cases 289, 301, per Lord Justicerdon's Factor (1953) S.C. 176.
51

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the blame for their rapid and inac sources they chose to employ. H the civil law sources7 far less unde seeks to encourage in his students.
The main rules are to be foun tit. V (De Rebus Dubiis), leges 9 (oth 22(23), and 23(24). It is instructive to read this chapter with the com the best discussion is that of Iaco Coniecturis, etc., VI, praes. 50. (Ven principles and instances are comp mediaeval jurists show considerable is the faulty reasoning of their text in little new was discovered or derived positive rules were clear enough. I civil law position it is assumed that somewhat puerile rule that one mu the younger died first when he wa if he was over puberty. We are als on this by parity of reasoning. The but the former allegation is a parody
To commence, we must note t govern this field of enquiry are (1) it est verisimilior, and (2) in ambiguis ea magis convenit: when the meaning of
tation should be followed which is ambiguity that opinion is to be foll
7. See above-mentioned cases; also Ross's Ji (see 1954 S.C. 18). In Ross's case two sisters died will whereby she bequeathed her whole estate to h Each provided, in the event ofher brother and sis person as trustee and executor, and each in addit estate in that event. Both Wills were executed C sister survived the other or that they died simult was held that as there was no proof or presumpti ceased the other, both estates fell into intestacy. A Would have carried into effect the intention, it is
8. Johannes Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas Das Römische Privatrecht, I (Munich, 1955), 237 g the presumptions, at n. 21. P. Gane, Selective Vo

CEYLON REVIEW
lequate survey lies at the door of the wever We find in their discussions of standing than the comparative lawyer
ريبي "
d in Justinian's Digest, book XXXIV. herwise counted as 10), 16 (17)-18 (19), especially for the purposes of Ceylon, mentary of Voet. 8 However perhaps »bus Menochius, De Praesumptionibus, ice, 1590, II, fos. 108-111), where the endiously and clearly set out. The acumen in correcting what they believe places, but apart from this it seems that for both the general principles and the in most common-law treatments of the all we can find from the Digest is the zt presume in cases of commorientes that s below puberty, but that he survived told that civil law countries improved latter may not be altogether unfounded, 7 of the facts.
hat the maxims of the civil law which dubiis ea interpretatio est sequenda, quae 1 sententia est sequenda, quae rei gerendae a disposition is doubtful that interpremore likely to fit the facts, and in an owed which best suits the effecting of
dicial Factor v. Martin 1955) S.C. (House of Lords) 56 together in a common calamity, each leaving a formal er brother and sister equally and the survivor of them. ter predeceasing her, for the appointment of the same ion made identical provision for the division of her in the same day. There was no evidence that either aneously; and the brother predeceased his sisters. It on that either sister had survived the other or predestatutory presumption that both died simultaneously submitted, of the testatrices.
| II (Hague 1734), XXXIV., 5.3=p. 457. M. Kasser, ives references to modern continental discussions of
62
t, vol. 5 (1956) 264-5. See also Dig. XXIV, 1, 32, 14
ܨܒ-ܡ

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the purpose in hand.9 The Romans situation under discussion; and where be taken they adhered to that which look we find numerous discussions b
assume that two persons die at அ ை the same disaster, in all of which t
survived. It is of importance to no were content that for practical purpos instance Dig. XXXIX, 6, 26.9 T presumption for all cases: on the cont of the two survived the other. As a re which would operate upon the assu which could take effect only upon a this is amply illustrated.10
On the other hand this general particular instances. In certain situ however the likelihoods might fall, in be avoided. We emphasise that the position, stated above, and are not re the foundation for a general solution where a freedman died along with his general rule of neither surviving-w definition no evidence of actual survi the property passing to the son's heir would be entitled if the father died if he died simultaneously with his son survivorship of either by the other), established that in such a case, in favo have died first, 12 whatever his age ar as to his capacity to survive in the exception to the rule about the son b come, but an exception to the gen husband and wife perish together ar. inference that the wife survived, the
9. Iacobi Culiacii Iurisconsultorum . . . . Principis also 1066 for the commentary on the lex Qui duos.
9a. Voet, op.cit., XXXIX, 6. 7 (trans. L.E. reciprocal gifts mortis causa.
10. See for example Dig. XXXIV, 5, 16-18. 11. Inst. II, 7. 12. Dig, XXXIV, 5, 9, 2.

IENTES
had a regard for the likelihood in the he doubt was as to what course should was most practical. True to this outlonging to the topic de Commorientibus the same time or about the same time he first question asked is whether one tice that in many of these the jurists as neither survived the other: see for hey were not concerned to create a rary the general result was that neither sult of the non-survival various rules nption of a survival, and dispositions
survival, would be inoperative, and
situation would create difficulties in ations a presumption was admitted, order that an anomalous result should pecial rules derogate from the general ally fitted to be taken, themselves, as to the connorientes problem. Thus son in the lifetime of his patronus, the hich fits the procedural law, since by ival was forthcoming—would lead to s, to the exclusion of the patron, who sonless. 11. He would not die sonless (which is the result of a rule excluding and to get over this difficulty it was ur of patronatus, the son shall be held to d state of health and the probabilities
common calamity. This is not an elow puberty, etc., to which we shall eral rule stated above. Similarly, if d there is no evidence leading to an ! stipulation regarding dowry would
Operum Tom. II, (Lugduni, 1606), col. 1062. See
Krause, p. 99); cf. ibid. XXIV. 1. 4, pp. 110-1:
Also 9 (substitution favoured).

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operate to the benefit of the wife's heir died during the wife's lifetime, since th if the husband did not survive his w the wife should be held to have pred down, not, we notice, because she
though that consideration is a somev sense of the rule. 14 Further, if it b commissary must hand over the pro the fideicommissum Would be frust latter's son died together, for he wo died without children. Consequent the fideicommissary's son is presumed freedman and his son. 15 Fourthly ai with offspring the other without, pe predeceased brothers surviving them, mentioned above it was thought th brother who had offspring died first. the children of brothers may succeed spring, and that thus those whom na might take equal shares. 'So says
Against the background of the g to have survived the other we must jurists thought it desirable to set up from those set out above. Where fa necessarily in the same battle) and the if the son had survived, but the agnate the emperor Hadrian held that the so inclined to draw a general presumptio (except in the case of the freedman sho
13. It is well known that if the wife survived (i.e. except for dos recepticia) remained his. Kaser, I, 14. Dig. XXXIV, 5, 9. 3. See also Dig. XI, 7 15. Dig. XXXVI, 1, 17 (18), 7. Trans. A. J. N 16. On Dig. XXXIV, 5. para. 3. Following J jecti ad Rhenum, 1676), III, i, no. 11 = pp. 59-60, w est, quid naturali rationi et aequitati magis conveniat (wi and decisions).
17. For another example of the force of equi placing the burden of proof see Antonius Faber (F. ibid.: a pretermitted son is presumed to have survive -equality is equity. Dig. XXXIV, 5, 9, 1. So, or Leges Municipales Commentaria, tit. XVI, art. 28 = 31 So also Simon van Leeuwen, Censura Forensis, III, 2
... 6

CEYLON REVIEW
s. This must be so even if the husband e payment of the dowry, is obligatory fe. 13 Therefore it was essential that eceased her husband, and this is laid might be weaker than her husband, that feeble confirmation of the good Written in a testament that a fideiperty “if he dies without children”, lated if the fideicommissary and the uld, upon the general rule, have not y, in favour of the fideicommissum, to have died first as in the case of the ld lastly where two brothers, the one ish in a wreck, leaving other sons of by parity of reasoning with the cases at it ought to be presumed that the This was in order that in that way per capita to the brother without offture has put in an equal relationship Voet “natural fairness prompts.” 16
eneral rule that neither is understood set those cases also where the Roman
) an apparently distinct presumption
ther and son had perished in war (not mother claimed the estate of both as s claimed as if the father had survived, in survived, from which one would be in that when father and son die together iwn above) the son survived.17 When,
the husband the dos was hers; if he survived her it
289.
'', 32. 1. McGregor, p. 39. ohan à Someren, Tractatus de Repraesentatione (Tra
ho says in dubia enim hujusmodi morte inspiciendum th citations of Barry, de Success, XVII, tit. 6. no. 12
ty in raising a presumption of this character, and so avre), Codex Fabrianus, IV, XIV, def. 39, cf. def. 2 "d a testament where other sons also are pretermitted 1 the local statute of Mechlin, P. van Christynen, In d. edition, Antwerp, 1657, pp. 511-2, nos. 13-14 KIV, i = 3rd. edn. Amsterdam 1685, p. 238.
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again, a man had instituted his son his he the age of puberty, and there was doub of father and son, the two perishing in son were allowed to take the legacy, up survived. But if the son had been belo umed to have survived. Menoch same rule should apply even to minors if their strength, etc., so suggests. Het looked to, and the question of relative where the deaths were in different disast applied only if no evidence was forthco we are to understand that even one v. survival, whereas in controvertible qu required. 18. The jurist lavolenus, dealin and son, above the age of puberty, peri survivorship of neither can be proved, lieve (humanius est credere) that the son l of this rule and holds that though the h rule, take the estate of the mother, they sui, so that testamentary heirs, for exan perty. Contrasted with that example, immature son perished in a shipwreck t died first: as the gloss says, this presun the victim. But in both these cases ni pro patrono, in other words, unless, as in patron, a particular justification should
The presumptions, therefore, that when he was above the age of puberty the other, when he was below the age the probabilities of the case, in those ciu justification did not indicate the cont of such cases. In others, and we find th and son, and not of all individuals indi younger, if he were mature, would st and there was no reason why the law sl as to the probabilities. Naturally, if th
18. So Voet ad fin. 19. Dig. XXXIV, 5, 22. 20. Dig. XXXIV, 5, 23. See ordinary gloss the
Ingfort. Partem, Lugn., 1547), fol. 109r.
65
--____
 
 
 
 
 
 

CENTES
ir by testament, the son being above it as to the question of survivorship a common disaster, the heirs of the on the assumption that the son had w the age of puberty, the father was ius approves the opinion that the who are above the age of puberty re as elsewhere the probabilities are a strength will hardly be relevant ers. In both cases the presumptions ming concerning survivorship, and vitness could testify to a person's estions two witnesses were always g with a shipwreck in which mother shed in such circumstances that the held that “it is more natural to beived longer.' 19 Bartolus is jealous airs of the son will, according to the I can do this only if they are heredes Imple, will have no right to the proGaius held that if a Woman and her he son would be understood to have ption arises from the tender age of si ratio singularis suadeat contrarium ut the case of the rule in favour of the set the presumption aside.20
the younger succeeded, or survived, 7, but that he failed, or predeceased of puberty proceed, evidently upon rcumstances only where a particular rary. We have seen four examples ey are all of father and son or mother fferently, it was more likely that the ruggle longer and so survive longer hould not proceed upon a conjecture he evidence was that the son, though
breto, and Bartolus thereon (Bartoli Comm. in Sec.

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mature, was a Cripple, the Roman la tion-it would have been, as we
general rule of no survivorship wal directions, according to the results and subject in every case to rebuttin.
It is little wonder that the coun spoken with one voice on this subje and, illustrated with these few exam perspicuous and decisive. It left a which hampers the descendants of th sphere or their skill. We may brief tinental and other countries.
The French rules were followed are still followed in Quebec, and we still are followed in Louisiana, Cal Wyoming.21 The French Civil Co. 1. Where two or more person one of another perish in the san, of death, the presumption of s stances of the fact, and in their
2. If both are less than 15 year 3. If both are over 60 years olc
4. If one is under 15 and anot survived.
5. If all (or both) are between the ages were the same within a 6. If they are of the same sex c
Much as Common lawyers ar amplification of a partial aspect of th but that it served as the source of th by no means shares the French rule's SCC,
21. See 50 Harv. L. R. 344-9 (1936); also H. morientes,' 12 Tulane L. R. 623-8 (1938). On H. F. Jolowicz, "Some curiosities in the history (Weimar, 1951), 289-297.
21a. Artt. 720-722.
22. See Wing v. Angrave, Hickman v. Peacey,

CEYLON REVIEW
w would have excluded this presumpsay, rebutted. Ultimately, then, the open to modification in one of two which would attach to its application,
evidence as to the probabilities.
tries of the civil law tradition have not it. The Roman law was complicated, ples in Justinian's Digest, not entirely good deal of room for judicial equity, e jurists who do not share their atmoly review the present situation in con
until 1947 in the State of Oregon, they re and (so far as the writer is informed) ifornia, Montana, North Dakota and le provides:-21
is respectively called to the succession e disaster without evidence of priority
urvival is determined by the circum
lefault, by refrence to age or sex.
old, the older survived. , the younger survived. her (or others) is over 60, the former
15 and 60, the male survived as long as
year. ir different ages, the younger survived.
e inclined to laugh at this ingenious e Roman law,22 there can be no doubt 2 modern English statutory law which ingenuity or completeness, as we shall
McCall," Presumptions of survivorship among comthe contrast between English and civil-law rules see of the commorientes rule,” in Festschrift Fritz Schultz
cited below.
56

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COMMOR
The French Civil Code omitted person under 15 and one between 15 a this and the Comparable case of a perso: the survivor is the one in the interm erbodied as a rule in the correspond
de (Art. 604). It seems superfluou حصے عینزایسوسط
do not always lie as the scheme supp spouses, for example, the husband wol wife, and he might well not survive in survival.22b
Germany,23 Switzerland, 24 and G1 fundamental Roman Concept, and have neous death is presumed. As we have stood to have survived the other announ neous death. As we saw at the outset when property is limited to pass upo) decease. The solution adopted in Ge
mended itself to Spain, and it is well r.
and South America.26 It is to be rema no room for judicial equity and procee * German and Spanish rule leaves no r upon a cast-iron presumption, to be a not forthcoming, from which the Ron multiple exceptions.
The Jewish
It was a maxim of the Jewish law c excludes an uncertain heir.27 The f will indicate how that maxim was app
22a. Planiol-Ripert, Traité Élémentaire de Droit C 22b See D. Dardano, ' Uniform Simultaneous 23. Art. 20 of the B.G.B. replaced by Art. II, L. 24. Art. 32 of the Z.G.B. 25. Greek Civil Code of 1946, sec. 38. 26. Codigo Civil, art. 33; So Argentina, art. 1 27. Horowitz, Spirit of the Jewish Law (New Yo
28. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, XIII (Book of ( witz (New Haven, 1949).
 

RIENTES
she case of simultaneous deaths of a nd 60: the general opinion is that in in over 60 and one between 15 and 60 ediary period.22 and this has been ling provision of the Quebec Civil S to comment that the probabilities oses. Where the cominorientes were ld attempt to prolong the life of his fact, though the law would presume
teece.25 have remained faithful to the enacted the simple rule that simultaseen, the rule that neither is underits in fact to a presumption of simultathis solution causes serious problems in a survival or non-survival or prermany, is the one which has recom2presented in consequence in Central rked that while the French rule leaves lds upon the basis of sex and age, the oom for judicial equity, proceeding pplied in all cases where evidence is lans themselves were careful to make
solution
if succession that a certain heir always
ollowing passage from Maimonides lied. 28.
Civil, para. 1516, 3rd. edn., III, 493. Death Act, 30 Oregon L.R. 172-7 (1951). tw of 4 July 1939.
)9; Colombia, art. 95; Chile, art79. rk, 1953), pp. 379—380. Civil Laws), V. 5, 6-9. Translated by J. J. Rabino

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If a house collapsed upon a whether the wife died first, so t inherit all of her property, what presumed to belong to the wife and additional, is presumed to be iron sheep property they divide half thereof and the husband's he But if a house collapsed upo property is presumed to belong heirship of the mother is certai the mother is doubtful, since, as his father have nothing in the m the nother.
If a house collapsed upon a unknown whether the grandfat succeeded to the inheritance, so t to the grandson’s heirs, or his di being that a son does not succee is in the grave, as we have stated to his heirs, the property is to grandfather and the heirs of the Similarly, if the grandfather and his daughter's son died in his taken captive and died in captiv home country, the grandfather his own heirs and those of his da
If a house collapsed upon a person to whose inheritance he there is outstanding against the s and the father's heirs say, "The so so that the debts are lost, whi first and the son acquired a rig entitled to collect from his share to the heirs, and the woman and go without anything.
28a. Melog (plucking) that part of the wife's for the depreciation of which he is not answerable
29. Ketubbah, the sum assured to the wife in first charge on his estate at his death.
30. Iron sheep (son bareel) property' is propert and for any depreciation of which he is liable in a
31. The Jewish law does not recognise inheri a context as this.

CEYLON REVIEW
man and his wife, and it is unknown hat the husband's heirs are entitled to
is the rule 2 The melog property is
s heirs,28 and the ketubbah, principal long to the husband's heirs,29 and the equally, the wife's heirs taking one irs taking the other half.30 in a man and his mother, the mother's to the mother's heirs, because their n, whereas the sons' heirs heirship of we have stated, the son's brothers by other’s property if the son predeceases
man and his daughters son, aire it is her died first, and his daughter's son hat the grandfather's property belongs aughter's son died first, and—the rule d to his mother's inheritance while he '1-the grandfather's property belongs be divided between the heirs of the daughter’s Son.
was taken captive and died in captivity home country, or if the grandson was
ty and his mother's father died in his
S property is to be divided between ughter’s son.
man and his father, or upon any other would succeed if he were living, and on his wife's ketubbah and other debts, n died first and did not leave anything, le the creditors say, "The father died ht in his inheritance, so that we are the property is presumed to belong the Creditors must produce proof or
property of which the husband has the usufruct, but
the marriage contract by the husband-to-be and a
y belonging to the wife but in the husband's keeping
y event. ance by representation of a deceased person in such
68

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COMMO
The rule with regard to thos lapsed structure, or drowned in t died on the same day while one another country, is the same, beca cases, we do not know who it wa
This extraordinarily interestings the Talmudic law on the subject, a ve as bearing, like the rest of his work, the useful lessons. The first is that the RC above were by no means without an no means imitative civilisation. By a result of influence, the spirit of the also. But we have the marked addi even though the commorientes did not di importance, because any set of presum such cases as well as those strictly fittin The shortcomings of the French rule evident.
Further we notice from the rathe penultimate section that where an would result from allowing a presun decease is presumed, even though dif for different items of property which There is an equitable distribution of n. which the husband holds as trustee f. she has a charge which matures only if is no point in presuming that the you be to make the elder's estate pay they Jewish law, one splits the estate of the ignoring the other deceased, i.e. as survivor. The rather difficult cases of and his daughter's son, illustrate the descendant or other claimant by virtue claim to the property of the propositu. predeceased, the estate of the propositi had survived, so that those heirs will where the heirs of the descendant, e. descendant, etc., predeceased the prop
6
 

RIENTES
e who died under the ruins of a colhe sea or fell into a conflagration, or was in one country and the other in use in all of these cases, and in similar
s that died first.
ection from Maimonides version of rsion which will always be regarded stamp of authority, teaches us several man rules as we have described them echo in that highly intelligent but by coincidence, more probably, than as Roman solution is represented here tional advantage that the rules apply e in the same disaster—a rule of great ptions we ought to apply must govern g within most ofJustinian's examples. : in this connexion are immediately
ir technical first section and from the injustice, or unmerited enrichment, ption of Survival, the necessary preferent presumptions will be required nave, normally, different destinations. latrimonial property, particularly that or his wife and property over which she were to survive him. And there nger survived when the effect would rounger's debts. Otherwise, says the ascendant between the heirs of both, if each propositus was himself the the mother and son, and grandfather principle that where the heirs of the of inheritance would have a doubtful : if the descendant, etc., had actually As will pass as if the descendant, etc., be excluded. But, on the contrary, c., could have a legal claim had the
ositius, the descendant, etc., is treated

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as having predeceased, but since the c descendant's heirs conflicting with
heirs, the estate will be divided bet descendant's heirs take a share in thi devolve on the propositus), and a share :
After this we shall not be surprise Bill32 it was proposed to enact that,
Whenever two Or more hav has not been established, the rig mined on the assumption that he
This is a simplification of the rabbinic. rule is a simplification of the Roman
Islamic S
AS so often the Islamic juristS di presented in Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i : appears in Hanbali and western Ibad existence of the one deceased is igno1 the other; according to the latter we distributing the estate of the other.33 the opposed presumptions of simultai former fits the basic Roman rule and is Spanish rules. The latter, which see the reasoning that since priority of entitled to deprive of his share or slic continued when the propositus died, cannot be proved. This method is since the wife's relations would take they have, morally speaking, no sh mutual Survival is one of the ways o Wills Act34 and similar provisions, v
32. Section 9.
33. S. G. Vesey-FitzGerald, Muhammadan Law Lau), 1stedn., para .86, 3. N. B. E. Baillie, Digest of M Minhaj et Talibin, trans. L. W. C. Van Den Berg an
34. See n. 3 above.
7(

CEYLON REVIEW
oubt remains, the certain claim of the the certain claim of the propositus ween them, with the result that the 2 descendant's estate (which does not
in the estate of the propositus himself.
ද්‍රි.
أحمد ) .
'd to learn that in the Israeli Succession
e died and the prior death of anyone hts in the estate of each shall be dete: was the survivor.
all law, much as the German or Spanish rule.
Volutions
sagree. One School of thought is reand eastern Ibadi law, while another i law. According to the former the red in the distribution of the estate of its
assume the survival of the one while The only solutions offered are thus neous death and mutual survival. The equivalent to the present German and ms odd at first sight, is justified upon death cannot be proved one is not ce of the residue a relative whose life or whose death after that moment quite naturally in disfavour in Islam her special Quranic share, to which adow of entitlement. The rule of if achieving the object of the English
which enable a descendant to survive
157-8. A. A. A. Fyzee, Outlines of Muhammadan Moóhuumudah Lauw (London, 1865), p. 704. Nawawi, ld E. C. Howard, London, 1914, 253-4.

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fictitiously in order to convey a benefi But it is not necessary to apply so bro; order to achieve so limited a purpose suming the survival of the younger is purpose, since it is assumed that desc inferit the propositus estate will norm.
nger of two commorientes. Wheth the whole field is quite another questic
Common-law Solutions and
The most fascinating chapter in cominorientes rule in England, the Com India had an original contribution to against the background of this study.
In Rex v. Dr. Hay35 a writ of mar. Prerogative Court to grant letters of General Stanwix to his nephew and in general and his daughter had died t uncertain which survived, and the d mandamus was declared absolute, it b law as to the survival of a child if ove England. However in Bradshaw v. T. if two persons being joint tenants, per remain in joint tenancy in their respe heirs of one to take as if he were a pres was an example of the application of decree was not inconsistent with RC Mason v. Mason37 where the testator a wreck Sir William Grant, M. R., decli of fact; indeed he ruled out presump to the estates must be put to proof o viewpoint is to be obtained from Wrig his wife and children disappeared in to the Digest, to Voet and to Domat
35. (1767/8) 1 Black. W. 640 -96 E.R. 372, 36. (1784) Dickens 632=21 E.R. 417. 37. (1816) 1 Mer. 308=35 E.R. 688. 38. (1793) 2 E. Salk. 593 n., 2 Phill. Ecc. 266 n
7
 
 
 

RIENTES
t to his heirs, whom the law favours. ud and far-reaching a presumption in , and the Anglo-Saxon rule of prea limited manner of achieving this endants and persons who need and ally be younger, or the heirs of the ir this limited purpose should occupy
n, and this writer doubts it.
recent Indian legislation
this story is the development of a monwealth, and the United States. make which can only be appreciated
damus was issued to the judge of the administration of the effects of one ext of kin, notwithstanding that the together in circumstances leaving it aughter had left next of kin. The eing held by the court that the civil : the age of puberty was not a rule in oulmin36 Lord Thurlow, C., said that ished by one blow, the estate would ctive heirs, instead of permitting the umptive survivor to the other. This the Roman fundamental rule, and his man principles on the subject. In ind his son and legatee died in a shipned to adopt the Roman presumptions tions and declared that the claimants f survivorship. A correction to this ht v. Netherwood38, where the testator, the same ship. Reference was made
The authority of Zouch was also

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relied upon,89 to the effect that in another. Sir William Wynne said, it has always appeared to me more cases to consider all the parties as dy resort to any fanciful suppositions o of robustness; and I rather suppose the passages alluded to. Unfortu cision have failed to realise that the law, but only rejecting the applicat In Taylor v. Diplock10, another case a Will giving his residual personal es executrix. They both perished in t the next ofkin of the husband were ofkin of the wife to prove her surv this was impossible. It is supposed presumption of survival, and indeed what the learned judge actually said He said, "Looking to their compar. away the ordinary presumption that in a struggle of this description. I able ladies in those days the prest continues, If we resort to the proba done (had he had an opportunity of supposed that he would have allow gone from his own brother and si presumption of law is more worthy favour of the parties on whom the law is in favour of the last possesso the view that the court may consi though there be no evidence of the probably survived, i.e. that judicial is removed. The determination is . property would come. Both of th the Roman law. In Colvin v. H. N wife died presumably in the upsetting asked for administration. The COu
39. The writer has tried to trace the allusion
in the works available to him are in Cases and Ques
4, 26, and p. 122, where he cites D. XXVIII, 6, 34
40. 2 Phil 1. Ecc. 261
40a. (1827) 1 Hagg. Ecc. 92=162 E.R. 518.

CEYLON REVIEW
o commoriens could transmit rights to "With respect to the priority of death fair and reasonable in these unhappy ing at the same instant of time, than to survivorship on account of the degree
that is what is meant by Dr. Zouch in
nately, Subsequent students of this deearned judge was not rejecting the civil on of its better-known particular rule. not perfectly understood, a man made tate to his wife, whom he appointed his he same ship. Sir J. Nicholl held that 2ntitled, it being incumbent on the next ivorship before they might claim—and that this case asserted the absence of a the decree is consistent with this. But seems to lead to a different conclusion. ative strength, there is nothing to take I a man was likely to survive a woman n view of the manner of life of respectImption was well founded. And he bility of what the deceased would have proper disposal of his goods), can it be red the whole of his property to have ster to his wife's relations : But the the consideration of the court; it is in law would throw the right. The civil Dr. Thus Taylor v. Diplock supports der the probabilities of the case, and stronger party's survival, hold that he doubt on the question of survivorship also aided by considering to whom the ese points are perfectly in accord with M. Procurator-General400 a husband and of a boat in the Ganges. The creditors rt said that strictly the representatives
s to Zouch. The only passages which seem relevant tions (Oxford, 1652), p. 33, where he cites Dig. XXIII, 4.

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t
ܢܠ
COMMOR
of the wife ought to have been cited husband survived, the decree might pa being very substantial. The presump pended, naturally, upon the facts of the
In In the Goods of Selwyn' the cutrix and substituted others in case spouses were droWined together. Pro executors, but the court took care no upon the husband's robustness, if any, the same moment. This no doubt fit with the civil law. Another drowni Satterthuaite v. Powell.42 where the ne that they were entitled to administrati being that the husband survived. The were relied upon. Here again the dif was to pass from kindred by blood to Court, not improperly, objected to. the next of kin of the husband claims t wife; that claim must be made outsurvived. The property remains wher be evidence to shew that it has been div be presumed to have died at the same ti that the husband survived his wife, the
of kin. This is, it is submitted, equal same confident reliance upon this ulti the carefully considered Sillick v. Boo. of which does not concern us. After died in a hurricane before their father solved was which of the brothers survi the previously-cited cases that the law one survived the other, but rather th: is hardly the conclusion which we she authorities, but it is at least a possible Bruce, V.C., as he then was, asserted perished by shipwreck under circumst: it is not necessary to be taken that the
41. (1831) 3 Hagg Ecc. 748-162 E. R. 1331, 42. (1838) 1 Curt. 705=163 E.R. 246. 43. (1841) 1. Y. & C. C. C. 117=62 E.R. 816.

UIENTES
, but as the law presumed that the ss, the creditors interest in the estate tion of the husband's surviving de
CaSC.
husband had appointed his wife his : of her dying in his lifetime. Both bate was granted to the substituted it to follow any presumption based but proceeded as if both had died at ited the case, and is not inconsistent ng in shipwreck was considered in xt of kin of the husband contended On the ordinary presumption of law Roman Digest and Taylor v. Diplock iculty was that substantial property kindred by marriage, and that the Sir Herbert Jenner said, “. . . . here he property which was vested in his it must be shown that the husband e it is found to be vested, unless there rested. The parties in this case must me, and there being nothing to shew administration must pass to her next ly consistent with the civil law. The mate authority can be found also in th,43 which had two problems, one holding that two brothers probably who died on land, the question to be ved. It was argued on the basis of of England had no presumption that at deaths were simultaneous. That uld be inclined to draw from those reading of them. Sir J. L. Knight that ".... the two brothers having unces of which there is no evidence, y died at the same instant. By the

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UNIVERSITY OF
law of England evidence of health. may be given in cases of this nature, one party survived the other.” Th the spirit of the civil law, which di in any case be taken to have died si from which one could determine w.
A decided change in the Engli countries concerned to administer C mon law, took place with the deci Angrave.44 There the court selected those cases in which evidence had survival of a particular cominoriens, Lordships positively rejected, in the sons were caused by one and the san is, say their Lordships, no presumpt vorship; nor is there any presumpti question is one entirely of fact, and vorship of any one the law will treat mined. Thus, although their Lord persons dying in different places of calling upon the Roman fundament for practical purposes ended. Thei not to have been perfect, but the co: fulness had not been received by t
common law courts, seems to have
Left in this situation, that at CC to aid the devolution of property major difficulty presented itself to entitled to expect the property in possession and unable to prove by S tions that their predecessor must hav left by Wing v. Angrave was echoed Home v. French,45 Cedergren v. Mas, out fully in numerous standard trea
44. (1860) 8 H.L.C. 183 = 11 E.R. 397, 403. 45. (1902) 187 U.S. 401: 47 Law Ed. 233. 46. 8th C.C.A. 292 Fed. 5. 47. 9 Wigmore on Evidence (3rd ed.), s. 2 Dickson on Evidence (Grierson's ed.), I, s. 130; on Evidence (9th edin.), 702; 13 Halsbury L. of

CEYLON REVIEW
strength, age, or other circumstances tending to the judicial presumption that is seems to be entirely consistent with ld not require that both parties should multaneously when there was evidence hat the probabilities were.
sh law, and therefore in the law of all ommon law or influenced by the Comion of the House of Lords in Wing v. from amongst the previous authorities been forthcoming which supported the and placed them to one side. Their
cases where the deaths of several per2 cause, all presumption of law. There ion arising from age or sex as to survion that all died at the same time. The if evidence does not establish the survi; it as a matter incapable of being deterships were not dealing with a case of by different causes, the possibility of al or special presumptions of law were r understanding of the civil law seems intention that the civil law rules in their
he ecclesiastical courts, still less by the
been well founded.
mmon law there was no presumption by testament or intestate succession, a
dependants or other persons morally guestion who found themselves out of trong likelihoods or by positive indicare survived. The rather sterile position in America in Young Women's Christian Bonding,46 and elsewhere; and it is set tises on Evidence.47 When the law of
532; Lawson on Presumptive Evidence, rules 54-6; Taylor on Evidence (12th edin.), ss. 202, 203; Phipson E. (Hailsham's edn.), 503.
74

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property was overhauled in England in was introduced for the first time. By Act of that year it was provided:
In all cases where, after the c more persons have died in circums r - of then survived the other or oth
order of the court) for all purpose presumed to have occured in orde younger shall be deemed to have S
S
준 This rule recommended itself in various r was at one time considered for adopti. England was far from satisfactory. In e had been killed in the same house by a
of the citation to him of section 184, e brief moment before his wife and that
became entitled to his residuary estate حكد. - even when the likelihood was that the
f sumption of law must be applied unle f that one survived the other, or at least t C survived. A further consideration of se is iron which we obtain the useful rule th r (f the law relating to succession to prop Leří is not merely a rule of evidence and as
ex fori ; but we also gather that Sectic impossible to prove that one survived t
perty fell to be distributed by English la al
y A bombshell was exploded by the f case of Hickman v. Peacey, 52 which C judgements from a group of exception )
was by a majority, and it gave great diss
ing of the whole question in North An
of 48. See Queensland, Succession Acts Amendment 49. Clause 114 of the Hindu Code Bill of 1948: 4S. published, with the Bill as Appendix, in the pr Legislative), 24 June 1950. -6 50. In re Lindop. Lee-Barber v. Reynolds 1942 Ch
Olí. 51. [1945] Ch. 5.
52. (1945] A.C. 304.
75
سیپیجیے۔
 

IENTES
the legislation of 1925 a presumption section 184 of the Law of Property
om mencement of this Act, two or stances rendering it uncertain which Prs, such deaths shall (subject to any 's affecting the title to property, be r of seniority, and accordingly the urvived the elder.
parts of the Commonwealth, 48 and on in India.49 But its reception in
In re Lindop50 a husband and wife bomb. Bennett, J., said, as a result "I must presume that he died some during that same brief moment she
Therefore it was believed that : two died simultaneously the press positive proof was forthcoming hat in all probability one must have 'ction 184 took place in In re Cohns at the statutory presumption is part erty, it is part of the lex domicilii and
such only applicable as part of the in 184 would be applied if it were he other, and if, of course, the pro
W.
House of Lords in the celebrated bntains some of the most brilliant ally talented judges. The decision atisfaction. It stimulated a rethinkherica, and has had its repercussions
Act, 1942.
see Report of Ambedkar Committee 12 Aug. oceedings of the Constituent Assembly of India
377.

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in India. Four persons, two of who others, were killed by the explosion ing-house in which they were and d ruins. There was no evidence to survived the others. It was held, uncertainty as to whether there w Lord Porter and Lord Simonds, the Simon, L.C., and Lord Wright, d evidence the deceased had died in ciri of them survived the other or oth and that accordingly in the admi should be deemed to have survived the facts, that they died simultane applicable and in any case would no result is that the estates would be certainty which the layman could
Lord Simon’s view the section oug the amusing analogy from horse-ra rule of racing which provided that of two horses passed the winning p the prize, would not prevent the sh: key to the problem, it is submitted,
which of them survived the other survived, an uncertainty which take it is possible to apply this rule even w concerned died together.
We may now perhaps return above.54. It is interesting to note h had left property to kindred "in the or coinciding with (his) own decease both disappeared in a catastrophe, th known even upon which day. T were concerned to construe the wills the spouses ought not to be taken to apparently, consider the plain wo Denning, M.R., dissenting) that the not proved that the wife died coil
53. 1962] 2 All E.R. 837 (C.A.). 54. See the discussion at 233 L.T. 295.

CEYLON REVIEW
in had made wills benefiting some of the of a bomb bursting in a London dwellemolishing it so as to bury them in the how whether any of the deceased had notwithstanding the apparent lack of as any survivor, by Lord Macmillian,
particularly brilliant lawyers, Viscount
issenting, that in the absence of such cumstances rendering it uncertain which irs within the meaning of section 184, histration of their estates the younger the elder. An inference drawn from ously would not make the section int be justified on the facts disclosed. The distributed upon a hypothesis of unhardly have accepted on the facts. In ht not to have been applied. He drew cing which has become immortal. “A where the judge was uncertain which lost first the younger horse should take uring of the prize in a dead-heat.' The lay in the words "rendering it uncertain So long as there is uncertainty which is for granted the possibility of survival,
then it seems very likely that the persons
to Re Rowland,53 which we discussed ow section 184 was used. The testator Event of the death of (his wife) preceding ". The wife made a similar will. They (eir vessel having disappeared, it was not heir Lordships of the Court of Appeal . Absorbed by the controversy whether have died simultaneously, they did not, 'ds of section 184. It was held (Lord claimants under the testator's will had cidentally with her husband, and that
76
5

Page 93
COMMOR
therefore the estate passed as on an in
section 184 she was presumed to have under her will to her niece. What is the unexpected application of the sectio persons have died in circumstanc - یdhs shall... for all purposes affecting have occurred in order of seniority. . . . as to the order of deaths the wife shoul whereupon she would take under the deceased him or died coincidentally wit her legatee would have both estates. In would ultimately succeed under either been worthwhile to appeal to the Hou method of reasoning deserves comment
That the statutory rule was far frc
A. when the British Parliament passed the h alia, gave the surviving spouse by far t C passing on a partial or complete intest inserted into section 46 of the Administ
in Where the intestate and the is th - * in circumstances rendering it unc վ, other and the intestate's husband nS hundred and eighty-four of the L
to have survived the intestate, this as respects the intestate as if the hu ed intestate.
ΟΥ ng We are thus left with a presumption ey except where the younger happens to
are spouses or included spouses, and eal intestate. This lame situation is the be
rule.54 1Ꮾ1Ꮭ Ot, The history of cominorientes in the yrd cated 55 At one time it was enacted th: ad that an adult in good health survived a 1 hat disaster. Florida and Georgia enacted as having survived the other. Conne
55. See articles cited at n. 21 above, also C. sumptions, 12 Can. B.R. 503-8 (1936). Also n. 56
ܓ݂ ؟
V 77
-

LENTES
testacy to the wife, because under
survived, being the younger, and extraordinary about this decision is in itself: "in all cases where... two es rendering it uncertain. . . . such the title to property, be presumed to Thus as soon as there was doubt ld have been held to have survived, husband's will (for she had not preh him, by virtue of the statute), and view of the fact that the same party view of the law it would not have ise of Lords; but the unsatisfactory
m satisfactory was preved in 1952, : Intestates Estates Act, which, inter he largest share in the average estate acy. A new subsection had to be tration of Estates Act, 1925:-
htestate's husband or wife have died ertain which of them survived the or wife is by virtue of section one aw of Property Act, 1925, deemed section shall, nevertheless, have effect isband or wife had not survived the
that the younger survived the elder be a spouse, where the persons dying one spouse died wholly or partly st comment on the English statutory
United States is somewhat compliat it should be conclusively presumed minor child if they died in a common that each person should be treated acticut applied the same rule so far
A. Wright, ' Commorientes-survivorship-prebelow.

Page 94
UNIVERSITY OF
as concerned simultaneous deaths o the presumption to cases where the within thirty days of another-art suitable dispositions of the property mittee on Uniform State Laws in the suggestion that property should the other deceased person—a solut simultaneous death which we found varying strengths. Now most of th Simultaneous Death Act. 56 This pi
1. Where the title to property priority of death and there is no died otherwise than simultanec be disposed of as if he had sur this chapter.
2. Where two or more benefic by reason of survivorship, und perty, and there is no sufficien died otherwise than simultaneo be divided into as many equal ficiaries and these portions she who would have taken in the had survived.
3. Where there is no sufficie tenants by the entirety have c property so held shall be distrib one-half as if the other had surv tenants and all of them have so d in the proportion that one bear
4. Where the insured and the insurance have died and there
died otherwise than simultaneo distributed as if the insured had
5. This chapter shall not apply or contracts of insurance wher.
bution of property different frc
56. Dardano, cited n. 21 above. Also 38 Io para. 637. 1-8 (1950). Atkinson in Annual Surve

1 CEYLON REVIEW
spouses. Ohio very sensibly extended re is evidence of survival, but one dies le which enables the survivor to make
obtained from the other. The Con936 submitted a draft which included pass by will or on an intestacy omitting 1
ion equivalent to the presumption of | in Roman, Jewish and Isalmic laws in e jurisdictions have passed the Uniform d rovides:—
or the devolution thereof depends upon
sufficient evidence that the persons have A
usly, the property of each person shall
vived, except as provided otherwise in
iaries are designated to take successively, er another persons's disposition of prot evidence that these beneficiaries have usly, the property thus disposed of shall portions as there are successive beneill be distributed respectively to those event that each designated beneficiary
nt evidence that two joint tenants or lied otherwise than simultaneously the uted one-half as if one had survived and
ived. If there are more than two joint by ied the property thus distributed shall be lat s to the whole number of joint tenants. 中 - S. beneficiary in a policy of life or accident W is no sufficient evidence that they have usly, the proceeds of the policy shall be Ca1
survived the beneficiary. in the case of wills, living trusts, deeds, hei in provision has been made for distri- օք m the provisions of this chapter. ται wa. L.R. 750-762 (1953). 9 U.L.A. 659; Iowa Code,
of American Law, 1951, p. 703. G
78

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COMMOR
In view of what has been discussed provisions will be obvious. Perhaps its rough justice is evident.
-
嵩 Canada also experimented with a ---- Provinces have adopted except Quel f As will be seen, here too a truly simul conveniences, but this is a hazard ag difficult to insure the testator. The C follows:57
The first sub-section enacts section C Act, 1925, subject to the following: 11 - 1. (2) The provisions of this section to the provisions of section 161 ( provides that where the person w more of the beneficiaries perish it 16 facie presumed that the beneficiary ll (3) Where a testator and a benefic C- rendering it uncertain which of th se - contains provisions for the furth Υ queathed or devised in case the
- then for the purposes of such beq er * be presumed to have predeceased t 燃 The last is a more modest arrang nt by the United States uniform statute, w be latter sets up a new presumption, that
ts. the cases excluded. Canada has not b is surely excellent in itself, for it cuts C
nt Whether the mutual survivorship rule.
Y to take the place of a presumption of su)
be can hardly be doubted. It has not or eliminates the anomalies that arise on
ds, heirs must necessarily have been within
tri- of the concern, of the propositus—so
rule is obviously just.
ode, 57. See 16 Can. B.R. 43-51 (1938); also Re La
G. D. Kennedy, “ Commorientes,..., 24 Can. B.R
79

IENTES
in this paper the usefulness of these no. 2 is the most controversial, but
Uniform Commorientes Act, which bec (which follows the French law). taneous death may cause many inainst which it seems exceptionally anadian uniform statute provides as
184 of the English Law of Property
shall be read and construed subject f the Insurance Act. That section hose life is insured and any one or 1 the Same disaster, it shall be prima
or beneficiaries died first.
iary under a will die in circumstances em survived the other, and the will er disposition of the property bebeneficiary predeceases the testator, (uest or devise, the beneficiary shall he testator.
ement than anything contemplated hich aims to be more thorough. The of mutual survivorship, except for een so ambitious, but the third rule ut many quite undeserved legacies. which echoes the Jewish law, is fit rvivorship on the part of the younger ly the merit of regularity, but also ce we assume that the other person's the contemplation, or proper objects often they are not. The insurance
w 1946) 2 Dom. L.R. 378, commented upon by ... 720-4 (1946).

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UNIVERSITY OF
When in 1956 India came to ena Hindu law provided very indiffere law had no rule, because in a joint any embarrassment. In a moderal in Gopal v. Padmapanis8 where the deaths took place long before and occurred in a common disaster. It must be applied that the elder mand nature that the generations should a son should predecease his father. 18 and a man aged 60 died in an ep no evidence which died last. Ma ought to be taken into account, wh would be the effect on devolution ( stronger, may have survived the eld to arrive at as otherwise the prope This decision took place in 1922. the decision strongly resembles the a century earlier.61 In 1934, after the even in India it was held in Neksi v stated in Wing v. Angrave must b jurisdiction to apply an English stati law known as Justice, Equity and Gc taken of this. Consequently, wher held that no presumptions applied, one must show his survival if they cl The same view was taken a few yea Chuhermal,64 and again in Dipendra v. disaster in 1944. In the same year, th in K. S. Agha Mir Ahmad Shah v. simply relied upon Wing v. Angrave, that the younger survived. They ti
58. (1913) 18 Ind. Cas. 814, 815 col. 2. 59. A.I.R. 1922 Bom. 347. 60. (1860) 8 H.L.C. 183 (cited above). 61. In particular those cited at nin, above. 62. A.I.R., 1934 Oudh 101. 63. See the article at (1962) 64 Bombay Law 64. A.I.R. 1939 Sind. 234. 65. A.I.R. Cal. 132, 212 I.C. 222. 66. A.I.R. 1944 P.C. 100, 71 Ind. App. 171,

CEYLON REVIEW
ct the Hindu Succession Act the Anglont precedents. The traditional Hindu family such questions can cause hardly
e degree the problem presented itself order of deaths was unknown. Bosh there was no suggestion that they had -
was held that the ordinary presumption ied first, for it is consistent with human die in their natural order and not that
In Kulkarni v. Laxmibai S9 a lad aged idemic on the same day and there was cleod, C.J., held that the probabilities ile one should also have an eye to what of property. The younger man, being er. "That is also a desirable conclusion rty would go away from the family. Wing v. Angrave00 was not applied, and decisions in Prerogative Courts about : English legislation had become known 7. Juvala02 that the common law rule as e applied. The Indian court had the utory rule under the residuary source of rod Conscience,63 but no advantage was
1 two relatives perished in a fire it was and that claimants to the property of
aimed that he inherited from the other. is later in an earthquake case, Gopibai v. Kutios, a case concerned with a boating e question was before the Privy Council Mir Mudassir Shah. 66 Their Lordships holding that there was no presumption hus negatived the possibility of Calling
Reporter, Journal Section, 129ff, 145ff.
1944.2 M.L.J. 354.
80

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COMMORI
in the English rule under Justice, Equity v. Paru, 67 a very recent case from Keral blow and immediately committed suic that the son survived the father. Thei taglish statutory law, and applied the in explained in Hickman v. Peacey,68 ܝܝ ܝܝܝܝܓ "
any other fact, and there is no presumpt
However a very different note is st judgement in Manorama Bai v. Rama . accident. One set of people went unde not be recovered, but another set of peop themselves above water and had been ne one had actually recovered. It was held (which their Lordships call a presumpti seniority, especially when the younger were rescued. In other words, notwi Calcutta and other cases, which they d that there was material upon which one was no uncertainty as to the survival o the deaths of others.
This being the position at Indian la inacted by section 21 : ܥܢ
Where two persons have died certain whether either of them, ar. then, for all purposes affecting suc sumed, until the contrary is proved,
The differences from the English marked is that the statutory presumpt touched by limitation of any kind, is o doubt or uncertainty whether one survi couple in the front seat of the car in a he likely to exist, nor would there be any room in which the commorientes were, t situations were different in some signifi
| 67. AIR. 1960 Ker 195. " 68. 19452 All E.R. 215.
69. A.I.R. 1957 Mad, 269,278,280
81
 
 

ENTES
and Good Conscience. In Manni a, Pokkan dealt his father a deadly ide. It was not possible to prove Lordships declined to consult the
common law, which they found Survivorship must be proved like OÍl.
ruck by the very learned and able Bai.69 There had been a boating r the Water and their bodies Could ble had been struggling and keeping tted and brought ashore, of whom permissible to draw the conclusion on) that death occurred in order of was of the party some of whom thstanding the Privy Council and istinguished, their Lordships found could found the decision that there f some members of the party after
w the Hindu Succession Act, 1956,
i in circumstances rendering it unld if so which, survived the other, ression to property, it shall be prethat the younger survived the elder.
rule will be apparent. The most ton, which remains at present unnly to be resorted to when there is ved another—i.e. in the case of the 'ad-on Collision, no judicial doubt is in the case of the bomb-blast in a inless there were evidence that their Cant respect.

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UNIVERSITY OF
We are not yet in a position t In In the matter of Manabir Singh 70 t all probability one spouse survived Punjab High Court, was prepared to he added a long and learned obiter di of the common law and continental statute of 1925, s. 184, and conclude no presumption would have been a from In re Cohn 71) he held that thou tion was enacted, the terms of that se of evidence binding upon the forum,
This survey of the common law reference to Scotland. One woul sympathetic to the fundamental con proved to be the case. All the Scot Roman ingenuity, and adhere obstin in England that the law knows no p rule of 1925 has not been introduced
Conc
It is submitted that our Utopia following rules :-
Where two persons die in such ci either of them and if either which st until the contrary is proved :-
1. where the plaintiff claims a provision for substitution in the not surviving him, that the testa 2. where the plaintiff claims be the insured had assigned to the c legal beneficiary, that the insure 3. where the plaintiff claims : representation of a descendant ceased, that the descendant died descendant; 70. A.I.R. 1963 Pun, 66, 72-5.
71. See n.51 above. 72. See authorities cited at n. 6 and n. 7 abov

CEYLON REVIEW
b see how the section will be applied. he medical evidence suggested that in I the other, and Tek Chand, J., in the hold that she survived. Nevertheless cturn in which he reviewed the history
law, Muhammadan law and the English d that without s. 21 of the Act of 1956
vailable. But (unknowingly differing gh the deaths took place before the secction must be applied as part of the law and so (in a sense) retrospective.
world would not be complete without d have expected that country to be Cept of the Roman law. This has not tish cases show an indifference for the ately to the principle first stated as such resumptions.72 The English statutory
in Scotland.
lusions
in ruler could do worse than enact the
rcumstances that it is uncertain whether
Irvived the other, it shall be presumed
legacy under the will of one without event of the legatee, who was the other, tor survived the legatee; snefits under an insurance policy which ther, or under which the other was the d survived the beneficiary;
share in the estate of an intestate by of the intestate who was the other defirst and thus the intestate survived his
------ عصیہ

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COMMORI
4. where the plaintiff claims as he tenancy held by the two deceased other, so that the share passes to th 5. where the plaintiff claims Esta deceased persons, that both died sir = 6. and in all other cases that both
neither survived the other.73
It is understood that nothing will evidence on the probabilities of the case together, or otherwise, the conscience o younger is likely to have survived. B out of the books of the Roman jurists a namely in taking account of what will h court may well, by exercise of judicial within no. 6 above, the evidence tendi survival of an older or younger or stron statutory presumption, when the applica to pass where it most justly should. Th should serve as a lottery from which ot is not consistent with justice by any star
73. Suggestions similar to these were made at 56.
83
 

ENTES
ir to the other by virtue of a jointpersons, that neither survived the 2 joint-tenants heirs ; te Duty out of the estates of both multaneously , - persons died simultaneously so that
prevent the court from accepting is, so that where young and old die f the court may be satisfied that the ut the court might well take a leaf ind of old English and Indian cases, appen to the property in suit. The equity, hold that, if the case falls ng to show the probability of the ger person, is conclusive against the tion of the latter will cause property at simultaneous deaths, and the like, hers may take undeserved benefits,
udard.
J. DUNCAN M. DERRETT
Bom. L.R.J., 106. (1954).

Page 100
The Drainage Pat Chronology of the /
HE rivers of Ceylon are rem
their size. Most of them are of the surplus rainfall into th ficant exception. It is the longest rivers of the Island put together. Aru (Malwatu Oya) is only 104 mil rivers in order of size, range from
(Kumbukkan Oya). All others are
The Mahaveli Ganga, as would is a most peculiar and marvellous ris age system. An attempt is made he terms of its drainage pattern, natur in the light of modern geomorphol
For this, in the first instance, mental milieu in which the river sys
1. The geological structure of structure are implied both the disposition. The region drain belonging to the Khondalite S gneisses, granulites, Crystalline been intruded by various granit the surface is not homogeneous in the rates of erosion accordin in which valleys are carved, vi. the disposition of the rocks, the norium. The keel of the dowr plains, running from the Hor This is an excellent example o syncline becoming eventually t to be noted that the synclinoriu a N.W. plunge.

tern and Denudation
Mahayeli Ganga (Ceylon) . -
arkable more for their number than for simple water-courses for the discharge e sea. The Mahaveli Ganga is a signiriver ; it is longer than any other two [t is 206 miles long. The next, Aruvi es long. The lengths of the next dozen
97 miles (Kelani Ganga) to 70 miles shorter.
be clear from the accompanying map, zer, or rather a highly anomalous draintre to explain and interpret the river in all history and denudation chronology,
gical knowledge.
we should try to find out the environtem has developed. This consists of:-
f the region drained by the river. By nature of the rock outcrops and their ed by the river consists mostly of rocks ystem. It comprises a wide variety of limestones, quartzites, etc. These have es, especially in the form of sills. Thus This heterogeneity implies differences g to the relative resistivity of the rocks z: differential erosion. With regard to sy are arranged in the form of a synclifold may be taken as including the high ton Plains N.N.W. towards Hantane. f inversion of relief, the fold axis of the he crestline of a ridge. Further, it has m pitches N.W., i.e. the fold axis shows
84

Page 101
THE DRAINAG
2. Jointing in the rocks. This is of the System, especially in the ca or composites resulting from intrus 3. Shatter-belts and fault-zones ca 4. Variations in the regional dist
ܐܝܟ .rainfall 1 ܢܝܓ حیحدہ
For an Island with its general relief dome in the centre, the normal drainage fugal like the spokes of a wheel. The C in the form of a simple dome, howev anchor, with the bow running somewh shank pointing towards the N. N.W. D1 to the N.W. and W. on the western flat the eastern flank. With regard to the sc wards down the Southern Mountain Wa This indeed appears to have been the c drainage evolution in the Island. Sin taken place, with considerable adaptation the factors enumerated above.
A landscape has a definite life histo through a series of sequential forms be Generally, however, this cycle of attain initial form is interrupted, and fresh cy Hence the statement that peneplanatio never attained in practice. Most landfo in their composition the elements and e they are said to be polygenetic or multi result of the interplay of sculpture and geneous and/or horizontal strata, the nor determined only by slope and precip heterogeneous and jointed strata, as in the pattern of drainage tends to be trellise the strata have also been riddled with fau
On the initial slopes, consequents slope. Then tributaries come into bein named as subsequents. These discove weakness due to less resistant strata, fau 覽
85
 

E PATTERN
well developed in many of the rocks se of the intrusives, the migmatites ion, etc.
used by earth movements. ribution and seasonal incidence of
pattern resembling a topographical pattern would be radial and centriDentral Highlands of Ceylon are not er. They assume the shape of an at east to west in the south and the tainage direction should therefore be k of the shank, and N.E. and E. on buth, the drainage is directed southill aligned on the bow of the anchor. :ase in the early or initial stages of ce then, pronounced changes have to structure, under the influence of
pry, whereby the initial forms pass sfore an ultimate form is attained. ment of an ultimate form from an rcles and sub-cycles are introduced. n is only a theoretical abstraction rms are thus palimpsests containing vidences of former cycles. Hence cyclic. The drainage pattern is the i structure. In regions of homomal pattern ofdrainageis dendritic, itation. In regions of inclined or the Central Highlands of Ceylon, d or rhomboidal, particularly when
ult zones.
treams develop, flowing down the g to drain the interfluves; they are r and explore belts of structural lt or joint planes or shatter zones.

Page 102
UNIVERSITY OF
This marks the beginning of adjust migration then ensues owing to th corroding at different rates. By this streams is reduced. Those possessin climatic, widen their valleys at the collecting them as sub-parallel tribu abstraction. It is a kind of natural on the flank. Drainage piracy by be elbows of capture is a normal incid between rivers. The Mahaveli Gan abundantly.
As it is today, the Mahaveli Gan and polygenetic drainage system. It of other rivers, by beheading, capt to itself the rainfall discharge of a la on the western side of the central b: Sea. The Mahaveli has misapprop the Bay of Bengal. This would ex Mahaveli Ganga, in relation to the s the other rivers of the Island.
The composite character of the well-defined elbows; it is also dem reaches of the river. The natural thi normal course of development is t course, mature features in its middle course. But in the case of the Mahat showing that some portions belong a reaches of the river in the Horton Pl the uncertain shuffle of old age, like the mouth. The impetuosity of you are seen in portions not normal to th rivers are found linked together, as history of the region, into this abnor Ganga. The Mahaveli Ganga with i anomalies holds the key to the evolt Highlands, and to a considerable deg

CEYLON REVIEW
ment to structure. A process of divide Le fact that neighbouring streams are means the large number of consequent g some initial advantage, structural or expense of those of their neighbours, itaries. This process is called stream
selection. One river takes the other leading, leaving wind gaps and Creating ent in a veritable struggle for survival ga system illustrates these phenomena
ga is not just one river, but a composite has grown as a parasite, at the expense uring and sapping them and diverting rge area. The drainage of the region ackbone no longer reaches the Arabian riated it to augment its discharge into plain the disproportionate length of the ize of the Island and in comparison to
Mahaveli is shown not merely by its onstrated by the nature of the various ng for any river which has followed the O show youthful features in its upper : course and senile features in its lower veli Ganga, there is a confusion of these, ctually to other rivers. The uppermost ains are already late-mature, reflecting what is found in the flood plain above thand the Swinging vigour of manhood em. So, heterogeneous limbs of various a result of the structure and tectonic mal drainage system called the Mahaveli its heterogeneous parts presenting many tion of the morphology of the Central gree, of the whole Island.
86

Page 103
THE DRAINAG
The normaldrainage pattern has be. differential erosion and jointing; "abov suffered some sudden disruption in rece ments, which have rejuvenated erosion :
The Mahaveli Ganga rises in the he 16 ܢ حو
ܕ ܡ
of the Island, a region of 125-200 inc stream, the Hatton river, after flowings along a strike valley determined by the the Island turns north-east on descend flows in the direction across the strike a tributary also follows the strike and utilising joint and other planes of weak
North of Kandy, at Katugastota, i. heading of the headwaters of the Ambal south-east, flowing in the opposite dire of the Dumbara syncline. Thus it flow ranketa and then due east for about 20 r valley down to Minipe. Here it receiv. such as Belihiul Oya, Kurundu Oya, U it turns to flow due north for about 5(
following the foliation strike of the roc
country) and accompanying a long ou finally enters a low flood plain, after cri Dastota. Here, it sweeps gently northe by the Amban Ganga, and later splits channels.
With the exception of the short st Southern Mountain Wall to join the sou Oya, etc., and the Kehelgamu and Mask the entire drainage of the Central High system, viz: the Mahaweli Ganga and it above Alutnuwara may be considered u
from its source to Katugastota.
1. The Hatton and Kotmale Syst
87

E PATTERN
an very much modified by structure, e all the ancient river systems have nt geological times by earth moveund interrupted the previous cycle“.
art of the mountainous south-centre hes of rainfall per year. Its headome distance on the Hatton plateau,
underlying geological structure of ing the plateau and then the river s far as Kandy. The Kotmale Oya juts across it in different portions, less in the rocks.
s an elbow bend caused by the be1 Ganga. Here the Mahaweli turns ction of plunge (which is N.N.W.) s up the syncline as far as Hanguniles in a narrow transverse underfit es its tributaries from the Uva Basin Jma Oya and Badulu Oya. Then ) miles along a longitudinal valley, ks (and the topographic grain of the Itcrop of crystalline limestone and Ossing a ridge along a joint plane at ast when it is joined on its left bank itself into a number of distributary
reams hurling themselves down the th-flowing Walawe Gange, Kirindi teli tributaries of the Kelani Ganga, lands is accomplished by one river is tributaries. This drainage system nder the following heads :
em or the upper Mahaveli Ganga

Page 104
UNIVERSITY OF
2. The Uva System which c Central Highlands, and
3. The middle Mahaveli Gar and the transverse valley as far
I. The Hatton
The Kotmale Oya
This river starts as the Agra O. structural grain of the country as fa W. N.W. Here it takes advantage rocks and cuts across the grain at an three miles. At Caledonia, it rece has been following a course parallel the geological strike. From Caled along the same strike. From Tillic at right angles to the strike, only t direction thereafter as far as Talaw the Nanu Oya which comes from th, on the strike and along the foot of is achieved only after taking a rectan factory. Up to a little beyond Dir in the Talawakelle syncline. Ther right angles attract the river and it for about eight miles as far as Ot. Great Western anticline and the P rather broad, gorge, with walls near Oya tributary at Maldeniya and the of tributary streams are made at the It will be noted that the upper Ag Nanu Oya, the Pundul Oya and th following the N.N.W./S.S.E grai is adopted by the Kotmale Oya too with the Mahaveli Ganga a few in zig-zags in the course of the river ( to the rectangular lines present in the which running water has tended to strike of the synclinorium and the Thus there are strike limbs and joi1 sections of these.

CEYLON REVIEW
brains the eastern amphitheatre of the
ga, comprising the Dumbara syncline as about Minipe.
مسجS
i-Kotmale Drainage ܥܝ ܢ
ya in the Horton Plains and follows the as Glen Lyon (in Agrapatana), flowing of some parallel divisional planes in the elevation of about 4,500 feet for about tives the Dambagastalawa Oya which to that of the upper Agra Oya, i.e. along onia, as far as Tillicoultry, it continues pultry to Lindula, the direction becomes D change to the more convenient strike akelle. Above Talawakelle, it receives e Nuwara Eliya plains in a course aligned the Great Western ridge. The junction gular bend S.W. near the Great Western nbula this strike direction is maintained eafter, joints developed in the rocks at turns N.N.E. to flow in this direction lawa village. In doing so, it cuts the undul Oya Syncline in a deep, though ly 2,000 ft. high. It receives the Pundul Puna Oya at Otalawa. The confluences intersections of the strike and joint lines. ra Oya, the Dambagastalawa Oya, the he Puna Oya all flow in parallel valleys
in of the country. This same direction
from Otalawa village to its confluence
niles below Nawalapitiya. The minor
on this stretch are adjusted in obedience
: structural predisposition of the country,
discover and exploit, namely, the fold
divisional planes at right angles to it.
nt limbs with elbow bends at the inter
88

Page 105
THE DRAINAC
UPPER MAHAWEL
89
 

GE PATTERN
DRA NAGE AREA

Page 106
UNIVERSITY OF
It is apparently baffling why the developed Talawakelle Syncline belov Station) and turn N.N.E. to cut acros is probably due to the dominance of assisted by some tectonic tilting of t deep gorge left behind by the recessio larly, but higher up, on the Damb which have also left behind a gorge i. Bogahawatte bend, the river flows in downwards. There is no observable of the rocks above or below the Falls, syncline. These dislocations of the faulting or the advanced positions of crops in a composite valley. When river we see terraces on both sides of ridge-crests. These terraces are ob this is certain because the rock strata a the terrace planes. Therefore they ar. “valley in valley” feature. The tribu hang and hurl themselves over the le Dimbula. The incised valleys with all point to rejuvenation, e.g. the Kotr Oya, the Hatton river and the Har Similar examples of rejuvenation suc sides, are seen in the tributary streams Uniclinal shifting of valley near Na incised meanders of Talawakelle, etc. of revived regressive erosion.
The Hatton River
This is the main head-stream of its source in the Elbedde ridge for abc in the Hatton Syncline. Below Gini: N.N.E. wards (in the same manner as t wate) and flows in that direction as f tributary, the Halgran Oya, above N same rectangular drainage pattern.
The Atabage Oya and Nilamba the Mahaveli Ganga above and belo
9

CEYLON REVIEW
Kotmale Oya should leave the wellDimbula (near Bogahawatte Power s two anticlines and a syncline. This fault or joint-Control over the strike, he surface. Just above this bend is a of the waterfalls of St. Clair. Simagastalawa Oya are the Elgin Falls, in their headward march. Above the the Talawakelle syncline from Elgin lithological difference in the resistance as the same rocks continue along the long profile therefore indicate either knick-points arrested by resistant outwe examine the cross-profile of the the river from its bed right up to the riously not structural rock-benches; tre inclined and they are truncated by e paired river-terraces which prove the tary streams are also discordant; they idges in falls, e.g. Devon Falls below ingrown and intrenched meanders, nale Oya near Talawakelle, the Nanu mbantota Oya near Bogawantalawa. h as paired river-terraces with steep just beyond Watawala and Galboda. walapitiya with rapids and falls, the , all point to the same phenomenon
the Mahaveli Ganga. It flows from but fifteen miles, as far as Ginigathena gathena, it makes a rectangular bend he Kotmale Oya does below Bogahaar as Katugastota. It receives a small
lawalapitiya, which too displays the
Oya and their tributaries which join w Gampola respectively conform to
O

Page 107
THE DRAINA
the same pattern. The same holds g Maskeli Oya tributaries of the Kelani They both descend to the uplands by falls). The Hatton river has no falls scies of cascades. The above two r parallel with the Hatton river appear into its drainage system by the Kelani for this, they would have gone to au and thus relieved Colombo of its freq area is a region of heavy precipitatic of streams. Thus the headstreams of rob the Mahaveli of these two rivers,
حر.
The streams and rivers of the ar. of development of rectangular or "tr sets of lines nearly at right angles to e minant, runs almost N.W./S.W. T. grain of the country, the axes of the an direction is that of the divisional plan such as joints, fissures, sheer and fract structure and joint patterns shows a cc is amply demonstrated by the Gin Ga South-West scarplands whose topogra Highlands west of the main backbone, of adjustment to structure. For then in the Hatton plateau. The Gin Gan fully displayed on the One inch topog goda and Alutgama, among others. type. It perhaps forms a part of a wo
"This impression is strengthened features of the earth's surface which the structural pattern of the underlyin plan of a landscape shows significant shore-lines, escarpments or arrangeme physiographic features. However e. lines in the plan of the earth's surfac significant lines in the earth's surface.”
UMBGROVE, J. H. F., The Pulse of the Earth, The* 7 ܢ
9.
 

GE PATTERN
bod also for the Kelhelgamu Oya and Ganga, though in a subordinate way. waterfalls, (Aberdeen and Laxapana but descends to the lower level by a ivers which flow in Strike directions to have been captured and directed Ganga at the Ginigathena gap. But gment the discharge of the Mahaveli uent devastating floods. Ginigathena in with vigorous headward erosion the Kelani Ganga have been able to viz: Kehelgamu and Maskeli Oyas.
a under review show a fair amount ellis' drainage pattern. It comprises ach other. One set, perhaps the dohe dominant direction is that of the ticlines and synclines. The secondary es, local and regional tensional efects ure planes. The orientation of these insistency throughout wide areas. It nga (also) which is developed on the phic pattern is simulated in the Central the difference being only in the degree nost part, “trellis” is an incipient stage ge type of drainage pattern is beautiraphical maps of Rakwana, AmbalanIt is typically of the Appalachian rld wide pattern.
by the evidence of morphological to a large extent seem to depend on g formations. Frequently, the relief lines be it in its drainage system or ints of volcanic vents, or some other pressed, these approximately right
} have been designated LINEAMENTS, 米
Hague, 1947, p. 295.

Page 108
UNIVERSITY OF
In the Hatton Plateau area whic others mentioned, the existence of N.E./S.W. and N.W./S.E. is very pa of erosion and the lineaments also he physiographical features. “A high c relatively youthful landforms thus be condition.**
The Hatton river syncline is conti Ambagamuwa by the overfit valley a low col into the Modera Ela, tribu river and the Coolbawn stream are 1. however. The same slight lateral d in the case of other synclinal and antic Ginigathena-Gampola section of the M is that the Ginigathena-Gampola sect along a fault or release plane and that differentially tilted in relation to each the peculiar features of the Kotmale river from the Talawakelle syncline ( Bogahawatte to flow N.N.E. to Ota there. The Goorook Oya itself app flow further N.W. along the synclin but later diverted into the Ginigathe Ganga after the formation of the latte
The same phenomenon of fault ti contributory circumstance for assistir Dumbara syncline so that at Katuga abandoning its previous course int drainage down the Dumbara Syncline "up the syncline”.
Map studies would suggest the
features of a similar nature in the coul
1. The diversion N.E. at the N. hump, of the Mahaveli from its valley (an overfit valley) into the
**WooLRIDGE, S. W. and MORGAN, R. S., The Pl p. 41.

CEYLON REVIEW
we have considered above and the one set of rectangular lineaments, ent. The surface has suffered cycles ve undergone revival along with the egree of adjustment, combined with comes a criterion of the second cycle
سخين
nued further north-westwards beyond of the Coolbawn stream and across tary of the We Ganga. The Hatton lot aligned on the same straight line, splacement of alignment is manifest inal axes disposed on either side of the ahaveli Ganga. The logical inference ion of the Mahaveli Ganga is carved the fractured blocks on both sides are other. This would explain adequately Oya, especially the departure of the in which the Goorook Oya flows) at lawa, taking advantage of the joints ears to have originally continued its e into the Maha Oya of Aranayake,
na-Gampola section of the Mahaveli
I,
lting will seem to have been a strong g the reversal of drainage along the stota, the Mahaveli turns south-east o the Matale Valley. The former towards Katugastota is now reversed
same explanations for the following se of this anomalous river:
E. extremity of the Botanical Gardens N.W. course past the Kobbekaduwa
Rambukkan Oya.
ysical Basis of Geography, Longmans, London, 1939,

Page 109
THE DRAINAC
2. Diversion of the headwaters of Galagedara and Ankumbura in Katugastota. 3. Diversion of the headwaters C
Y other tributaries of the Maha Oya .Gampola limb of the Mahaveli G 1_ܓ
The Knuckles Drainage
The Heen Ganga and the Hassalak (meridianal) valley of the Mahaveli G of the Hulu Ganga flows south into t Mahaveli Ganga, past Teldeniya to joi Between the 18th and 19th mileposts o goda, the Galmal Oya shows Some ex courses of the Heen and Hassalaka Oya in support of revived erosion cycles br
through probable uplift.
The Middle Mahaveli Ganga
At Katugastota, the Mahaveli deve reasons, this is a curious phenomenon. the choice of Kandy as the one time because of the natural protection offer
· the north. Instead of continuing nort overfit valley for the present Ravana flows south-east in a direction parallel flowing headwaters and tributaries like The broad valleys of Ravana Oya and Ganga-show that they carried a lar present streams which flow in them a must have been carved by the Maha collected from the wet Hatton plateau of taking a south-east turn below Katt between the Mahaveli and the Ravan thirty feet high.
Between Katugastota and Hangur valley conforming to the grain of th Dumbara Valley. It is quite broad and is . But between Hanguranketa and Minip
93
 

GE PATTERN
of the Deduru Oya tributaries N.E. to the Mahaveli in the proximity of
if the Hingulu Oya, Kuda Oya and near Gampola into the GinigathenaAnga.
a Oya flow east into the longitudinal anga. The Galmal Oya, a tributary he middle or transverse reach of the in the main river above Victoria Falls. in the road from Teldeniya to Maducellent intrenched meanders, as in the s, and providing cumulative evidence ought about by changes of base-level
slops a sharp elbow bend. For man
It is this bend which mainly led to capital of the kingdom of Ceylon ed by the river against invasion from hward, along a broad valley, now an Oya which occupies it, the Mahaveli to, but opposite to that of the N.W. the Hatton river, Kotmale Oya, etc. its northern continuation—the Sudu ger volume in the past and that the re under-fits. Probably, the valleys veli Ganga with its large drainage It must have flowed north instead gastota. Actually, the Water-parting a Oya at Katugastota is only about
anketa, the Mahaveli occupies a strike e country. This valley is called the old and occupies a structural syncline. e, the valley cuts the grain of the rocks

Page 110
UNIVERSITY OF
perpendicularly and becomes a veri might be permitted to infer that ti Katugastota and Hanguranketa was
down the Dumbara syncline (i.e. i. direction of flow), like the Kotmale ( the Hatton plateau at Katugastota.
into the Matale valley. In other wo and a part of that of the Uva plateau into two main Streams Which conve confluence near Katugastota to form valleys of the Ravana Ela and Sudu G
That portion of the middle Ma. and Minipe always flowed east as it probably started its career as a left-ban of the Mahaveli Ganga or of the north discharge. It flows east like the He Knuckles, which are joint-guided str guided reaches following less resistan joint-guided W/E direction at rightdominates in the drainage pattern, cet erosion as is today performed on the K flowing tributary of the Mahaveli (of valley) also succeeded in capturing ar Dumbara river. Thus we see the com the drainage turning southeast below K been aided by recent dislocation and whole drainage of the Hatton plateau valley to be in turn conducted into th on the east flank of the Knuckles, inst gastota through the Sudu Ganga on the The water makes a long detour to fir the same outlet, namely the present valley between Hanguranketa and Mi present body of water which is con features of youth at Minipe where Rantembe. There are also many r 2,000 ft. deep.
Below Minipe, the northward { to flow along a fault zone as has been si
9.

CEYLON REVIEW
ble transverse valley. From this, it e portion of the Mahaveli between tributary river which flowed N.W. a direction opposite to its present ya and joined the river coming from
This combined river flowed north,
is, the drainage of the Hatton plateau West of the Uma Oya was colected ged towards Kandy and made their one river flowing north through the anga, past Matale.
Laveli Ganga between Hanguranketa does now, but it is quite young. It i tributary of the longitudinal portion ward continuation of the Loggal Oya in Ganga and Hassalaka Oyas of the 2ams, with no doubt, certain strikeI rocks in the N/S direction, and the angles to it. One or other of these eris paribus. By vigorous headward nuckles by the Heen Ganga, this east the Hanguranketa-Minipe transverse ld diverting the then N.W. flowing ing into being of the phenomenon of atugastota. The capture has probably tilting of the blocks. Practically the is thus conveyed into the transverse e longitudinal valley of the Mahaveli bad of the original course from Katu: West flank of the same upland region. ally reach the sea ultimately through
Mahaveli mouths. The transverse nipe is narrow and is underfit for the lucted through it. It shows all the t flows through a narrow gorge at pids. In places the gorge is about
owing meridianal Mahaveli appears ggested by the studies of its Hassalaka

Page 111
THE DRAINAC
and Heen Ganga tributaries. The fau weakness, namely the axis of a fold as here, which is N/S. Added to this is t of jointed crystalline limestone, to help We see thus that in the drainage اما
the Central Highlands of Ceylon, d significant share, one or the other, or a playing the dominant role in any area,
1. Fold axes, synclines and antic Joints and other divisional pl being strongly developed Faulting, and 4. Headward erosion.
2
3.
Rejuvenation under the control of uplifts of portions of the Central Highl. but it is most conspicuous near the edge

E PATTERN
lt zone is developed along a line of demonstrated by the strike direction he presence of the elongated outcrop
further in aligning the valley.
pattern and denudation chronology iverse factors have contributed their ombination of more than one factor, according to the circumstances.
IncS,
anes in the rocks, the master joints
and remarkably presistent,
the above, and following differential ands region is noticeable everywhere, s of the plateaus and elevated plains.
K. KULARATNAM

Page 112
Plantation Rubber
I. Early History of Rubber
INTIL the last years of the nin rubber had been small, and th
cultivated sources. Brazil pri and the remainder came from other Africa. Beginning about the end o. expansion of the motor vehicle indust increasing demand for rubber. The a inadequate and prices rose sharply, in 2s. 7d. a pound for fine hard para (v 4s. 8d. in 1900.1 The establishment o East was the result of this revaluation
The rubber tree was first introdu the Royal Botanical Gardens opened a goda near Colombo, and obtainedsu soil and climatic conditions of the w for its growth. Rubber seeds from sent to botanical gardens in India, Bu growing proved quite successful. I adopted rubber seedlings in its affor of these encouraging experiments, CO till the beginning of the new century planted with rubber, and that was int
There were many obstacles to the low value of crude rubber, which in the 1880's and 90's. The planters' as was available concerning rubber te enterprise to them. Methods of coll wild rubber were not applicable to
1. Rubber prices from Rickinson: The Worl 2. Wright: Hevea Brasiliensis, p. 30. Lond
Ceylon Sessional Paper XVIII, 1957. Rajaratnam: Growth of Plantation Agric Historical and Social Studies, Volume 4, No. 1.

Industry in Ceylon
11 ܡܢ
teenth century the demand for crude
è entire world supply came from unbvided about half the total quantity, parts of tropical South America and the nineteenth century, the rise and ty led to an enlarged and progressively vailable supply of rubber soon proved creasing on the London market from vild, uncultivated rubber) in 1890 to f the plantation rubber industry in the
ced into the island of Ceylon in 1876; in experimental plantation at Heneratccessful results in its cultivation. The et, low country proved quite suitable its experimental plantation were also Irma and Malaya, where again rubber
in the island the Forest Department
estation schemes. However, in spite immercial estates were not established r. In 1898 there were only 300 acres erspersed among tea bushes.2
economic development, in particular fetched no more than 2s. 6d. a pound attitude depended on such information upping, since this was an entirely new ection and manufacture employed for plantation culture, since this involved
d's Rubber Position, London (Series). .1908 ;1nכ
ulture in Ceylon, 1888-1931. Ceylon Journal of
6
جداد .

Page 113
RUBBER INDUSTR
the felling of the trees. Early tapping where was likewise unsatisfactory, base number of punctures in the bark which each tree annually; whereas later met bounds.3 Until 'cuts were introduced
.and unpromising ܐܶܣܛܝܢ.
ர
All countries were subject to the
method of tapping the rubber tree was . were additional local problems. The C. which had monopolised first experime soil and climate, but gave poor yields.4 low country, a fact which led J. C. Willis, Gardens, to estimate that only about 10 as rubber lands. By about 1900, how only had practical tapping techniques b suitable species had been developed-pal flow; and was adaptable to varied type it gave satisfactory quantities of latex up short, para proved that rubber product in the island: indeed within a short time tea.6
... Price Movement in the Plantation Rub
When the price of rubber rose to 4s. better prospects. Unlike tea, rubber Royal Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya ( response developed early tapping method was also conducted in India and Mala rubber production rapidly became availa
Wright: Hevea Brasiliensis, pp. 9 and 121. Ferguson: Mercantile and Planting Directory Royal Botanical Gardens Circular, 1898. Wright: Hevea Brasiliensis, p. 30. 6. Sir Herbert Wright wrote in 1903: “Ten ore tap trees until they were at least ten years old, and an est from the twelfth to the twentieth year was considered that some trees when four or five years old may yield cases individual trees about 11 years old have given no and others as much as 25 lbs. per tree in 12 months.”
7. Ibid. p. 31.
97
 
 

IN CEYLON
rocedure used in Ceylon and elseas it was on the pricking of a extracted as little as 34 ozS. from ods were to produce twentyfive
the whole process was, in fact,
ame drawbacks, as a satisfactory s yet unknown. In Ceylon there stilloa and Ceara species of rubber, Lts, proved suitable for the island’s
They flourished only in the wet the Director of the Royal Botanical 000 acres of Ceylon were suitable ver, the scene had changed. Not Ben evolved, but a new and more a rubber. Para gave greater latex of earth and climatic conditions: to 5,000 feet above sea level. In ion was not a limited proposition it covered an area equal to that of
her Industry
8d. in 1900, rubber growing offered gained much assistance from the where Parkins' research on wound ls) and the Government. Research ya so that technical knowledge on ble.7
1891, p. 88, Colombo.
even years ago it was thought advisable not to mate of 1 lbs. of dry rubber per tree, per year, atisfactory. Since that time it has been proved rubber of marketable value, and in exceptional less than 12 lbs. of dry rubber in eight months, Ibid. p. 3.

Page 114
UNIVERSITY OF
The depressed tea market also shown in rubber. By 1897 the p levels, particularly affecting low districts are the best rubber produci rubber began with interplanting am The new industry not only offered but also provided an alternative to
The extension of rubber plant the world market, which may be price paid for rubber in 1900 declir was a steep rise to the then pheno fluctuations in crude rubber prices tropical agricultural produce. Beg to 2s. 9d. at the end of 1907; but reached 5s. 2d. at the end of the ye. for rubber which became steadil highest price so far recorded was a The price then declined to 7s. in De forerunner to the 1910 boom, wher price of fine hard para was 7s. 7d. December; the average price for the at 9s. 0d. From 1911 the price plantations mounted.8
A note of explanation is neces offine hard para and plantation rub ship between rates for wild and cul not very strict. Before the beginn the bulk of crude rubber, so that at a discount. Before the world Wai had was due to two reasons. In t accustomed to wild rubber, and t was more suitable for vulcanisatic uniformity in plantation produce; large standard blocks, estates sold lace, sheet, biscuit, blanket, etc. B to take pre-eminence as an industr uniformity had been established.
does not come within the rubber 1
8. Rubber prices from Rickinson: The W

CEYLON REVIEW
Bontributed towards the greater interest ice of tea had reached unremunerative und mid-Country estates. These very gland in the Country; so that plantation ong tea bushes in these marginal estates. fresh opportunities to Ceylon planters, urther extension of tea. کسی" --------___
ng was related to the price structure of
generally described as follows. The ed to 3s. 3d. in 1902. After 1902 there menal rate of 6s. in 1905. Thereafter have created a record in the history of inning late in 1905, the price dropped early in 1908 began to rise again, and tr. 1909 began with an active demand stronger until September when the ttained; fine hard para fetching 9s. 2d. cember of the same year. This was the fluctuation reached its maximum. The In January, 12s. 8d. in April and 7s. in 2 year was 9s. 2d. with plantation rubber of rubber fell away as supplies from
sary about the relationship of the price ber. Though there was a close relationivated rubber in the early days, this was ng of the war, wild sources contributed plantation produce was on the whole , the price advantage which wild rubber he first place manufacturers were more he smoking it undergoes in processing in. In the second place there was no while rubber was put on the market in
theirs in many forms-blocks, crepe, y 1914 plantation rubber was beginning al raw material, and by this time some Thereafter the price of fine hard para arket.
prld's Rubber. London (Series).
98
། 上

Page 115
RUBBER INDUSTR
III. Supply and Demand for Rubber Dur
THE PLANTATION RUBBER INDU
In Acre,
Annual Pl
1905 116.5 1906 77,7 19()7 2122 1908 188,8.
1909 1738
1910 261.4
1911 - 382,8(
1912 - 312.0
1913 204,4
1914 159,3
The price pattern of the rubber mar to perennial crops that take a period of There were both similarities between t industries, and differences arising from two products. While tea left the facto almost immediately for the consumers stable demand, rubber had to undergo so that demand was regulated by ind States of America and Western Europe, ations which were followed by price m
The supply of rubber during the a great degree of inelasticity. The high the first decade of the century resulted extension in Malaya, Ceylon and the of expansion was phenomenal, especia 1905 and 1910. By 1914 over two mi] its cultivation, but production and exp cultivated sources remained limited.
SUPPLY OF CRUDE
Plantation Bra
1906 510 36,0 1907 1,000 38,0 1908 1,800 39.0 1909 3,600 42,0 1910 8,200 - 40,0 1911. 14,419 37.7 1912 28,518 42.4 1913 46,000 41, C 1914 65,000 38.0
9. Rubber Growers' Association Bulletin, 1928. 10. Rubber Growers' Association Bulletin 1928 (L
曾
99
 
 

Y IN CEYLON
ng the Early Stages of the Industry STRY (WORLD POSITION) 9
nting - Total
() 116,500 O 294,200 O 506,550 0 - 687,350. O 861,150 O 1,122,550 0) 1,505,350 0 1,817,350 O 2,021,750 )0 2,181,050
ket showed characteristics common several years to come into bearing. he behaviour of the tea and rubber the nature of the demand for the ry as a finished product, available who directly determined a fairly further processes of manufacture, 1strial consumption in the United subject to violent economic fluctuovements in the London market.
Early stages of the industry showed but unstable price of rubber during in the cultivation of rubber and its Netherlands East Indies. The rate ly after the two price booms of lion acres had been brought under orts both from cultivated and un
RUBBER (tons) 10
il Other Total
- Sources
OO 29,700 66,210 OO 30,000 69,000 OO 24,600 65,000 00 24,000 69,600 00 21,500 70,500 30 23,000 75,149 10 28,000 98,928 00 25,000 112,000 OO 19,000 122,000

Page 116
UNIVERSITY OF
While prices were high and d remained stable, averaging between 1914. The nature of wild rubber this. It had been gathered by devast demand rose, there were few access rubber tapping was almost impossi radius of Manaos or Para in Brazil,
Increased supplies from the est: high demand was over, and as a res stocked rubber market of the war partly to the decline of rubber manu Inelasticity was further aggravated Synthetic alternatives were still coi costs, though the threat of their even rubber expansion in the early day, threat; but here again high costs m the boom prices of the mid-1920's appear as a competitor; by this tim reduced. American industry prefel pay prohibitive prices for natural Restriction Scheme.
At first the growth in the den motor vehicle industry, which was so there was a close co-relation betw Unstable early rubber prices were buyers by high rates, which resulte the demand been consistent, high p supplies were adequate to meet the speculation in rubber buying. Pu of lower prices. And rings were purpose of abstaining from buying
In these ways the buyers caused hig
IV. Limitations to Rubber Cultivatic
Ceylon may legitimately be rubber industry. It was here that I duced, the tree nurtured during th
11. Economist, 7 July, 1900.
12. Statist, April 30, 1910. 13. Wright: Rubber in the British Empire

CEYLON REVIEW
smand was keen, wild rubber supplies 60,000 and 70,000 tons from 1900 till collection was largely responsible for ation of jungles for many years When ible rubber trees left. It was said that ble within two or three hundred milles the chief sources.11 -
tes came on the market years after the ult they exceeded demand. The overrears was due partly to oversupply and facture as a result of wartime difficulties. by the absence of substitutes for rubber. tfined to the laboratory by prohibitive tual commercial production discouraged 5. Reclaimed rubber was a more real ade the venture uneconomic. Not till were being paid did reclaimed rubber 2 the cost of the process had been much red cheap reclaimed rubber, rather than supplies resulting from the Stevenson
and for rubber came entirely from the lependent on general economic activity, veen prices and commercial fluctuations. further due to the discouragement of d in periodic drops in charges. 12 Had rices would have been maintained until : demand. Moreover, there was much rchases were postponed in anticipation created in the American market for the rubber in order to bring rates down.13 h prices to fluctuate from time to time.
n in Ceylon
called the birthplace of the plantation ubber seeds from Brazil were first introe experimental stages, and considerable
p. 6. London, 1907.
100
*

Page 117
RUBBER INDUSTR
WORLD RUBBE
Supply Demand
tOS tOhS
1900 44,000 53,000
52,000 45,000 1901 ܓܡ
* ৭ 1902 42,000 50,000 57,000 49,000 1903 ح ܐ - 1904 53,000 64,000
1905 56,000 70,000
1906 63,000 74,000
1907 74,000 77,000
1908 70,000 74,000
1909 78,000 86,000
1910 94,000 99,000
progreSS Was made in techniques. Du was under cultivation in Ceylon than source. Ceylon was soon left behink Ceylon's part in a world acreage of 2, that of Malaya.
The emergence of the Malayan P as leading producers was largely due t cular the shorter period required for tr years as against seven or more in Cey the equator, have a more equable clima
rature of 80°F. to 85°F. with as small
tributed rainfall of between 100' and is seasonal; the wet low country, mair rain in two seasons-the south-west mo: and the north-west monsoon between N convectional and cyclonic rains fall at in most rubber growing areas. With faster, mature earlier and produce mor duction is much reduced by dry period prolonged.
The land itself also limited rut relatively flat land between sea level : Indies were well provided with such lan to the south-west low country. Alth country ofUva, Sabaragamuva and M
14. Sir Andrew McFadean: History of Rubber F 15. Figart: The Plantation Rubber Industry in th
101
 

Y IN CEYLON
FR POSITION 14
Average Declared Value of U.K. Imports
ring the initial period a larger area in Malaya—eventually the principal in the acreage race.15 By 1914 000,000 was 225,000, or about half
'eninsula and the Dutch East Indies o geographical advantages, in parti'ees to come into production,-four lon. Ceylon's rivals, being nearer te. Rubber requires a mean tempe
a range as possible, and a well dis50' a year. In Ceylon the rainfall taining the bulk of her rubber, has nsoon between late May and August, November and February. Although other periods, distribution is uneven a steadier climate the trees grow e uniform latex output. Latex pros, or completely stopped if these are
ober production. Rubber requires and 1,500 ft. Malaya and the East ds, but in Ceylon they were confined ough rubber was grown in the hill atale, these are exceptions.
Regulation 1934-43. London, 1944. le Middle East, p. 207.

Page 118
UNIVERSITY OF
The wet low country was the lation who were dependent on pad in these areas were largely in the nati sold with reluctance. Prospective of the delay in government sale of st ment official intimately associated explained this delay as a deliberate so-called holiday investors. 16 No had there been such a demand for willing to part with its lands for pu previously. Holiday investors wer as an investment with little or no in
Thus planters were limited to b and sales were slow, which explair in comparison with other countries to be accounted for by the rubberg version of marginal estates. The cultivation in the hands of the nativ greater share of the rubber enterp was backward; paddy yields were south-east Asia. The high price couraged the peasants to convert th By 1914 about 30,000 acres were native capitalists was much greater; by the difficulty of obtaining land, By 1914 about 30% of Ceylon rubbe was to increase further.
With regard to capital and lab had been. When rubber growing of the plantation sector was sound. in firm control of the estates, and Ca the tea slump was a boon to bor agencies were now available for in Tea had been established by prop companies were largely responsible had been a tendency to group te
16. Sir Herbert Wright's article in the Rubbe
17. Wright: Hevea Brasiliensis, p. 21. 18. Villiers: Mercantile Lore, p. 40. Colo)

CEYLON REVIEW
nome of most of the indigenous popudy cultivation. The few crown lands ure of reserves; and the remainder were investors in the early days complained
itable rubber areas. A senior govern
with the rise of the rubber industry government policy to discourage the it since the beginning of the coffee era land as in 1905, and the state was unrely speculative projects, as it had done } categorized as those who bought land tention of cultivation.
uying peasant lands. Prices were high is the sluggish expansion in the island ... Early records of increasing area are rown between tea plants; and the conavailability of land suitable for rubber re population resulted in their taking a rise. Peasant agriculture in the island extremely poor, among the lowest in of rubber and European example en
eir property to the growing of rubber. in smallholdings; the area owned by
while European enterprise was hampered and its concern with the tea industry. 17 r was in localhands, a proportion which
our, rubber was better placed than tea became systematic the financial position
The estate agency houses were by now pital was readily forthcoming. In fact, Owers as reserve capital of estates and vestment in a more profitable venture. prietary planters; European joint stock for rubber projects. 18 Since 1893 there a estates under joint-stock companies,
r Exhibition (1906) Handbook, p. vi. (Colombo).
mbo, 1940.
102

Page 119
RUBBER INDUSTR
which participated in rubber developme cultivating virgin ground. The trend accelerated by the new enterprizes; new panies expanded to include rubber inter as intense activity in the money ma ce the industry. Most companic( حیقی owned by Europeans. They were larg from the plantation sector at the instigat
Rubber investment became inter cultivation were realised; companies we can and European financial centres. nominal capital of rubber companies re ninety million pounds. Ceylon, howe national scramble for rubber shares, the where investors could hope for quick plentiful in the Malay Peninsula, with a compared to an average of Rs. 100 fe Ceylon.20 Malaya had the further ad difficult to estimate in the early years, bu
eighty pounds after the war.
Malayan planters were unfettered E low price for tea, Ceylon growers wer another, since there had early been m growing rubber in the island. There w community that the rapid expansion of overproduction. There was little faith infancy, absorbing the growing output synthetic rubber still loomed in the fi by the continuing high prices for the pl
Labour was no great problem in tea. By 1900 immigration had recov was now on the increase, with the e in providing better facilities and the cr mission. Casual labour, no longer ne
19. Statist, 26 February, 1910. -
Wight: Rubber Cultivation in the British E1
曾 20. Villiers: Mercantile Lore, pp. 38-42.
103
 
 

Y IN CEYLON
nt either by converting tea lands or owards Company management was companies were floated, old Comsts. Between 1900 and 1914 there rkets of Colombo and London to s were rupee registered although gely the product of pooling capital
ion of the eState agen Cy companies.
lational when the possibilities of refloated and shares sold in AmeriDuring the boom of 1909-11 the gistered in London alone exceeded ver, benefited little from this interbulk of the capital going to Malaya, ir returns.19 Land was cheap and 1 upset price of $ (Straits) 1 an acre, ir ground bought from natives of vantage of bigger acreage returns, t exceeding that of Ceylon by about
y alternative crops. In spite of the e wary of substituting one crop for isgivings about the profitability of as a genuine fear among the Ceylon the new staple would soon lead to in the motor industry, as yet in its i; and the possible development of ture. These fears were overcome antation product.
Comparison with the early days of red from its previous decline and Incouragement of the government sation of the Ceylon Labour Com2ded for cultivation and manuring
pire, p. 4.

Page 120
UNIVERSITY OF
in the slumping tea industry, was indigenous population made itself a of the worsening economic conditic
V. Supply and Demand
During the war a number ofim rubber trade, determining the cours Increasing output, eventually outs Before 1914 supply had fallen short increased in the war when consumpt prices resulted. Acute shortage of s. the rising consumption, as manufact Consequently stocks were built up the war, but less rapidly before th hostilities and cut imports. The hol rubber continued after the war, and The pre-war consumption of 50% States rose to 75% and remained at
WORLD SUPPLY AND
(thousa
A Supply Demand Lon
1911 94. 99 1912 114 121. 1913 120 130 1914 123 121. 1915 171 160 1916 214 188 1917 278 250 1918 220 216
In spite of the decline in the pi vation and production continued to responded very favourably to econ. of trees and partly from improv extended even under falling prices, c
21. Rajaratnam: Plantation Labour in Ceylo 22. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedir Rubber Growers Association Bulletin (Se American Prices from Cornell and Glove

CEYLON REVIEW
available for the new crop. And the vailable as wage abourers on account ns of the Sinhalese villagers.21
portant changes were made in the world
2 of the industry in the post-war years. ripping demand, was a major factor. of the heavy demand, but production on was throttled, and more competitive hipping and high freight charges slowed urers found the transit Costly and risky. in the producer countries throughout : United States of America joined the d of the American market on plantation was important in fixing rubber prices. of the world supply by the United that level.
DEMAND FOR RUBBER22 nds of tons)
Average Average don Price American price
(per lb.) (per lb.) S. d. cents
5.6 141.30 4.9 121.60 3.0 82.04 2.3 65.33 2.6 65.85 2.9 72.50 2.9 72.23 2.3 60.15
ice of rubber during the war, its cultibe profitable. The cost of production Dmies, partly arising from the maturity ed techniques. Cultivation was thus specially by the smallholders, who were
n; Pts. 1-2, in Young Socialist, Vol. I, Nos. 3 and 4.
gs. Colombo (Series). ries). r: American Industries, p. 808.
104

Page 121
RUBBER INDUST
by now an important rubber growing Indies as well.
improved production in Ceyloni
-
eter demand. The monsoon of 1915
-aumber of tappings was increased.23
had also raised productivity per trun per acre was the normal planting. R showed that fewer trees per acre meant producing increased latex.24 The cov between 90 and 100 trees an acre.
came at a particularly inopportune m to hold stocks in Colombo and on th
Slow tapping methods were int or two cuts in a V-shape had been no now cutting was limited to alterna almost universal in the island by the even reduced tapping to every third da
From the end of 1917 future rubb cern. In spite of the decline to date, companies were able to pay handsor of a sudden collapse in the market, whi States of America government limited space. In May 1918 the United Stati conference with representatives of ru into the country to 25,000 tons a yea This control was ineffective since ite the threat of important restrictions w planters.
The Rubber Growers' Associati companies, suggested the restriction
23. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings 24. Ibid. p. 41. 25. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings
Ceylon Association in London Proceedings 26. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crude
10
 

RY IN CEYLON
body in Malaya and the Dutch East
n fact aggravated the excess of supply was comparatively mild so that the Thinning of trees during the war k. At first 150 to 200 rubber trees esearches by the experimental station : fuller growth and more bark surface, erage had therefore been reduced to Such improvements in production oment, and growers were compelled e estates.
troduced at the end of 1917. One cut ormally made on each tree daily; but te days. This scheme had become end of the next year. Some estates ly to prevent unwieldy stock-piling.25
er prices were causing growing conproduction remained profitable and me dividends. Now there were fears ich were augmented when the United rubber imports to conserve shipping es of America War Trades Board, in bber manufacturers, restricted intake r, raised to 28,000 tons in August.26 inded with the armistice. However, as enough to cause panic among the
on, representing London registered of the 1918 output to 80% of the
1917, p. 43.
1918, p. 67.
1918, p. 33. : Rubber, p. 10. Princeton (U.S.A.), 1931.
5

Page 122
UNIVERSITY OF
FINANCIAL RESULTS OF R
Average Ordin Dividend %
1911 28 33
- 1912. 42.58 1913 - - - - - 27 46 *、 1914 - c. 20.83 1915 38.53 1916 34.79
1917 29.94
1918 21.12 *。、。1919了 * 22.37 1920, 4.65
1921 7.49
1922 ; 1 : 5 : 4 1 : 1 13 .53 7 ܂
FINANCIAL RESULTS OF STE Average Ordin Dividend %
1911 11.35 1912 14.64 1913 . 鲇 8.80 1914 9.80 1915 - - - 18. 70 1916- 19. 14 1917 13.30 1918 10:10 1919 ! . 16. 48 1920) 1. 16 1921 1.60
. 1922 5.90
previous year as a temporary measure was enthusiastically received by Sterli but was disfavoured by the rupee addition, there was a substantial mino objected to voluntary restriction on p. overruled any limitation of productio: as a last resort, appealed to the Colon of production in British territories, end of the war was in sight the Associ
VI. The Post-War Slump
Of all the raw materials used by important commodity that did not e. and the decline continued after 1918
27. Maclaren: The Resources of the British Em 28. Ceylon Association in London Proceedings 29. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceeding
30. Ibid. 31. Whittlesey: Government Control of Cruc
1.

CEYLON REVIEW
UPEE RUBBER COMPANIES27
ary Number of Non-paying
Companies Companies
24 - 28 33 43 44 48 50 54 54. 54 37 56 24 47 10
-1.
ERLING RUBBER COMPANIES
ary Number of Non-paying
Companies Companies
26 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28
2 to reduce stocks.28 This suggestion
ng companies in Ceylon and Malaya,
Bompanies and native producers. In rity of planters in both countries who rinciple.29 The Dutch East Indies also n. The Rubber Growers Association, ial Office for a compulsory restriction but this was not granted.30 Since the lation did not press the matter further.
industry, rubber was perhaps the only xperience a price rise during the war; in spite of increased consumption.31
pire-Rubber, Tea and Cocoa, p.78. London 1924. 1917, p. 32. s 1917, p. 28.
le Rubber, p. 12.
O6

Page 123
RUBBER INDUST)
Between 1913 and 1917 the United Sta alone more than trebled, increasing fr time decline was thought to be tempt duction resulted. Exports between 1 influding released stocks.33 The pos 1 raw materials in the United States of_پخ
table.
RUBBER PRICES COMPARED WITH PRICES
Market Price Rubber (per lb.) 1913 $0.820 1914 0.653 - 1915 0.659 1916 O. 725 1917 0.722 1918 0.602 1919 0.487 1920 0.363 1921 0.163 1922 O. 175 1923 0.295 1924 0.262 1925 0.725 1926 0.487 1927 0.381 1928 0.226
ག། The year 1919 was a particularl
rubber industry. Increased output CC to flood the market, but consumption anticipated. By 1920 a severe recession the picture still further.35
WORLD SUPPLY AND
(thousands
Supply Demand 1919 398 330 1920 353 310 1921 300 270 1922 400 390 1923 407 435 1924 428 470 1925 500 517
32. Rubber Growers' Association Bulletin, Nove 33. Ibid. - 34. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crude 35. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings, 36. Rubber Growers’ Association Bulletin. d American Prices from Cornell and Glover: A
10
 

RY IN CEYLON
tes of America's rubber Consumption om 52,179 tons to 177,088,32 Warbrary, but it persisted and over-pro918 and 1919 rose by 176,000 tons, ition of rubber in relation to other America can be seen in the following
OF OTHER RAW MATERIALS (U.S.A. 34
Index Total Raw
Products
Index 100 100 80) 99 80) 101 88 126 88 187 ' ' 73 205 59 218 44 229 20 142. 21 159 36. 2, 159 32 1.59 88 154 59 164 46 154. 28 ._:151 ܂
y disappointing year for the whole ymbined with distribution of stocks did not mount as steeply as had been in American industry had worsened
DEMAND 1919-253
of tons)
Average Average London American Price Price 2s. 1d. 60.15 cents 1s. 9d. 48.70 , ~ - 1s. 6d. 36.30 , .
9d. 16.36 , 11d. 17.50 , 1s. 2d. 29.45, , 2s. 1d. 72.46 ,
mber 1919.
Rubber, p. 12. 1921. p. 68.
American Industries. :
7

Page 124
UNIVERSITY OF
CONSUMPTION
(thousands
U.S.A.
1919 225 1920 215 1921 170 1922 285 1923 305 1924 335 1925 390
The slump in the rubber price 19, misjudgement of investors and grΟν area had been added to cultivation which did not take place: the average lowest price recorded for this year year.38
The first definite step in regard came from the Rubber Growers' Assc total rubber acreage. Under pressu London, a committee of the Rubber the limiting of output for twelve in 70% of all producers, including mar to restrict output by 25% of capacit achieve the end for which they are not keep to their agreement or withd production declined from 316,600 Malaya this represented a drop from East Indies 80,000 to 71,000; while from 39,000 to 40,000. Since effectiv the scheme came up for renewal it was unsuccessful, and limitations wer
As production figures for the isla in Ceylon. From the start there especially from the rupee registered c representing about 35% of the tota reduction.41 The Ceylon Estate Pr
37. American Prices from Cornell and Glover 38. Ferguson: Directory and Handbook of C 39. Whittlesey: Government Control of Cru 40. Planters' Association of Malaya Proceeding 41. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceeding
1

CEYLON REVIEW
OF RUBBER37
of tons)
U.K. Others
35 70 24 71. 18 82 سکتی۔ 10 95 ད། 27 103 _-* సా 22 113 - 30 114
20-22 was undoubtedly due to the bad vers. During the war years a large in anticipation of improved demand price declined to 1s. 9d. in 1920. The was 9d., and a penny lower the next
to restriction of rubber production ociation, controlling about 50% of the re from rubber-growing interests in Growers' Association recommended nonths from 1st of November 1920. ly Dutch and Chinese, at first agreed iy.39 But restriction schemes seldom begun, and many growers either did rew from it at an early stage. Actual tons in 1920 to 277,200 in 1921; in 181,000 tons to 151,000; the Dutch in Ceylon output actually increased, re reduction had been only 10%, when was decided that voluntary restriction e removed.40
und Suggest, the scheme had no success had been objections to restrictions, Dmpanies, and only sterling companies, 1 acreage under rubber, consented to oprietary Association, a representative
: American Industries. eylon, 1920-1921. de Rubber, p. 23.
is 1922, p. 11. is 1921, p. 135. ¬ܐܷܪ
08

Page 125
RUBBER INDUST)
body of the rupee interests, condemne and it was their defection that was res of 405,026 acres under rubber culti actually underwent restriction. The London controlled firms. The areas t če small-holdings and the bulk of the was in fact limited to lands owned by But even here, a substantial proportio sequently, despite the restriction scher increased as a result of increased produ
OWNERSHIP OF RUBB
Members of the Planters' Association Non-members (over 15 acres) Smallholders (under 15 acres)
Tot
The scheme had been accepted in would carry out restriction, but whe interests that originally assented withd
Voluntary restriction failed beca its efficacy. Even members of the R Malayan and Ceylon Planters' Associa and the Dutch and Chinese growers w thusiastic. Another difficulty was t small native producers. As early as rubber in the East was controlled by and Chinese.44 Their holdings as a 1 been planted as a sideline to the cul was low, equipment was the simple there was none of the managementar into the cost of estate rubber. More involved practically no monetary ou been involved in tapping. These fac continue in production even at low fact have increased if the small hold cultivation.
42. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings
43. Figart: The Plantation Rubber Industry in t 44. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crude
1C
 
 

RY IN CEYLON
d voluntary restriction unreservedly, ponsible for the failure. Of the total vation in 1920, only 161,000 acres latter comprised almost entirely hat did not undergo restriction were Ceylon controlled lands. Restriction members of the Planters' Association. n did not undergo restriction. Conne, the island's production of rubber ction from non-restricted areas.
ER LANDS IN CEYLON42
over 15 acres) 285,539 acres
71,083 acres 48,404 acres
al 405,026 2CCS
Ceylon on the assumption that 70% }n this was not the case, even those rew.43
use producers were not agreed as to ubber Growers' Association and the tions had not been wholly in favour, yho entered the scheme were not enhe large and growing proportion of 1925 over a third of the area under Asiatics principally Malays, Javanese, rule were small and the rubber had tivation of rice. Capital investment st, and overheads were slight, since ld home office expense which entered over, labour on the smaller holdings itlay as the whole family may have stors enabled the smaller producer to er price levels. Production may in er was entirely dependent on rubber
1921, p. 135 he Middle East, p. 13. Washington (U.S.A.), 1925 : Rubber, p. 8.
19

Page 126
UNIVERSITY OF (
Limitations to rubber productic affecting tea. Low or even unprofital an incentive for abandoning producti still, a considerable maintenance staf circumstances it is most practical to Operation will normally carry on ul third of the total. The large capital broken productivity: “Rubber unta growers interplanted tea and rubber, si pensated for by profits on the other, S falling prices. Two further difficul plan. Firstly, companies paid divide capital was built up to meet Crises. American buyers withheld many pl. Ceylon and Malaya.46
Labour probably exerted an imp tion would have necessitated repatriat their coast advances and on recruitme but restricting Companies suspended til dependents.47
On the credit Side, the slump lo severe economy. Though yield pe. expenses were cut by suspending cult servation. The fall in the cost of pro and by 1921 rock-bottom level had their maximum efficiency at the sam The following table shows the extent countries. "All-in costs’ comprise al expenditure), staff bonuses, allowanc machinery, freight to London or Ne agency commission, as well as directo) stration. These costs do not cover "do they include items such as forei. treated under normal accounting sys as costs of production.
45. Phillipson: The Rubber Position and Gov. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceeding 46. Whittlesey: Government Control of Cruc
Phillipson: The Rubber Position and Gov 47. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceeding
1.

CEYLON REVIEW
on in Ceylon were similar to those ble prices are not in themselves always on. Even when output is at a standf must be employed, so under these Continue producing as best one may. ntil prices equal fixed costs-about a isation created vested inti rests in u1pped is rubber lost. Many Ceylon O that losses on one Crop could be Como that it was more possible to ignore ties undermined the 1920 restriction inds up to the hilt, and so no reserve *5 Secondly, forward contracts with anters from slowing output in both
ortant influence in addition. Restricion of coolies with Consequent loss on nt costs. No coolies were dismissed, he employment of their male workers'
wered production costs, as a result of
acre was low in Ceylon, working
ivation, manuring, and by latex conduction was most marked in Ceylon, been reached, with firms working at e time as expenses were minimised. : of the decline in the major producer lestate expenditure (other than capital es for depreciation of buildings and w York, marine insurance brokers or rs' fees and the cost of London adminidepreciation on the planted area, nor gn or domestic taxation. These are items as allocation of profits and not
ernment Control, p. 24. s 1917, p. 94. le Rubber, p. 23. ernment Control, p. 24.
1922, p. 131.
10
上

Page 127
RUBBER INDUST.
ALL-IN COSTS OF STI
(in pence per pound; Fs
1919
2 Fs Costs: . Fs Malaya 64 1312 64 Ceylon 12 14.59 14 Ma÷a 8 13.74 8 - Smatra 10 1624 10 S-NE. I. 18 15.11 18
India 5 1618 5. Burma 3 16.67 3. Br. N. Borneo 12 14.81 12 Dutch Borneo 2 21.47 2
DECLINE IN FREIGHT ANI
(per pound t
- - 1. 13 Ceylon Sterling Companies 1. 16 Malayan Sterling Companies 2 10 Sumatra Sterling Companies . . 1
Although costs decreased, the pr ducers. Growing interests in Malaya restrictions on output. Among these 50% of capacity; and heavy taxation The Rubber Growers' Association in
tation scheme; their hands were furth the Rubber Shareholders' Association
| Wefe
ܓ .
(i) the organisation of public
restriction of output; (ii) the collection of information ( (iii) to protect interests of shareho (iv) to conduct a programme of p
In this move the Rubber Growers' Ass Association worked in conjunction.
In Ceylon there were objections and the indigenous producers. Thes as over-production but slack consump
48. Figart: The Plantation Rubber Industry in 49. Figart: The Plantation Rubber Industry in 50. Planters' Association of Malaya Proceedings 51. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crud
11
 
 

RY IN CEYLON
RLING COMPANIES48 = number of firms)
1920 1921. 1922
Costs: Fs Costs: Fs Costs: 14.48 64 10. 70 60 - 8.43 1649 13 865 - 13 7.46 16.04 8 13.39 8, 10.23 1789 10 14.28 10,9.42 17.14 18 13.92 18 9.74. 17.29 5 10.37 - 5 7.83 1704 3 10.37 3 9.08 14.14 12 13.34. 12 9.22 16.99 2 16.22 1, 10.75
INSURANCE CHARGES49 o London)
919 1920 1921 1922 04d. 1.04d. 0.58d, 0.52d. OOd 186d. 123d. 0.95d. 81d. 1.15d. 0.61d. O.38d.
V
ice decline was felt acutely by proI and Ceylon suggested a variety of were a complete prohibition of above on exports above a certain quota.50 London had always favoured a limier strengthenedby the formation of in 1921.51 The aims of this body
opinion for control schemes and or
on the working of the rubberindustry; lders;
propaganda. ociation and the Rubber Shareholders'
to restrictions from rupee companies e interests regarded the problem not tion in the United States of America,
the Middle East, p. 75. the Middle East, p. 75. 1922, p. 11. 2 Rubber, p. 17.
1.

Page 128
UNIVERSITY OF
and suggested an advertising campa to that of the Thirty Committee initiative of the Ceylon Planters' As tion and the Rubber Shareholders'
motion of new uses for rubber, ir spraying of eggs for preservation.
Both over-production and und problems. Even in the 1920's rub motor industry, but here the propo1 on a car was negligible-2% to 3% correlated to higher rubber prices, no compensatory stimulation of the demand” commodity, as its consun much as on the sale of motor cars. like shoe heels, soles, stationery goc consumed negligible quantities.53
The organisation of rubber p. contrasted. While output was cor concerns, the most extensive unable tion, the manufacturing industry was States of America two-thirds of the companies.
At the end of 1921 the rubber ferior rubber (which every estate p paid for its costs.55
PRICE OF CEYLON RUBBER
Highest
1916 4s. 33d 1917 3s. 4d 1918 2s.6홍d 1919 2s. 103d 1920 2s. 10d 1921 1s, 3d 1922 1s. 23d
52. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedin 53. Knorr; World Rubber and its Regulation 54. Ibid.
55. Ceylon Association in London, Proceeding 56. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceeding

CEYLON REVIEW
gn for increasing consumption similar Tea propaganda for tea.52 On the ociation, the Rubber Growers’ AssociaAssociation started canvassing the propluding the paving of roads, and the
 ܼ ܠ ܐ .
r-consumption were, in fact, the twin per was used extensively only in the tion of rubber costs to the total outlay
While greater demand for cars was when these prices were low there was market. Rubber was a classic joint ption was not dependent on price so The use of rubber for consumer goods ds and hose increased consistently but
oducers and consumers was strongly ducted by a great number of small to produce even 1% of world producin the hands of a few. In the United total rubber was handled by five huge
industry was in a desperate state. Inroduced in some quantity) no longer
AND STOCKS IN LONDON 56
Lowest London
Stocks 31st December 2s, 1d 9,774 tons 2s. 2d 11,405 tons 2s. Od 12,420 tons 1s. 103d 22,282 tons 9d 50,241 tons 8d. 69,465 tons 63d 72,165 tons
is 1922, p. 98. , p. 73. Stanford (U.S.A.), 1945.
is 1922, p. 33. s (Series).
12

Page 129
RUBBER INDUST.
The Malayan planters in particul
association suggested the restriction of
It further advised the payment of th:
native rubber left uncultivated.57
Office but were rejected by th ho replied:
that no legislation for compu
by the Government. Conc
themselves.58
The deterioration of the rubber mark of this decision the British Governme with undisguised anxiety.
VII. The Stevenson Rubber Restriction
In October 1921 a committee ( chairman as the Stevenson Committ Office to 'investigate and report upo British colonies and protectorates for State for Colonies, and to advise wha to improve the existing position'.59
the supply and demand for rubber.
available had been as follows :
1920 ܓ Plantation 335,000 ton
Wild | 35,000 ton
Total 370,000 ton
The total supply of rubber avail committee at 400,000 tons, of which 3, the remainder being uncultivated. T dicted by the committee at 300,000 to the maximum consumption would be
57. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crude 58. Planters' Association of Malaya, Proceedings 59. Ibid. p. 19.
Report of a Committee on the Rubber Situati Cnd. 1678.
The members of the Committee were Sir J. Edward Brockman, E. J. Bryne, N. Duncan, Eric M with S. H. Leake as Secretary.
11.

Y IN CEYLON
ar were severely affected, and their output by 50% in British territories. ee dollars (straits) on every acre of these ideas were transmitted to the e Secretary of State for the Colonies,
sory restriction should be introduced itions should be allowed to right
et, however, was rapid, and in spite nt looked upon the whole situation
Scheine
if eight, popularly known after its ee, was appointed by the Colonial n the present rubber situation in the the information of the Secretary of tremedial measures should be taken This committee proceeded to analyse For the past two years the rubber
1921 S 260,000 tons S 22,000 tons
S 282,000 tons
able for 1922 was estimated by the 30,000 came from plantation sources, he consumption for 1922 was prels, although a minority believed that : no more than 250,000 tons. Even
Rubber, p. 24. 1922, p. 11.
on in British Colonies and Protectorates, June 1922.
mes Stevenson (Chairman), Sir Stanley Bois, Sir iller, Sir Gilbert Grindle and Sir Edward Rosling,

Page 130
UNIVERSITY OF
taking the more optimistic figure a to reduce supply to equal demand analysed by way of four suggestion
(1) Promotion of new and ex was thus no immediate soluti factured goods would counter
(2) Voluntary restriction. TI already tried this and found it
(3) Laissez faire. This course : to shareholders in England and
(4) Government action. Th of such limitation of a valual intervention as the lesser evil.
Of the eight members of the comm of the Rubber Growers' Associatio prise.
A report and a plan of restrict May, 1922, and the committee en of the Dutch East Indies Was esse refused to co-operate. They point able to introduce government legis, was artificial and unnatural, and v extravagance in production.61 It restriction was permanently applies should be as far as possible encourag
It was widely believed that the Americans, and did not want to ear Indonesian rubber.02. A large acre in the hands of native smallholders of the Dutch to encourage the local contented.63 Another report of th
60. Rubber Situation in British Colonies and
Economist, 17 June 1922. 61. Commerce Reports, 4 September 1922, p 62. Rubber Growers' Association Bulletin, N 63. Whittlesey : Government Control of Cı
Manchester Guardian, 6 October 1927. Phillipson: The Rubber Position and G

CEYLON REVIEW
reduction of 25% was necessary in order 60 Therefore the whole problem was
S.
tended uses; this would require time and on; prolonged life of improved manu-balance such eventual increases.
he Rubber Growers Association had unworkable.
of action would have been grossly unfair
native smallholders.
e Committee was aware of the danger ble raw material, but decided on state
littee, four were members of the council n, and so the proposals were not a sur
ion had already been issued on the 19th nphatically stated that the co-operation htial to success. The Dutch, however, ted out that it was unwise and undesirlation into industry, and that restriction would tend to support inefficiency and was further maintained that unless l, a policy of the survival of the fittest
ged.
Dutch had contracted a loan from the in their displeasure as the chief buyers of age in the Netherlands East Indies was , and it had been the deliberate policy s to cultivate rubber so as to keep them e committee appeared in October 1922,
Protectorates, June 1922. Cnd. 1678.
670. (London). lovember 1923, p. 609. tude Rubber, p. 27.
overnment Control, p. 37.
114

Page 131
RUBBER INDUST
stating that although the co-operation
planters should, as a last resort, make ur. of the industry was serious. As som Growers Association could call on the territories.
- The Stevenson Scheme applied frc on three main principles- -
(a) Restriction of export, (b) Application of a sliding scale t
(c) Fixing of the percentage of the minimum export duty in acco
The provisions of the scheme were as
(i) The standard of production
for the year ending 21 Octol
(ii) In lieu of all existing export levied not exceeding 1d. per production. Should a plant exports would be measured scale.
(iii) The initial percentage of sta the minimum rate was to be ܚܝܼܢܢܬܐ.
fluctuations in the price of st in the London market, accor
When the average price for the 3 months has been maintained at:
1s. 6d. or more 1S. 3d-1s. 6d. 1s.-1s. 3d. less than 1s. lesss than 1s. 3d. in a quarter in which a change in the quota (up or down) has already taken place
The scheme aimed at a fair price o both to manufacturers and consume
elasticity in supply possible.
11.
 
 

&Y IN CEYLON
f the Dutch was a vital issue, British ilateral arrangements, since the plight consolation, however, the Rubber support of British growers in Dutch
m November 1st, 1922; it was based
D export duties,
harvest which would benefit by the dance with world prices.
ollows:-
was to be based on the actual Output γρr 1920.
: duties, a minimum rate was to be pound on the permitted percentage er exceed his limit, duty on all his according to an independent sliding
indard production to be allowed at 50%, to be varied in accordance with andard quality, smoked, sheet rubber ding to the following schedule
The percentage exportable
at the minimum rate of
duty during the next 3 months shall:
- O increase 盟 % increase 5% remain unchanged decrease 5%
ご0 decrease 5%
f1s. 3d., which would be satisfactory is. The sliding scale made some

Page 132
UNIVERSITY OF
The scheme improved market to operate, United States of Ame covered. Buyers, anticipating that immediately at prevailing prices, so market. The price climbed above quarter 1 February to 30 April 192. to 65% for the following three in despite reduced output from Mal available continued to act as a drag Indies rapidly stepped up quantitie lands. As prices declined, the exp quarter commencing 1 August 1923 to 10.974d. in the three months Con proportion down to 55%, and a quarter.04
The end of 1925 witnessed th market. The drastic cuts in expor covery of American business all Co. reserves led to near panic and scarci tied to the improvement. The p unusually high level of 3s. 10d. and t able rates in 1925 and 1926 raised sumers; the United States of Amer well illustrated in the panic of 192 limitations.66
As a result of this boom the pr price pivot was advanced to 1s. 9d. export quota. The changes may b
(1) An average London price
would reduce the quota the prevailing level were to 80%.
64. Rubber Age. Semi-monthly Statistics (L. 65. Whittlesey: Government Control of C
66. Hearings before the House Committee ( Coffee etc. (Washington) 1926, pp.39-40.
67. Ceylon. Administration Report of the

CEYLON REVIEW
prices. At the same time as it began ica and European business activity rerestriction would raise prices, bought that there was a sudden stiffening of the the 1s. 3d. deadline to 1s. 4.8d. for the 3, so that the exportable quota went up nonths. This increase was premature; aya and Ceylon, the large stocks still on price levels. The Netherlands East s, cancelling out the control in British ortable quota dropped to 60% for the , and rested there till the price dropped nmencing 1 May 1924, and brought the 2ain down to 50% in the following
e long-awaited recovery of the rubber ts, the exhaustion of stocks and the rentributed.65 High rates and dwindling ty rates, although increased quotas were eriod from 1 November 1925 saw the
he qu Ota Was restored to 100%. Favour- *
criticism of the scheme from the conica condemned its rigidity-which was 25-6 when demand was starved by the
ovisions of the plan were altered. The and more flexibility was granted to the e summarised thus :-67
between 1s. 3d. and 1s. 9d in a quarter for the ensuing quarter by 10%, unless 100%, when it would then be altered
ondon). rude Rubber, p. 34. on Interstate and Foreign Commerce: Crude Rubber,
Rubber Controller, 1926, p. 92.
116

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RUBBER INDUSTR
(2) Prices from 1s. 9d. to 2s. wou had been above 1s. 9d for nin be allowed.
(3) If the average were over 2s. a the prevailing quota were 80% .be restored ܓܠܚܡܫܢܔ
(4) A mean price below 1s. 3d. f. immediately afterwards to 609
(5) An average above 3s. would b
(6) Under no circumstances wou
below 60%.
The brief boom Of 1925-6 was fol the duration of the restriction scheme. and from 1st May 1927 remained at 60%
The Stevenson Restriction Scheme was a source of irritation and dissatisfac Government announced an independe of the scheme, and consequently in གི་ འ་ 1 November 1928. Prices collapsed for and 9 d. per lb. until the closing date Secretary of State for the Colonies, i ssociation on 18 May 1928, attributed
Firstly, the increased amount cheapening; secondly, increa unrestricted areas outside Brit ness of Ceylon to tighten the 1
The failure was obvious from the be when major producers like the Nether Price control through fixing supply w. the industrial depression in the United
the greatest blunder was raising the p sumption by setting a high premium development of a reclaimed rubber indi
-- 68. Straits Times, 18 May 1928.
" 69. Statist, 2 April 1927.
Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings 15
N 117
 

Y IN CEYLON
ild promote no change until prices e months, when a 10% rise would
10% increase would follow, unless , in which case 100% output would
or a quarter would cut production
e followed by restoration to 100%. ld the quota exceed 100% or fall
lowed by sagging prices throughout The quota was progressively reduced (; but prices did not recover.
: did not solve rubber problems and tion. In February 1928 the British nt investigation into the operation April pronounced its cessation on thwith, and remained between 8d. Mr. Ormsby-Gore, the Underin a speech to the Malay Planters'
the failure of the scheme to:-
of reclaimed rubber and consequent sed production and export from ish control; thirdly, the unwilling estriction scheme still further.68
'ginning. Restriction is ineffective lands East Indies do not participate. as not enough; it could not combat States of America and Europe. But ivot to 1 s. 9d. This reduced conon the raw material, and made the ustry economic.09
927, p. 61.

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UNIVERSITY OF
PRICE
1st Quarter (Nov.-Jan.)
1922-23: Quota 60
Price 1s. 2.285d.
1923-24: Quota 60
Price 1s. 2.175d.
1924-25: Quota 50
Price 1s. 5998d. 1.
1925-26: Quota 85
Price 3s. 10.709d.
1926-27: Ouota 80
Price 1s. 7.215d.
1927-28: Quota 60
Price 1s. 7.023d.
VIII. Some Aspects of Rubber Restrictio
In order to implement the rubbe Ordinance was passed by the Legisla viding the necessary machinery. A ru in general charge of administration, ar. assist him.71 The cost of the scheme pound by way of an extra duty. Ang the rubber industry.
Many rubber estates were interpl. was no standard of productivity. Fu fertility of various districts, governed decided to establish a standard for ea assessment was conducted by the co1 1919-20. Title-deeds and accounts \
70. Rubber Age: Semi Monthly Statistics. 71. Rubber Restriction Ordinance 24 of 1922.
The Rubber Restriction Board was appoint of the Planters' Association, the Ceylon Estate Pro Association, the Chamber of Commerce and the Co official members of the Legislative Council.
In 1922 the membership of the board was as F. Bowes, Sir J. Thomas Broom, T. L. Villiers, N. and G. Turnbull.
Ceylon Government Gazette No. 7296 of No
72. Ceylon Administration Report of the Rubber
118

CEYLON REVIEW
AND QUOTA70
ind Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter
60 60 65 1s. 4858d. 1s. 2.242d. 1s. 2994d.
60 60 65 1s. 0.917d. Os. 10.974d. 1s. 2.632d, ސ-- =
55 65 75 S. 7.356d. 3s. 2.469d. 3s. 7.269d.
100 100 100 2s. 4.103d. 1s. 0.017d. 1s. 8.179d.
70 60 60 1s. 7.769d. 1s. 6.165d. 1s. 4.605d.
60 60 60) 1s. 0.604d. Os. 9. 154d. 0s. 8866d.
n in Ceylon
r restriction the Rubber Restriction live Council in October 1922, proibber controller was appointed to be ld a board was created to advise and was met by a charge of 4 cent per y surplus was to be used to promote
anted with other crops so that there rther, there was a difference in the | by soil and climate. It was thus ch estate separately. A preliminary troller of the actual production in
Vere demanded for this purpose.72
d by the Governor. It included representatives prietary Association, the Low Country Products lombo Rubber Trades Association with two un
follows :- Furze Roberts (Rubber Controller), 1. G. Robertson, F. T. Wright, F. R. Senanayake
vember 10, 1922.
Controller, 1924, p. Q1.
-

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RUBBER INDUSTRY
In the event of documents not being ava island averages of 320 lbs. per acre. Rei assessing smallholdings below 10 acres.
From the beginning there was coi dញg$, both from large and small land Restriction Board were frequent. The the consideration of new areas coming it output as a result of capital expenditure, tapping. While individuals pleaded ag. a general feeling in the community t estimated, a complaint supported by Mal of 1924 the restriction scheme in Malaya production for an acre at 400 lbs. the Colonies suggested a similar m opposed on the grounds that better equi, However, the controller made re-asses: proved this justified, a process which cat the appointment of a committee of the L. whole matter.75 The majority report c fluous. In Ceylon assessors Were recrui worked on tea as well as rubber estates Vere unwilling to abandon their interest ni mended was the reduction of the max 450 pounds per acre to 400 pounds. Th were native members, condemned the W of over-assessment remained unaltered. any reduction when reduced output mi. level; they were given relief on 1 Octob exports at minimum duty, to the exten allowed to others. 77
The relative success of the restriction previous dissenters to its support.78 The recommence cultivation and manuring p
73. Planters Association of Ceylon Proceedings 1927, 74. Ceylon Administration Report of the Rubber Co 75. Ceylon Administration Report of the Rubber Co
Sessional Paper XIV of 1925.
76. Ibid. “The high assessment is open to commen ire report: Messrs. D. S. Senanayake and C. W. W.
77. Ceylon Administration Report of the Rubber C 78. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings 1925
V 119
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

IN CEYLON
lable, assessment was based on the venue officers were responsible for
ം
siderable dissatisfaction with the holders, and appeals to the Rubber popular grounds for appeal were nto productivity, improvement in and better yields from improved ainst under-assessment, there was hat total output had been overayan interests.73 At the beginning had fixed the maximum standard And the Secretary of State for aximum for Ceylon. This was pped estates would be penalised.74 sment wherever his investigation ised further complaint resulting in egislative Council to report on the Ondemned re-assessment as superted from the visiting agents who and were in short supply as they in tea. The only change recomimum standard production from e minority of the committee, who thole apparatus.76 In effect, cases Smallholders also protested against ght cut returns below subsistence er 1924 by permission to increase t of 33 %, above the proportion
1 scheme in its early stages rallied a price rise enabled the planter to rogrammes suspended during the
р. 55. introller, 1924, p. Q1. introller, 1925, p. Q1.
t.” Ceylonese members who condemned the
Kannangara.
ontroller, 1927, p. Q3.
p. 29.

Page 136
UNIVERSITY OF
depression,79 But costs of production restriction scheme itself, and partly rigid economies introduced in 1920 a improved prices of 1923 also made labour force, and a recruitment driv was of immense importance to Cey of the restriction scheme. With the were unable to achieve the permitt as an argument to prove that Ceylon
RUBBER PRODUCTI
Actual
Exports
1922-23 37,846 1923-24 37,194 1924-25 44,092 1925-26 56,957 1926-27 57,875
1927-28 -
The boom of 1925-26 led to fres While members of the Planters’ Asso tion, indigenous producers argued th levels. It was urged that high char. Dutch East Indies were expanding the Local growers regarded the schem alone since overhead charges and p estates. Consumers, on the other supplies of a basic raw material in or
The price fall in the year 1926– porters. While the committee of support it out of loyalty to its con1 the rank and file were now beginnin Raising the pivotal price to 1s. 9d. Many Ceylon planters pointed out
79. Year Book of the Department of Agricultu Ceylon Association in London Proceedin Ceylon Administration Report of the Rub 80. Shortage of labour also accounted for the Ceylon Association in London Proceeding 81. Ceylon Administration Report of the Rub Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedin 82. Whittlesey: Government Control of Cru

CEYLON REVIEW
also increased, partly as a result of the ue to the fact that the temporary but nd 1921 could not be continued. The possible the employment of a larger 2 in South India. The boom of 1925 on planters, but exposed the rigidities Xport quota rising to 100%, producers is 'd output. This was taken by many
estates had been over-assessed.80
DIN IN CEYLON (tons) 81
Exportable Standard
Maximum Production 36,774 60,034 35,591 62.282 40,308 65,807 67,833 70,475 49.842 73,839 - 76,300
h opposition to the restriction scheme. ciation were now in favour of restricat it was unnecessary in view of price ges limited consumption, and that the air exports at the expense of the British. e as beneficial to European growers roduction costs were higher on large hand, queried the morality of fixing der to raise prices.82
27 split the ranks of the scheme's supthe Planters' Association continued to lections with the London associations, 2 to question the efficiency of the plan. started a landslide against restriction. that profits from producing 100% of
e 1924, p. 2. gs 1926, p. 13 ber Controller, 1927, p. Q4.
nability of the Industry to produce the maximum
1926, p. 18.
ber Controller, 1923 to 1927. is 1927, p. 55. de Rubber, p. 35.
20
上
ܐܸܢܓ

Page 137
RUBBER INDUSTR
their total capacity at 1s. 3d. was abol at 1s. 9d.83. One major criticism of the was that it increased the cost of producti to the unrestricted countries. The W rubber Companies in restricted and retriction appears from the following
ܓܥܠܘܗܝ ܢܓܐ
- RESTRICTED COUNTRI
140 Malayan companies 28 Ceylon companies
UNRESTRICTED COUNTP
23 Netherlands East Indies companies 20 Plantation companies elsewhere
Rubber prices continued to sag; not in terms of restriction but of imp1 in order to reduce costs. By 1927th Ceylon. 85 Malaya adopted a new tap which in effect meant a reduction of C the adoption of this method in Ceylon Controlled rubber interests in the Du provided Ceylon did the same, a decisi Ceylon Association in London through London controlled companies offered Proprietary Association objected to til ܗܝ side by side with the existing com controlled firms at first decided to cai 15% from March 1928, but they op 130,000 in all, and their action did no In any case the whole restriction ma abandoned.
The winding up of the Stevenson Rubber Growers’ Association and the
83. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceeding Proceedings 1928, p. 47.
British producers in Malaya had greater advar capacity. It has been declared that the approximate c. per pound as compared with 8d. per pound for 100%
Statist, April 9, 1927. 84. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crude 85. Ceylon Association in London Proceedings 19 86. Ibid, p. 40.
121 ܢܵ 1_ܐ
 
 

Y IN CEYLON
it equal to the production of 60% entire restriction scheme as a whole on and gave a greater cost advantage ay in which all-in costs of British Inrestricted areas were affected by igures.84
ES 1922-23 1923-24
8.68d. 9.68d. 7.60d. 9.20d.
RIES
9.22d. 9. 13d.
but Ceylon producers now thought roving the soil and the rubber trees ere was practically no limitation in ping system from 1 November 1927 utput of about 15%, and suggested and the Dutch Indies. The British toh territories agreed to this plan, on which was communicated to the the Rubber Growers' Association. their support, but the Ceylon Estate he operation of a voluntary scheme pulsory measures.86 The London cry out the voluntary restriction of erated only a small acreage, about t substantially affect Ceylon output. chinery was on the point of being
Scheme caused an outcry from the Ceylon Association in London, but
1927, p. 61; Ceylon Association in London
tage than in Ceylon by producing 100% of their Dst of producing 60% of capacity was one shilling
export.
Rubber. p. 79. 28, p. 37.

Page 138
UNIVERSITY OF (
its continuation was impossible as indiv All in all, the scheme had little credit ficial profitability in growing rubber extension of the cultivation of the st cultivation in Malaya was not parallel Ceylon or the Netherlands East Indies, acres were added in Ceylon; while th to become the most extensive possess effects of the scheme were that it foste antagonised both business and public morality. The attitude of the United sition from the very start of the restric quarters that British action with regar action by any other nation which had : produce.89 A more serious criticism the more efficient proprietors. Ineffic out but for the functioning of the schen raised by restriction, but did not fall ag The effect of the restriction on the co following list.
AVERAGE ALL-IN BRITISH PLANTATION
(pence per
Date of Publication
October 1922 December 1922 June 1923 December 1923. June 1924
December 1924 June 1925 December 1925 June 1926 December 1926 June 1927 December 1927 June 1928 December 1928 June 1929
87. Ibid, p. 47; Statist, 26 March 1927. 88. The Stevenson restriction in fact encouraged Indies. By encouraging a high output, overhead cost rise to extravagance.
Economist, 21 May 1927. 89. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crude
Statist, 2 April 1927. 90. Whittlesey: Government Control of Crude 91. Ibid. p. 80.
12

DEYLON REVIEW
idual producers had lost faith in it.87 balance to show. It created an arti, and paradoxically promoted the ple. The limitation by law on its ed by equally stringent measures in where output multiplied.88 100,000 e East Indies took the opportunity or of rubber lands. Equally serious red the use of reclaimed rubber, and opinion on grounds of Commercial States government was one of oppotion scheme. It was held in certain to rubber would encourage similar monopoly of an important primary was that it weighed most heavily on ent firms would have been squeezed ne. The unit cost of production was ain when the plan was abandoned.90 st of production can be seen in the
N COSTS OF COMPANIES 1922-2991
pound)
Number Average
of All-in
Dompanies Costs
307 12.824 309 11. 531 319 10.351 335 9.615 332 9.988 332 10. 181 335 10,271 383 10.203 392 10.252 396 10.379 397 10.605 394 10.589 389 10.581 366 10,694 363 9.559
the cultivation of rubber in the Netherlands East per unit of product were reduced without giving
Rubber, p. 136.
Rubber, p. 79.
2
ܢܝ 1

Page 139
RUBBER INDUSTRY
UNITED STATES OF AMERIC RUBBER AND AVE
Natural Rubber Recl:
(Long tons) (L ܨܼܿ1 : 19:24 ` ܐ .
1922 4. 1923 319,422 1924 328,769 1925 388,481 1926 366,149 1927 373,000 1928 437,012 1929 467,408 1930 375,735 1931 350,000 1932 332,000
With the removal of the restriction a rapid descent, and by the end of 1929 t level. There were new suggestions for lir Association proposed a suspension of ta May 1930.93 When this was communic Proprietary Association rejected the idea unsuitable month.94 This was a pretex
THE PRICE OF CEYLON RUBBER
Highest Low
1920 28·10봉d - 1921 1s-3d. 8 1922 1s. 2d. 6 1923 1s 6d. 1s. 1924 1s. 8d. g 1925 4s. 8d. 1s. 4 1926 3s. 8d. 1s. 1927 1s. 8d. 1s.3 1928 1s.73d. s 1929 1s. 1d. 1930 8d. 1931 4불d. 2
92. Cornelland Glover. Development of Americal 93. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings 192
94. Ibid, p. 17. In order to reduce 1930 output to 7 and the Dutch Rubber Growers' Association agreed to producers (estates) in Malaya and the East Indies agreed. wanted even native smallholdings into the scheme.
95. Planters' Association of Ceylon Proceedings 1931
123
 
 
 
 
 
 

IN CEYLON
A: CONSUMPTION OF RAGE PRICES92
aimed Rubber New York Spot
ong tons) Prices
(cents per lb.)
41,351 1636 54,458 17.50 69,534 29.45 76,072 26.20 137,105 72.46 164,500 48.50 189,500 37.72 223,000 22.48 212,700 22.48 153,500 11.98 123,000 6.17 77,500 3.49
scheme the price of rubber began he average was again below profit nitation, and the Rubber Growers' pping for one month, preferably ated to Ceylon, the Ceylon Estate on the grounds that May was an it. Behind this rejection was the
ON THE LONDON MARKET95
7est London Stocks
31 Dec. (tons)
Od 50,752
3d. 69,792
3d. 72,299
d. 60,246
d. 29,488
d. 5,697
d. 48,918
d. 63,793
d. 19,815
'd. 54,304
d. 77,966
晏d 69,516
Industries, pp. 557-558. ', p. 34.
)% of 1929, the Rubber Growers' Association top tapping in May 1930. About 80% of all But the Ceylon Estate Proprietary Association
, p. 17.

Page 140
UNIVERSITY OF
realisation on the part of Ceylon p. ineffective; and a determination to w. rated so far as to compel Dutch estat plans for limiting rubber output.96
96. Ceylon Association in London Proceedings
1 ܘ

CEYLON REVIEW
anters that unilateral measures were it till such time as conditions deterioe owners to co-operate in any future
S. RAJARATNAM
1932, p. 12.
24

Page 141
The Role of Agricult
I Y Developmen
டா
ܢ ܢܝ .
47ܓ
ܢܥ .
I. Agriculture and Economic D.
tained increase of real output p
the transformation of an econo to one where industry assumes importe countries are characterised by low lev sitating the employment of a substan agriculture to produce the requirem about a transformation in the structu gressive decline in the share of agric the labour force. The vast possibil productivity within agriculture and demand for food account for this struci involves the creation of those conditi from a subsistence type of economy sustained character. The relative role lopment is no longer a subject for European experience for agricultural lopment, economists today are gener development to prevent the occurrence retard the process of development.2
|F[];ူမျိုးဖြုံး Development is g
Agriculture, in fact, has a crucia from a stagnant, subsistence type of methods of production and low leve levels of living and self sustained place, must supply more food. Un faced with rapidly increasing popula
medical facilities that are a character
1. T. W. Schultz. The Economic Organizatic
2. W. A. Lewis. "The Shifting Fortunes of A ference of Agricultural Economists, 1958, pp. 27–34.
3. W. Rostow. The Stages of Economic Grov
12
 

ure in the Economic
t of Ceylon
evelopment
enerally understood to mean a suser head of the population. It implies my where agriculture is predominant ince. Economicallyunder-developed els of agricultural productivity necestial proportion of the population in ents of food. Development brings re of the economy leading to a proulture in the national income and in ities that exist for increasing labour
the relative income inelasticity of tural change.1 Such a transformation ons that would enable the transition to one where growth assumes a self of agriculture in this process of devecontroversy. While it has been the expansion to precede industrial deveally agreed on the need for balanced 2 of any critical bottlenecks that would
l role to play in the transformation economy, characterised by primitive ls of productivity, to one with high growth.3 Agriculture, in the first der-developed countries are today tions. The widespread extension of stic feature of most countries in the
in of Agriculture, (New York, 1955). griculture,' Proceedings of the International Con
wth (Cambridge, 1960), pp. 21-24.
5

Page 142
UNIVERSITY O
early stages of development has he rates have declined from about for ten per thousand, as in the case of ( have remained more or less stable This has led to increases in popu twenty five per thousand. In addit of industrialization, leads to rapid Thus the natural increase in popula combine to exert pressure on the productivity does not increase, exis maintained only by cutting down countries exporting food, or incre: countries importing food. In eit foreign exchange being diverted fo the process of development. Agric contribution towards economic d demand for food. As Professor W requires that the produce of farme
surplus per head from which to fee
Secondly, since the bulk of th
countries is engaged in agricultu origin will have to find their m sector. Rising incomes in agricult agricultural productivity could, th mulus for industrial production and
Thirdly, agriculture, as the lar to provide a large part of the capital look forward to foreign investmen they will have to fall back on thei development costs from internal sou be focussed on the agricultural secto
Capital is required not only foi agricultural sectors of the economy, heads such as transport, power, educ services. Agriculture will thus cont
4. W. A. Lewis. The Theory of Economic

R CEYLON REVIEW
lped to push down death rates. Death y per thousand to about twenty or even Deylon. Birth rates, on the other hand, round thirty five to forty per thousand. ation of anywhere between twenty to on, urbanisation, which is a concomitant i
increases in the non-farm population. tion together with industrialization will existing food supply. If agricultural ting levels of food consumption can be on exports of food, in the case of those sing food imports, in the case of those her case, it would result in valuable r consumption purposes, thus hindering ulture can, therefore, make a significant eevlopment by meeting the increased . A. Lewis puts it, " Economic growth is per head must increase, to provide a d non-farmers.'4
he population in the under-developed ral production, products of industrial estajor markets within the agricultural ure associated with increasing levels of -
一~” erefore, provide the much needed stiform the basis for self-sustained growth.
gest sector of the economy, will have for development. While countries may it, it has become abundantly clear that resources and finance the bulk of the rces. Attention must then, of necessity,
I,
initiating growth in the industrial and but also for investment on social overration, housing and other governmental pete with other sectors of the economy
Growth (London, 1955), p. 230. - سے--
26

Page 143
ECONOMIC DEVELOP
for the use of capital. Capital is, ho developed countries. The possibilitie vity with the minimum of capital inve Attention should be directed towards t nity costs in increasing agricultural p
· it this connection should be of interes - ဲနုံးမျိုးမျို prevailing in Japan befor those obtaining in most Asian countri industrial power at "break-neck speed This rapid rate of development was a in the productivity of agriculture. T about 80 per cent and labour productiv per annum during the period 1879-191 vity over a period of about forty year the part of Japanese agriculture. All within the existing framework of ag nisation remained almost unaffected. and tenancy showed no changes. In seeds, increased use of fertilizers and were all land saving and could be app ments made only small demands on mainly for working capital purposes of fixed capital.5
While agriculture can contribute ir
ment by making minimum demands own growth, it can also make a direct ( for industrialization. An increase in t provide a source of capital for utilizatio Japan, again, provides a very good exa of an increase in the productivity of a other sectors of the economy. The le but slightly compared to the large inc to the heavy taxation imposed on amounted to 13 per cent of the value irrespective of variations in yields or puts it, "Levying on agriculture is in
5. K. Ohkawa and H. Rosovsky, “The Rol Development,' Economic Development and Cultur
6. Bruce F. Johnston. "Agricultural productiv of Political Economy, Vol. LIX, No. 6. December 1
 
 

ENT OF CEYLON
vever, the scarce resource in underof increasing agricultural productiment should, therefore, be explored. e use of resources with low opportuduction. The experience of Japan to under-developed countries. The industrialization were the same as s today. Yet, Japan emerged as an within a span of thirty to forty years. companied by phenomenal increases le productivity of land increased by ty increased at the rate of 2.6 per cent The doubling of labour productirepresents a major achievement on these increases were brought about iculture in Japan. The rural orgaThe number and size of farmholdings novations such as the use of better improved techniques of production ied on small farms. Such improvecapital, since capital was required rather than for lumpy investment
directly towards economic developon the scarce factor, capital, for its :ontribution by providing the capital he productivity of agriculture could thin the othersectors of the economy. mple of a country where the benefits 2riculture have been channelled into "els of living of the farmers increased eases in productivity. This was due agriculturists. The land tax itself if a normal crop and remained fixed prices. However, as W. A. Lewis turn politically very difficult to do,
of Agriculture in Modern Japanese Economic
Change, Vol. IX, No. 1. Part II, October 1960. y and Economic Development in Japan,” Journal 51.
7

Page 144
UNIVERSITY OF
as the U.S.S.R. discovered, unless the levy can be effected without rec
the moral is that any prog capital formation should have as agricultural productivity rapidly.7
Agriculture is thus called upc development. An increase in agr portance in providing food for a industrial products, and at least a ps
II. The Ceyl (a) The 1.
Ceylon, in line with other un with the task of accelerating econo fore made in the subsequent sectio agriculture in fostering economic g.
The shift from a subsistence typ in Ceylon began with the advent of tion of coffee on a commercial scal the modern period in Ceylons ei was but a minor crop finding a plac forty years, however, more than . coffee and it became the major sour to a fungus disease soon after, but about 1,000 acres in 1875, the area u by the turn of the century. Rubbel 1900 and was also marked by a rapi than 400,000 acres were under rub crop, was of much longer standing It was, however, making itself felt Country around this time.9
The subsequent history of plau continued expansion despite unstab the present century saw various
7. W. A. Lewis, ibid, p. 231. 8. I. H. Vanden Driesen. “Some trends i. Period,'-The Ceylon Journal of Historical and
9. S. Rajaratnam. “The Growth of Plantati of Historical and Social Studies, Vol. IV, No. 1.

CEYLON REVIEW
he productivity is rising rapidly so that lucing the standard of living of peasants amme for industrialization and heavy
ts counterpart measures for increasing
in to play a positive role in economic Cultural productivity is of crucial im
growing population, the markets for irt of the capital for industrialization.
onese Experience 'lantation Sector
der-developed countries, is today faced nic development. An attempt is therens of this article to evaluate the role of towth in Ceylon.
e of economy to commercial production the plantation industry. The introduce around 1835 marks the beginning of Conomic history. 8 Before 1835, Coffee
te only in village garden lands. Within
250,000 acres had been brought under
ce of revenue. Coffee itself succumbeds
it was quickly replaced by tea. From inder tea rose to more than 400,000 acres I made its appearance in Ceylon around d expansion in acreage. By 1925 more ber. Coconut, the other major export but mainly in the hands of smallholders. increasingly in the export trade of the
tation agriculture in Ceylon is one of le prices. The twenties and thirties of attempts at international stabilisation,
in the Economic History of Ceylon in the 'Modern Social Studies, Vol. III, No. 1. January-June, 1960. on Agriculture in Ceylon, 1886-1931' Ceylon Journal January-June 1961.
ܡ . 128
خ سے

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ECONOMIC DEVELOPME
culminating in the International Tea A national Rubber Regulation Agreemer sought to stabilise prices by restricting The outbreak of World War II, howev then onwards the plantation industry see hits history. While the area under tea there was a marked increase in producti the output per acre rose by Over 70 perc 50 percent in the case of rubber. This is standards. Japan, as already seen, achiev productivity over a forty year period an its fast rate of growth. Comparable dat productivity. It should however be not on estates rose by only 5 per cent during
TABLE I TEA AREA PRODUCTIO
Year Acreage
1936-38 557,446
1948-52 562, 197
1952-56 571,682
1957 570,573
1958 572,706
1959 579,652
- RUBBER-AREA, PRODUC"
ܓ . ہے۔-
Year Acreage
1937-38 604,089
1948-52 655,678
1952-56 658,749
1957 660,725
1958 664,836
1959 668,178
Source: Statistical Abstracts of Ceylon.
The growth of the plantation sect development of roads and railways, the co and the provision of banking and comr prime importance in carrying the produ export. Planters were ever clamouring 10. Economic and Social Development of Ceylon
Ceylon), pp. 2-5.
11. Statistical Abstract of Ceylon, 1959.
༽།། V 129
 
 
 
 

NT OF CEYLON
greement of 1932 and the Intert of 1934. Both these schemes the area under tea and rubber.10 Br, changed the situation. From as to have entered on a new phase and rubber increased but slightly, vity. During the period 1938-58, bnt in the case of tea and by about a remarkable achievement by any ed an 80 percent increase in land di Japanese agriculture is noted for i is not available as regards labour 2d that the total labour employed he period 1942/44 to 1956/58.11
V
N AND YIELD
Production Yield per
('000 lbs.) acre (lbs.)
234,132 420 309,337 550 356,441 624 397,775 697 413,155 721 413,130 713
TION AND YIELD
roduction Yield per
('000 lbs.) acre (lbs.) 137,200 227 226,520 346 214,259 325 219,887 333 224,434 337 205.399 307
r has been accompanied by the instruction of the port of Colombo hercial facilities. Roads were of pe of plantations to the ports for
for more and better roads and
(a Survey) 1926-1954, (Ministry of Finance,

Page 146
UNIVERSITY OF
successive governments were induc ment of roads. However the mo cart, was found to be too slow at an absolute necessity. The railw With the roads and railway came next requirement was the provisi produce and the construction of t 1882.12 The build-up of overhead to the development of the plantati
The Ceylonese themselves pla ment. It was foreign capital and transformation of the economy. from the British officials stationed i mania did get under way, the ne extent by the agency houses that end of the 19th century the compar and very soon displaced the prop their capital almost entirely from C 80 per cent of the estates under tea case of rubber there was greater ( the majority of the plantations we ever, been signs of a withdrawal of of Agriculture, 1952, reported that estates and 38 per cent of the acrea by foreign companies or non-citiz of the acreage under tea and 50 pe under estates, the rest being in Sm. Ceylonese.
If the capital was mainly Brit Indian. The reluctance of the Sir large scale recruitment of labour fr of the plantation sector. While th proportion of the indigenous pop largely dependent on Indian labou
12. Vide I. H. Vanden Driesen, ibid, and G. 13. I. H. Vanden Driesen, ibid, p. 13. 14. Lennox A. Mills, Ceylon Under British
15. S. Rajaratnam. “Plantation labour in C -December 1961.

CEYLON REVIEW
ed to spend large sums on the develople of conveyance by road, the bullock d the construction of a railway became ly to Kandy was completed in 1867.
he postal and telegraph facilities. The in of a satisfactory harbour to ship the
he port of Colombo was completed in capital thus became a necessary adjunct on industry.
yed a small part in this rapid developforeign labour that brought about the The early planters were drawn mainly the Island. When, however, the coffee Bessary capital was furnished to a large perated from London.13 Towards the ly owned estate became more important ietory planter. These companies drew reat Britain. Thus by the 1930s, about belonged to British companies. In the Ceylonese participation, but even here re British-owned. 14 There have, howBritish capital of late. Thus the Census
ens. It should be noted that 80 per cent r cent of the acreage under rubber were allholdings belonging almost entirely to
sh, the labour was almost entirely South halese to work in the plantations led to om South India very early in the history ere has been a progressive increase in the ilation working on estates, these are still 15 The Census of 1931 estimated that
C. Mendis, Ceylon Under the British (Colombo 1944).
Rule, 1795-1932 (Oxford, 1933), p. 253. eylon (Part I)' Young Socialist, Vol. I, No. 3. October
下
50 per cent of the acreage under tea or ge under rubber on estates were owned
130
لی گئی۔ مالیت

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ECONOMIC DEVELOPM
85 percent of the workers on estates we labour on estates accounted for about 7
The plantation sector occupies a pr today. Tea, Rubber and Coconut oc cultivated area. About a third of then 95 per cent of the export earnings are Ceylon, compared to other Asian Coul in having an export industry of major Thus in recent years the industry has ea of foreign exchange.
تحریر
TABLE
EXPORT TRADE OF C
Year Total Exports of Ceylon Produce (Rs. thousand)
1936-38 272,589 1948-52 1,337,042 1952-56 1,629,086 1957 1588 282 1958 1,651,374 1959 1692,140و
Source: Ceylon Customs Returns.
Other Countries placed in a similar to promote industrial development. loping economies have created from t industries; and the rapid expansion in c import of capital equipment and to S take off. United States, Russian and C. Swedish timber and pulp, Japanese silk been able to utilise such earnings for an so far.
The fact that the plantation secto meant that a part of the export earnings ment. It accrued to the foreigner and of investment income, private remitt
16. Statistical Abstracts of Ceylon, 1959. 17. W. Rostow, ibid, pp. 48-49.
ཡིན། 131
 
 
 

MENT OF CEYLON
are of Indian origin. In 1958 Indian 5 per cent of the total. 16
edominant position in the economy cupy about 65 per cent of the total ational income of Ceylon and about derived from the plantation crops. ntries, has been singularly fortunate dimensions in the plantation sector. rned for the Country a large volume
III
EYLON, BY VALUE
Exports of Tea, Rubber
and Coconut as a percentage of the Total
95.6 95.1 94.6 95.5 96.0 96.1
position have utilised such earnings In the words of Rostow, “Deveheir natural resources major export xports has been used to finance the ervice the foreign debt during the anadian grain fulfilled this function; etc.17 Ceylon, however, has not y large scale industrial development
is dominated by foreign interests was not available for local developwas sent out of the Country by way ances and migrants transfers, and

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UNIVERSITY OF
repatriation of capital. The outflo around RS. 215 millions per annum (
But of greater significance is ti of the export earnings went toward to the peasant sector that one will has to utilise exportearnings on any large
(b) The Peasant Sector
The transformation of the ecc agriculture had little or no effect o by the peasants. It presents all the fi low levels of living. Small and une of production, chronic indebtedness characterize peasant agriculture in economic size of holdings are maj The Survey of Rural Landlessness 1 cent of the rural population had no la) owned extents of less than half an a 1956, which provides data on the reported that 81 per cent of all pa extent. The problem becomes mol in population.
Associated with landlessness an problem of indebtedness. Earning sistence needs, the average peasant in ing to the Economic Survey of Rur income amounting to Rs. 97 a mont by about RS. 12 a month. The Su carried out by the Central Bank in income of a spending unit, which ap expenditure at Rs. 162. The high penditure in the latter survey is due t within its population. The Centre per cent of the population belonge month. Such low levels of incon indebtedness. The Survey of Rural I of indebtedness amounting to 54 pe
18. Based on statistics from the Annual Repor
1.

CEYLON REVIEW
w of capital on this account averaged luring the period 1950-59.18
he fact that a much larger proportion
ls financing the import of food. It is f
re to turn în order to explain the failure
scale to finance industrial development.
onomy brought about by plantation in the subsistence agriculture practised batures of an economy stagnant at very sconomic holdings, primitive methods and very low levels of productivity Ceylon today. Landlessness and unor problems confronting the peasant. 952, estimated that more than 30 per nd and that 15 percent of the cultivators cre. The Report on Paddy Statistics, size of individual units of production ddy parcels were less than 1 acres in re acute in the face of a rapid increase
d uneconomic size of holdings is the an income that barely covers his subvariably finds himselfin debt. Accordal Ceylon 1950-51, the average family in exceeded average family expenditure rvey of Ceylon's Consumer Finances 1954 estimated the average monthly proximates to a family, at Rs. 169 and er levels of average income and exthe fact that it included urban families tl Bank Survey also reported that 75 i to units receiving less than Rs. 200 a he account for the high incidence of indebtedness, 1957 revealed an incidence ir cent as against 30 per cent reported
its of the Central Bank of Ceylon.
32

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ECONOMIC DEVELOP
by the 1950-51 survey and the 75 per ce drop revealed by the 1950–51 survey ushered in by World War II which m: also due to the high level of prices rul
Thereafter the incidence has risen and - the 54 per cent reported by the 1957 : problems, it is no cause for surprise til disinclined to adopt some of the mor
which alone could help raise the produ
The production of paddy, the stap in the peasant economy, has expanded due both to an expansion in acreage as Reliable data regarding per acre yield years. While yields have risen, they producing countries. 19 Accurate data diary foodstuffs are not available. B sector as a whole has not been encour: 1961 estimated that over a five year p 1957/58-1959/60 agricultural product of 2.5 per cent per annum. Assumiu cultural sector would have increased at lation, the productivity per worker in
TABLE
PADDY-AREA, PRODUK
Year Acreage
(
1952-56 1,085,011. 1957 1,207,623 1958 1,382, 184 1959 1,309,140
Sources: Statistical Abstracts of Ceylo
The inability of peasant agriculture appreciably has resulted in the island b
on a large scale. Imports of food iten
19. Economic Survey of Asia and the Far East, 19 20. Ibid, pp. 11-13.
ནི། 13.
 
 

MENT OF CEYLON
nt of the pre-war surveys. The sharp was probably due to the prosperity de liquidation of debts possible, and ing at the time of the Korean War. is probably much higher today than urvey. Weighed down with these at the peasant should show himself e modern techniques of production ctivity of peasant agriculture.
le food and the most important crop a great deal in recent years. This is well as an increase in per acre yields. are not available except for recent are still amongst the lowest for rice regarding the production of subsiut the performance of the peasant ging. Thus the ECAFE report for eriod between 1952/53-1954/55 to ion in Ceylon increased at the rate ng that the population in the agriabout the same rates as total popuagriculture seems to have fallen.20
III
CTION AND YIELD
Production Average yield per 000 bushels) nett acre harvested
(bushels) 29,000 30.0 31,280 32.2 36,600 34.0 35,600 35.0
l.
to increase the levels of productivity eing dependent on imports of food ns account for about 40 per cent of
61. p. 14.

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UNIVERSITY OF
the total import bill and for about Valuable foreign exchange that industrial development is now exp
TA
IMPORTS OF FOOD.
Year As ' i1
1936-38 1948-52 1952-56 1957 1958 1959
Source: Ceylon Customs
With a rapidly increasing po cultural output relatively can hav a rate of increase of over 2.5 per ce of population increase in the world of demand for food in under-dev could be well over 3 per cent pe estimates the demand for rice to during the period 1958–68. At th incomes, food items Constitute a si expenditures. The Central Bank that expenditure on food account The proportion is likely to have Since the price elasticity of demand developed Countries, a lag in the su in prices.21 Governments will in more foreign exchange and impor discontent and court unpopularity.
Another consequence of the l state of the peasant economy has t sector has made on capital. Large development and colonization, sub facilities and on the improvement
21. B. F. Johnston and J. W. Mellor. “TI Development.” Food Research Institute Studi

CEYLON REVIEW
45 per cent of Ceylon's export earnings. ould otherwise have been utilised on inded on the import of food.
BLE TV
Α -
DRINK AND TOBACCO ܢ ܼ - ܢ  ̄
of total As 9 of total pOrts exports of Ceylon
Produce
44.9 38.0 48.3 46.7 45.9 43.9 40.8 46.3 41.7 43.3 40.5 47.9
Returns.
pulation, the inability to expand agrire serious consequences. Ceylon with it per annum has one of the highest rates 1. Given a fairly high income elasticity reloped countries the demand for food r annum. In fact, the Ten Year Plan increase by about 4 per cent per annum. he same time, due to the relatively low ignificant proportion of total household survey on consumer finances estimated 2d for 60 per cent of total expenditure. been higher in the lower income levels. I also tends to be very low in the underpply of food can lead to marked increases variably seek a way out by expending ting more food rather than risk political
ow levels of productivity and depressed een the heavy demands that the peasant sums of money have been spent on land sidies, provision of cheap and easy credit I of marketing. Peasant settlement has
le Nature of Agriculture's Contributions to Economic
es, Stanford, Vol. I, No. 3. 1960, p. 340. 轟
134

Page 151
ECONOMIC DEVELOP
involved the government in heavy Ca mated that up to the end of 1959, abo on 175,989 acres under the major colo Plan estimates the cost of settling a col alienation introduced in 1957, to be ar. government would have spent more th colonists during the period 1956-59 alo
The producer subsidy on paddy expenditure. Over 55 million bushel guaranteed purchase scheme during th subsidy, representing the difference b government and the price at which p be more than RS. 7 per bushel in 195 RS. 7 per bushel the subsidy on padd nearly Rs. 390 millions during 1956-59
The peasant sector has thus failed t economic development of the countr ductivity has resulted in large scale imp lopment depends essentially On the im of foreign exchange resources can onl of the industrial sector. Attempts at involved the state in heavy expenditure the same time, due to the low levels of provide an expanding market for m channel by which agricultural develop expansion of the industrial sector is thu
The peasant sector has, thus, not pansion of the plantation sector. Cey under-developed country after more the plantation sector. A possible expl relationships arising between these two
III. The Peasant and Plantation S
The rapid development and high the plantation industry have failed to t the peasant sector. A possible explan
22. Administration Reports of the Land Commiss 23. The Ten Year Plan, (National Planning Coun 24. Ibid., pp. 130-131.
135
 

MENT OF CEYLON
pital expenditure. It has been estiut 34,130 colonists had been settled nization schemes.22 The Ten Year onist, under the scheme of advanced Dund Rs. 11,500.23 On this basis the an Rs. 170 million in settling 14,820
1ᏁᏣ.
represents another major item of of paddy were collected under the le period 1956-59 and the producer etween the cost of a bushel to the addy is imported, was estimated to 7.24 Assuming an average price of y would have cost the government
o contribute in any way towards the y. The failure to increase its proorts of food. Since industrial deveport of capital goods, such diversion y slow down the rate of expansion developing the peasant sector have : without any noticeable results. At living, the peasant sector is unable to anufactured goods. An important ment could have led to cumulative is cut off.
benefited in any way from the exon has, in fact, emerged as a typical than a century of development of anation may be sought in the inter
sectors of the economy.
ectors: Some Inter-relationships. levels of productivity achieved by rigger off a parallel development in ation may be provided in terms of
ioner, 1959. cil, Ceylon), pp. 240-242.

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UNIVERSITY OF
Professor W. A. Lewis' version of According to Lewis, most Countric lopment are characterised by the e sector and a subsistence sector. D. of cumulative expansion of the cap of surplus labour from the subsiste is made possible by the re-investmer on the level of wages. Since the limited, the wage level would be subsistence sector. An increase i sector or an increase in the price of ing from the expansion of the capi the level of wages. In either cast profits. The rise in the level of large scale immigration of labour a seems to have happened in the Ca advantage that cheap sources of lal next door. This prevented the st benefits of an expanding plantation of productivity.
The situation is however diffe of a measure of self government the problems of the peasant secto from the state. It has involved government. If, however, econor of cumulative expansion of the c. sector model, the necessity to incr minimum use of capital becomes c an economy from a dependence on necessitates heavy expenditure on th will largely depend on the availabi pointed out, an increase in agricultu in the development process. If ag with the minimum use of capital, th opportunity Costs be utilised. Lan characterised by low opportunity
25. W. A. Lewis. “Economic Development School, Vol. XXIII, No. 2. May 1954.
26. Vide B. F. Johnston and J. W. Mellor, i

CEYLON REVIEW
the two sector classical growth model.25 s in the early stages of economic devexistence of two economies-a capitalist evelopment may be viewed as a process pitalist sector resulting in the absorption
tnce sector. The cumulative expansion
it of capitalist profits which again depend supply of labour is assumed to be undetermined by the productivity of the in the productivity of the subsistence food due to the increased demand resulttalist sector could lead to an increase in 2 it would bring about a reduction in wages could, however, be checked by nd imports of cheap food. This is what se of Ceylon. It was to Ceylon’s disbour and of food were available almost bsistence sector from reaping any of the sector and condemned it to low levels
brent today. Ever since the attainment , and subsequently of independence, have received considerable attention
heavy expenditure on the part of the
nic development is viewed as a process pitalist sector, in terms of Lewis two ease agricultural productivity with the ivident.26 The process of transforming agriculture to a dependence on industry Le capitalist sector. The rate of expansion lity of capital. But, as has already been tral productivity is of crucial importance ricultural productivity is to be increased ten it is necessary that resources with low ld and labour already in agriculture are costs since they are not of much im
t with unlimited supplies of Labour, The Manchester
bid, pp. 335—337.
136

Page 153
ECONOMIC DEVEL
portance in industrial expansion. factor and an essential item in in marked by high opportunity costs. to increase the efficiency of resou minimum demands on capital with techniques incorporating the use of weedicides, and small equipment w labour already in agriculture withio Such innovations can be incorporat agriculture. Thus it has been the e returns on investment that went tow, resources in agriculture were exc entailing the reorganisation of the therefore be avoided, at least in the
 

DPMENT OF CEYLON
Dapital, on the other hand, is a scarce lustrial development. It is therefore
Attempts should therefore be made ces already in agriculture and make its high opportunity costs. Improved better seeds, fertilisers, insecticides and uld enhance the efficiency of land and ut making heavy demands on capital. d within the existing framework of (perience of countries like Japan that irds increasing the efficiency of existing eedingly high. Costly programmes existing structure of agriculture can arly stages of economic development.
T. JOGARATNAM

Page 154
Sinhalese Technical
and Bioc
HE Government of Ceylon i glossaries of technical terms in S -4- of these glossaries is done by missioner of the Official Language publication. A Glossary Committe one or more language scholars, andre is being dealt with. The Chairman the Official Language Department. by invitation and are paid an honoral
At present, Science and Medicine in English, but it is felt that, sooner o the Swabhasha (national languages). with the task of preparing technical University. The University in its ti its members to serve on Glossary Col
In the field of Medicine, both represented on the Committee, and been produced by the Government. was intended to cover the requireme Physiology for the G.C.E. (Ordinary served on this Glossary Committee. a Medical Glossary intended to suppl. (V.B. and S.R.K.) at different stages glossary. The Government next se use at University level, and, for a appointed, one for Anatomy and the ( The authors of this paper served on of both Committees was a medical Glossary of Technical Terms in P published in due course.
*This paper was communicated to the Ceylo. Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the Association o
1

Terms. In Physiology hemistry
S engaged on the task of producing inhalese and Tamil. The preparation Glossary Committees and the ComDepartment is responsible for their a consists of a Chairman, a Secretary, resentatives of the field of study which and Secretary are full-time officers of The others serve on the Committee ium.
are taught in the University of Ceylon r later, they may have to be taught in
The Government was going ahead terms and it expected help from the urn has readily granted permission to mmittees.
western and indigenous medicine are
two Sinhalese glossaries have already The first of these, published in 1956, ints of technical terms in Hygiene and Level) examination; one of us (S.R.K.) The second, published in 1960, was y technical terms for nurses; two of us participated in coining terms for this : about preparing technical terms for tart, tWO Glossary Committees Were ther for Physiology and Biochemistry. he latter Committee. The Chairman man, Dr. A. G. H. Thabrew. The hysiology and Biochemistry will be
Association for the Advancement of Science at the November 24th 1961.
38

Page 155
SINHALESE TEC
The Official Language Departim lowed in the preparation of glossarie were left free to evolve their own tech price of this freedom was that a cert fusion did arise; these defects were a - (he earlier (elementary) technical gli
awareness that the technical terms in advanced) glossaries.
We wish to give an account of mittee used in the preparation of the Biochemistry. The selection of the E had to be somewhat arbitrary. Ther not have some connection with Phy after all, two sciences that are among had to be left out, and the (English) te are used in current practice in the tea to medical students. Some overlap cially with Anatomy. The Glossar who is writing on Physiology and Bi necessarily for the newspaper or pop the compilation of this glossary we terms coined should suit not only Ph
other medical sciences.
In the course of preparing the G principles to guide the work. Thef be confused with a lay term or a "pop abdomen may be 66) but no one would glossary. Abdomen has a precise mea is a lay word which has no precise 1 womb, pith, proximity, inside. Th for which 66) would be inappropri. posterior abdominal uvall, abdominal ring words like abdominohysterectomy. 6 But we are tilting at an imaginary in technical sense abdomen should be tr.
for abdomen is coco.
We learn that in Japan the stude to new and more complex (but mu
電 黑
N 1.
 
 

HNICAL TERMS
ent did not lay down rules to be fols. The various Glossary Committees iniques of handling the problem. The ain amount of inconsistency and conlso partly attributable to the fact that ossaries were made without any real them should suit even the later (more
the system which the Glossary ComSinhalese glossary in Physiology and English technical terms for this glossary e is hardly a medical term which does isiology and Biochemistry which are, the "institutes of medicine. Much chnical terms chosen were those which ching of Physiology and Biochemistry with other fields was inevitable, espey is intended primarily for the person ochemistry at University level (and not ular science magazine). Throughout had to keep in mind the fact that the ysiology and Biochemistry but also all
Flossary we came to recognize certain irst was that a technical term should not ular science” term. The lay word for Consider it appropriate for a technical ining in technical usage, whereas 66) meaning—it can mean stomach, belly, here are usages of the word abdomen te or inapplicable, e.g. in phrases like I and acute abdomen, and in compound 2 may suit lay English word belly. stance: no one has suggested that in a anslated by 68); the Sinhalese word
nt's first lessons in physics are devoted ch more precise) groups of characters
39

Page 156
UNIVERSITY OF
to replace the everyday characters of 1958). In the development of techni terms such as the following were in us of sulphur, sugar of lead, flowers of Dumas remarked gave the impressi language from the kitchen. Lavois positively dangerous because most of considerations led to the systematizi work of national and international Latin and Greek roots for the coining
Let us take some Sinhalese exam technical terms in Physiology.
1. Cardiac coagozsso) (close to the of the cardia has nothing to do wit cardiac is 2525.226) which would suit al
2. Coagulum zoöcs (clot). 26.3.3 inadequate for coagulum: a coagulum advances in the field of blood coagul between the clotting of blood and the on, with the passage of time, a sharp ginally possess; it would horrify th filtrate an exudate (instead of a filtr what Bowman did in 1842 in his clas kidney.
3. Coronary 20532) (pertaining to supply the heart muscle, but to call misleading as then one ignores the epithet Coronary in regions outside th liver. The technical term for corona,
4. Germ 835esco (poisonous seed germs which, far from poisoning, a equivalent for germ is 52%) coo.
5. Tetanus 8OGOleše). Tetanus is a is a lay word which could be look
1

CEYLON REVIEW
heat, temperature, etc. (UNESCO, cal terminology in Chemistry, homely e: oil of vitriol, butter of arsenic, liver zinc, milk of magnesia; terms which on that the chemists borrowed their ier pointed out that such terms are these substances are poisonous. Such ng of chemical nomenclature by the Commissions which invariably used g of technical terms (Ihndris, 1961).
ples whichare being used in translating
Leart). The condition called achalasia h the heart. The technical term for
the medical contexts for cardiac.
is the right word for clot, but it is can be a clot or a jelly, and the rapid tion may even necessitate a distinction coagulation of blood. A word can take sness of meaning which it did not orie physiologist to call the glomerular
te or transudate), but this is precisely- -
sical description of the working of the
the heart). The coronary arteries
them 303826) a 925 (heart arteries) is fact that there are structures with the le heart, e.g. Coronary ligament of the ry is කිරීටක.
This is insulting to the mass of ctually help us. The correct technical
highly technical word while 80coteae
ed upon as the equivalent of the term
40
参(

Page 157
SINHALIESE TEC)
lockjaw which is a lay English word 8OGOe3S) to tetanus, it would be impo muscle.
(6, Paralysis පක්ෂයාඝයාතය (striking C his been rendered with only one app. side of the body (hemiplegia). each paralysis of the vasomotor nerves or for paralysis is boogicoco while hemiple
7. Uvula dec8a) (taste tongue). Uvu term oec.32) seeing that there are uvulae If one used oes3.a) for uvula, how coul
The above examples show that a concept becomes necessary when the l; but is unsatisfactory. This is at once et of plants and animals. A lay term beco less than the technical term does as in alcohol; or because it denotes more ti having all manner of associations whic technical usage, as gooớCO (opening) : to what Ogden and Richards (1949) h the multiplicity of their associated refe is much scope for what may be called t for the Ethics of Terminology'.
Therefore it becomes evident tha no confusion will arise is to avoid in gen ting an English technical term. This followed. In this way, one coins a Sin] neither too much nor too little when counterpart. A safe way of achieving the lay person has no meaning and the should represent-that is to say, a laten are hundreds of lay English words co English technical equivalents which ver layman.
e.g. Glucose, Vitamin A and Glycerol are alc
141

(NICAL TERMS
for this condition. If one equates sible to talk of tetanus in a single
own of one side). Here paralysis ication in mind i.e. paralysis of one ozsco will not be suitable for, say,
f the bladder. The technical term
!ia is අර්ධඝාතය.
a should not be rendered by the lay in the cerebellum and bladder too. the condition uvulitis be translated
echnical term for a thing, process or ly term is either non-existent or exists fident in the scientific nomenclature mes unsatisfactory because it denotes eggcoodco (intoxicating essence) for han the technical term does, thereby h render it diffuse and imprecise for for hilus. The latter corresponds ave called Degenerates, because of rents. As these authors say, "there he Eugenics of Language, no less than
t the only method of ensuring that eral a lay term in Sinhalese in translais the general rule which we have halese term which will come to mean placed beside its English technical this aim is to give a word which to refore can stand exactly for what it word. It is well known that there nnected with medicine which have y rarely convey any meaning to the
bhols.

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UNIVERSITY OF
It is admitted that while adhere consistency, rigid adherence is not end in itself; it is a device f It is a convenience or a convent an end. However, if the end C the confines of the rule, we can we have numerous exceptions to th words which are ordinary Sinhalese v of the rule by standing for something which arises from associated meani when the English technical term is 1. nations.
Here are some examples:-
Asthma Condiments Exercise Bтета Fatigue Goitire
c
It has to be borne in mind that a a technical term When transliterated i because of the fact that when it is use sense, the lay term in the first langu. be made to stand for something spec the Sinhalese 65cc, or kwashiorkor word kuvashi, first, orkor, second, so affected a child who was weaned p becoming pregnant during this tim The virtue of such words, when the their very incomprehensibility. Th the English such terms are uncolour fore highly suitable for precise usage.
The obverse of the decision to learned term in English is to give an word in English; where such English or bodily processes were required fo chemistry, they are included in the G
1

CEYLON REVIEW
ce to a rule would ensure complete lways possible. For a rule is not an r the fulfilment of the purpose. on to facilitate the attainment of in be satisfactorily achieved outside afford to ignore the rule. In fact s rule in the Glossary since there are ords but nevertheless fulfill the purpose pecific and not giving rise to confusion ngs. Such words are especially safe lot productive of flexions and combi
ඇදුම කුළු බඩු ව්‍යාපාරයාමය වස්තිය විඩාව ගලගණඩය
lay term in one language can become
into another language. This is simply
d in the second language in a technical age has no meaning and can therefore ifice.g. beri beri which is derived from which comes from a West African named because the disease commonly rematurely on account of the mother e (Trowell, Davies and Dean, 1954). 7 are transliterated into English, lies in is incomprehensibility means that to d by common associations and therein other words, for technical usage.
give a learned term in Sinhalese for a rdinary word in Sinhalese for an ordinary words which refer to parts of the body the teaching of Physiology and Biolossary.
42

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Just as we have ordinary Sinhale valents in English e.g. 26. (inspissa boozine) (hurting a sore), there is no nary English term tenderness where
sensitivity to touch.
Thus the position with regard to glossary is this: examine the lay term up too narrow nor too broad in its meaning,
A second principle or rule wh glossary is to deal with individual wo technical word should be given a sep. phrases the technical words often thermometer as an example. Now . the lay term for clinical thermometer
كبير .
SINHALIESE TEC
C.9. ankle
bile blood clot
Cane Sugar disease dose groin thirst
Wet-1). UlrSe
This is not always possible. Itch (scratching), and fat gego has to be d
Furthermore, a word that appe reality have technical usages which sh first Sinhalese word that comes to flavour with oes. But oo is taste w is a sensation while flavour is a perc of taste and smell. An onion has one chews an onion with the nose cl of onion and instead merely experien for flavour in a technical glossary wh to be used in technical communications.
for the language one speaks at home .
1

HNICAL TERMS
වළලුකර
· පිත ලේ කැටිය උක් සීනි රෝගය මාත්‍රාව ඉකිලිය 8ఆ83C3 කිරි මව්
ing, for instance, is more than 2DE3S) stinguished from oil, ozoc,
ars to be an ordinary word may in ould make one beware of giving it the mind. It is tempting to dispose of hich is not the same as flavour. Taste aption arising from the combination a characteristic pungent flavour. If osed, one misses altogether the flavour Ces a Sweetish taste. Ce3 Cannot stand ich is only concerned with words to
se words for which there are no equited lachrymal secretion or exudate), Sinhalese word available for the orditenderness means abnormal cutaneous
the adoption of lay terms in a technical henever one is available, and if it is neither
adopt it for technical usage.
ich is useful in preparing a technical rds and not with phrases. The English rate Sinhalese or Sinhalized term. In have limited meanings. Take clinical bes zoge (fever thorn, fever bone) is and usage has shown it to be adequate ind in the street, but it is wrong to take
43

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UNIVERSITY OFR (
CS5 25) Sea) as a technical term. Neith faintly represented in ceó 25 ce). One phrase (and a restricted meaning at th other uses than that of finding out wh by the individual words. The closely cannot be derived from ce5 2.gia).
in another context e.g. clinical patholog by ce5. If thermometer was rendel metry may become Coe Zogové3e, wh is appendicular skeleton (oooo co 26GG ( is given the same word as limb. This appendicular and skeleton were dealt w appendicular abscess has been calle appendicular has two Sinhalese equi Then the translator could well make t abscess as Googo &e3Gödoco which means
The fault illustrated above of rei meanings, often 'superficial meanings, i. Here are two examples: incubation has t literally means the heating of eggs; but eggs and germs-one can incubate in incubation. Alimentary, apodo en 563 apparently because the Sinhalese phras in phrases like alimentary canal (epocopo that eacoco is not an intrinsic part of (cocood eočjöco goaco). But terms separate words in their own right rath and nutrient are not synonymous (Si technical words is the function of a diction term often has more than one meaning a to meaning is to ignore this fact or to for each English term.
Having decided to give, generally s for an ordinary English word (like to or Sinhalized word for the latent metabolism), we have the problem of must be stressed that latency is preferred a word which can have a specific mean
this.
144

DEYLON REVIEW
ter clinical nor thermometer are even has been led by the meaning of the at, since a clinical thermometer has rther a person has fever) rather than related term clinical thermometry Further, when clinical has to be used y, clinical can no longer be rendered ed by zoge the phrase skin thermoich is ludicrous. Another example limb skeleton). Here, appendicular mistake would not have occurred if ith separately. On the other hand d, උණඩුකපුච්ඡ විස්පෝටය. Thus ivalents (a) ගාත්‍රා, (b) උණඩුකපුච්ඡ he mistake of rendering appendicular
abscess of the limbs.
ldering technical phrases by giving s also encountered with single words. been translated as 56393-66Cs, which one can incubate objects other than fants; and heat is not essential for (pertaining to the food passage), e seems to suit the word alimentary
eabcoco-from which one can see
alimentary) and alimentary secretion ike aliment or nutrient should get Ir than be called food. Food, aliment inclair, 1948). To give meanings to try and not of a glossary. A technical und to translate such a term according and up with a brood of Sinhalese terms
peaking, an ordinary Sinhalese word 58) for pus), and a latent Sinhalese English word (like googazizéco for how to set about being latent. It | not for its own sake, but for getting ing. There are three ways of doing

Page 161
preceding list may then become :
SINHALESE TECH
The easiest way perhaps is to con so long as it is sufficiently gibberish-an.
A second method is to transliterate has happened in Countless instances wit Here are 10 words which today are C
Afghan African Amerindian Arabic Dutch English Hindi Malay Portuguese Tamil
Similarly we could say:
aOffa biceps carcіпота diastole endocardium fossa gonadotropin hernia iltит jugular
i come from 10 different languages:
බායි
කාපිරි මඤයේ අරක්කු ക്കുള്@
තාර
සාරිය සරම
ðe2ಾ? සුරුට්:
එමෙයයා( බයිසෙ. 2వార8 ඩයස්ට එන්ඩෝ පොස්ද
GδOO23)
හර්නිය ඉලියම ජගුලර්
The third method is to translate wi of a root taken from Sanskrit, Pali or othe fairly specific meanings are available, t
aOffa biceps
carcinoma diastole endocardium
ප්‍රියාහමු! ද්විමූර් කුලීරදී විනාසස් අන්තේ
145

NICAL TERMS
coct an artificial sound-any sound
to call it a technical term.
or Sinhalize the English term. This regard to words in common USagರಿ.
Idinary Sinhalese words but which
(bai-Afghan) (kaffir)
කඳාක්කා (manioc)
) (arrack)
තාjරුව (kantoor-Office) (tar) (sari) (sarong)
තුව (shoe)
ටුව (cheroot)
ඊටාව
3ප්සය
නොjමාව
2ලය
වාකාර්ඩියම
සාව
(ඩෙටු9 23్కూ
ඝාව
)
th a latent (learned) word built out language. If Sinhalese words with ley can be used. The words of the
)ეგ) 'තය \jකන්තුව

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UNIVERSITY OF
fossa මෙG gonadotropiп эс hernia වර් ilium さ気 jugular ᏃᏇᎧ3.
Of these 3 methods, the gibber lend itself to the construction of a pel But it is an arbitrary, artificial and ro stantial evidence against it. The br. Wilkins who, 200 years ago, advoca berish language, are only of histC terms, like ataractic and cybernetics, a commonly from words or roots tak from Gk. ataraxia, absence of distur Gk. kybernetes, steersman). Even th Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua and Vol. on gibberish but on roots which alre
The transliteration method has tr
(i) The technical terms will h work is an international activity an national scientific language is a Cry international vocabulary of technica Greek and Latin roots. e.g. adduct metrium, fibroma, gastrectomy, hyperg be a retrograde step to depart from bulary which is international in ch scientific communication.
One of the basic principles laid Terminology of the Hindi Division Delhi was that international scientific as such into Hindi and the principal has been adopted in Japan and in Inc
(ii) The reading of English techn if the Sinhalese technical terms are importance of English to the scienti least) is beyond question. He will

CEYLON REVIEW
|ණය
බෝහීවර්තනය
බිමය
52;)Cö
නිදරීක
method may, on theoretical grounds, fectly logical system of technical terms. otless method. There is strong circumlliant ideas of Dalgarno and of Bishop ted the construction of just such a gibrical interest. Today, new technical re not coined on that basis, but most en from actual languages (e.g. ataractic bance i.e. tranquility; cybernetics from Le inventors of artificial languages like puk have based their vocabularies not
·ady existin natural languages.
emendous advantages.
ave an international flavour. Scientific it is widely recognised that an intering need. There is already a sizeable terms, most of which are built out of or, bacteriology, calorie, dystrophy, endolycaemia, infarction, jejunum. It would this tendency to use a technical vocaaracter. It would be a hindrance to
lown in 1955 by the Board of Scientific
of the Ministry of Education in New ; and technical terms should be adopted languages of India. A similar attitude lonesia (UNESCO, 1958).
ical books and papers will be facilitated the same as the English ones. The st today (and for several tomorrows at have to read English journals to keep
46

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SINHALESE TECH
abreast with new work, and English te
the basic knowledge in his field.
In this connection we might menti versity Commission, while recommend för higher education, English be replaced language, also recommended that “Eng in the universities in order that Indians stream of evergrowing knowledge'. 1953 by the Association of Scientific w knowledge of English is essential for teachers at the university stage so that th developments in their fields' (UNESCC
If the technical terms in Sinhalese technical terms in English, the student wil of them. Is it justifiable to impose this b. there is a way of avoiding it (viz. by tra fying ourselves 2 The great danger of ir may, because of its heaviness, be thrown of a Sinhalese-taught man to read Eng technical terms may be so great as to Perhaps most of us know it from our French. We did not learn these langua something of them when we read for ol with grammar and vocabulary make the hardly read German and French or else would read if the reading were less toil the fact that the technical terms in Fren. with those in English. Had they too been the position be Therefore if we seriou must read English, we must either teaci the technical terms.
(iii) Another advantage in translite a glossary becomes simple and quick as fè has to be spent only in deciding which in shaping each term so that it sounds lik know that in common language brillian ඇන්ජිම, shock absorber පොකැට්සෝබර් | Eerste and a feel for the language. It is :
| N .
147

NICAL TERMS
itbooks to gather adequately even
in that in 1948-49 the Indian Uning that as a medium of instruction as early as practicable by an Indian ish be studied in high schools and may keep in touch with the living A similar view was expressed in Drkers of India who stated that a both the students and the science ey can keep in contact with recent , 1958):
are altogether different from the 1 have to learn the latter-thousands Irden on our future scientists, when unsliterating)? Will we be stultinposing a burden is that the burden away. Plainly, the effort required glish with its own vocabulary of liscourage the reading of English. own experience of German and ges in school but tried to pick up ir University degrees. Difficulties reading so effortful that we either read only a fraction of what we some. This is the case in spite of ch and German are often identical different, how much worse would sly believe that our future scientists in them in English or transliterate
rating is that the task of preparing r as transliterated terms go. Time terms are to be transliterated, and Sinhalese i.e. it is Sinhalized. We has become coo6.3252, engine, and so on. It is a matter of I job for the linguist who also has

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UNIVERSITY C
his feet planted in the solid ground since it is the common language shown the largest influx of translit
There is the question of how of the word. Should vagus be Si (as the European Continental does would be geoecco and &ogeoco re or 90%ge 2 The Continental pr systematic and consistent. Even stand it, although it may sound ( stances have given us strong links pronunciation in the bulk of the wo in recent centuries. Transliterat Sinhalese usage have carried with nunciation. I e.g.
bus බස් engineer 32s 3ozso pressure og 35 solution. සොලුෂන් vulcanize වල්කනයිස්
Historical Circumstance has le English pronunciation. The mos therefore seem to be to translitera the Continental pronunciation of
Transliteration, however, has Glossary Committee. There is 1. metre, Calorie, gram, radio and ketone ted. This applies to units of me. names of plants and animals, and above categories other examples i ganglion Cosciece. Even if such it cannot be helped. But what o flatulence, gigantism, hibernate, in marcotic.
The Committee felt that the translate or to transliterate en masse

F CEYLON REVIEW
of the common language of the country, which has, by force of circumstances, erated terms.
one should pronounce the basic part of Does (as the English pronounce it) or &age 2) The corresponding Sinhalized forms spectively. Should brachium be 5926c3S) onunciation has the advantage of being the English-speaking person will underodd to him. But our historical circumwith English rather than with Continental ords that we have borrowed into Sinhalese 'd English words that have crept into them the characteristics of English pro
(and not ae) සැවා (and not ecózóove)
(and not eggö) (and not Googs 36(8025) s (and not aczozóes)
d us to learn all our technical terms with it natural thing to do at present would te on the basis of the English rather than words.
not been systematically taken up by the Lo question that international terms like should be transliterated and never translasurement, chemical names, the scientific similar clear-cut instances. Outside the in the Glossary include cell cococco and transliterated terms sound un-Sinhalese, f the rest 2 e.g. adduction, decerebellation, munize, intermediary, lobule, micturition,
controversial question as to whether to would resolve itself if and when scientific
148

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SINHALESE TECH)
communication in Sinhalese does actu decided to translate all the technical te: national terminology and to leave it to t
future to decide which terms to accepti diseerd in favour of transliteration, T
master when compared with translatio accomplished. The Committee addres: careful translation. In the Glossary, tr placed side by side with the translated f
felt that there was a strong case for using these cases.
The Committee has to some extent of using transliterated terms where the t the future teacher and future writer. T
(i) It invites confusion: one perso another may feel that a tra natural.
(ii) The provision of a complete si discourage transliteration. " his hand may find it easier a ܐܢ translated form rather than tC
he system adopted in translating technical t We have already argued that it is terms, to derive them from Sanskrit, Pali the word purposefully latent. This is ex international standing are coined, except Greek and Latin. Being latent they are can be made to stand for something spe There are also other advantages when su
are illustrated later.
Now let us examine the very first lis
English derivation Sin)
CARDIAC Gk. Kardia: heart 2ନ୍ଦି)26
close to stomach
COAGULUM L. Coagulare: to ರಿಕ್ಲಿ೦? ( coagulate
ܠܐ
 
 
 

NICAL TERMS
tally take place. The Committee Cims except clear-cut cases of interhe actual users of the glossary in the in the translated form and which to ransliteration is a relatively simple n, and could be easily and readily ed itself mainly to the problem of ansliterated forms were sometimes orm, to indicate that the Committee the former rather than the latter in
therefore shifted the responsibility translated form is also given, on to here are dangers in this.
in will prefer to transliterate while nsliterated term is forced and un
et of translated terms may actually The teacher with the glossary in nd more "nationalistic’ to use the D transliterate.
eff11S
desirable in translating technical or other language in order to make actly how most technical terms of that the roots used are taken from Lincoloured by popular association, cific, and can be acceptable to all. 1ch a procedure is followed; these
it of terms once more.
halese derivation ක්තුක Skit. Kantu: heart
තාවය Skt. A–tanci: to
coagulate

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UNIVERSITY O
English derivation CORONARY L. Corona: a Crown
GERM L. German: to sprout
bud or germ.
PARALYSIS Gk. para: beside
lysis: loosen
TETANUS UVULA L. Uva: a small grape
Faraday, in communicating hi electric current through solutions. 'electrode from the Greek elektrogive a lectuie in popular science in
(i) The effort at learning su are built up systematically out of meaning, e.g.
Greek or Latin
bio-tomy
gyncpath
Take the word abduction whic ducare tolead. The equivalent Sin is similarly derived from eas a Thus, abduction is apes occo)c5, වාක්‍රනයනය, reduction. ප්‍රතිනයනය, is therefore economical.
In the Glossary there have bee mentioned earlier. Sometimes it for an English technical term witl because an equivalent term has be Sinhalese as in the following exam

CEYLON REVIEW
Sinhalese derivation
කිරීටක Skt. Kirita: a crown
· ජනකය Skt. Janaka:
generative
| පරාග්ලෙය Skt. Para: alongside
+ślatha; loosening
ෙටටනස
කාකලිය Skt. Kakali: a kind of
grape
s researches into the effects of passing an discarded the word pole and coined —and odos, way. And yet Faraday could words that a lay audience understood.
Ich terms becomes minimal when they roots or words which have a specific
Sanskrit,
Pali or Root meaning Sinhalese
ෙෙජව life ජෙදය Cutting ോ5 WO12). ව්‍යාපථ suffering
ih is from the Latin ab away, from and halese technical term is deacocco which way, oooo from ni Sanskrit to lead.
adduction cozocozoco, circumduction reproduction gégococco. The method
in exceptions to this rule other than those has been possible to give a Sinhalese term nout resorting to the coining of a word en available which is suitable for use in
ples.
150
N

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SINHALIESE TEC
Jaundice ක0ම Still birth මූඪග් Strabismus කේක්‍ෂ Surgery ଔG): Tumour අර්බු
All the above Sinhalese terms c used by Susruta. Here are a few mor borrowed from Raghu-Vira's Comp1
Artery ධමනි Medullary Seišeg Pons සේතු Treadmill චාරල් Varicose අපස්
(ii) It provides a definite Conn translated word because the roots o common. Such a system even if it and scientific.
(iii) It ensures that no overlap of of such a system, overlap occurs only ti with productive words. For instar derivatives has, in older glossaries, bee
Adaptation Metabolism Recurrent Reflection Refractive Relapse
-tropic Torsion Reversing Rolling (in rolling Fricti Alternating current Diffraction Refringent
Pivot
Harmonious
Choke
15
 
 

HNICAL TERMS
ලාව గ్రg) කරය -
Cටී
ರೈQರಿ
ome from the medical terminology e examples, the terms this time being rehensive English-Hindi Dictionary.
කිය
ක
}ව ඉප්ෂණිය චීත
ection between the original and the f both words have one meaning in has no other virtues surely is rational
terminology occurs. In the absence bo frequently and the danger is greatest ce, 85% (vrit.—Skt. to turn) or its in used in a number of contexts :
අනුවර්තනය පරිවෘත්තිය පුනරාවර්ත පරාවර්තනය වර්තන පුනරාවර්තනය නිවර්තන වාරියාවර්තන ප්‍රතිවර්තන on) පරිවර්තන
ප්‍රතාපාවර්තක විවර්තන වර්තනකයාරී විවර්තනිය අනුවර්තී විවර්තකය

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Examining the above words : physiology and biochemistry accordi
English Sinhalese
Metabolism ආරාබිත්තිය Α ( Recurrent ප්‍රතිධාරා ( Reflection | ප්‍රතිමිථ්‍යාජනය R
Refractive ප්‍රතිභාගී
-tropic නිවර්තන Relapse පුනර්පතනය
Another list of words collected -to go-has been used in the follow
Transference Transition Infection Imigration Emigration Gradient
This overlap in the older glos because the glossarian usually deals W. are often, for convenience, taken fr subject the glossary Committee is de recurrent and relapse are done on two these words which both contain the ic the same basic word g2SDÓɔêDÖS), beca on the basis of the meaning of the ori,
In connection with the last poin the position with regard to translati an identical meaning. Thus renal a kidney; one is Latin and the other G should they be given the same root visualize all the contexts in which the

CEYLON REVIEW
und rendering those Connected with ng to the present rules we have :
Connected Sinhalese
fertis equivalents a -
Anabolism උක්ඛිත්තිය
Catabolism අවක්ඛිත්තිය
Current ධාරාව
Reflex ප්‍රතිමියංජය
Flexor මිථ්‍යාජකය
racture භග්නය
Birefringence ද්විප්‍රතිහෙජනය
tropism වාර්තනාපය
from older glossaries where Skt. Kram ring :-
සංක්‍රයාමණය සංක්‍රමණය రింప్రతిలకుంటి రింప్రైలిలపcరి නිෂ්ක්‍රමණය අනුක්‍රමණය
saries illustrated above often happens rith lists of unrelated words. The lists om the index of a text book on the aling with. It may thus happen that different days and then it is likely that lea of something which recurs are given use the glossary committee has gone ginal words rather than by their roots.
it we should like to draw attention to ng Greek and Latin roots which have nd nephro- both mean belonging to the reek. In translating renal and nephroor different roots a Since one cannot se terms may be used, the safer policy -
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SINHALESE TEC
is to give them separate roots. The a DzSz5. In the case of baro Which is C as a learned equivalent of pressure the baro and pressure is very clear. If one
| tro- and pressure, barometric pressure v
මාන පීඩනය (cf. baro භාර, baroceptor
The last principle which we wish t of synonyms and connected words rather For example, the word eye and ne ophthalmic and optic should be dones In fact, not only such basic terms but oculogyral and oculomotor should be method ensures that there is no over synonyms in Sinhalese, as in the Eng cannot be used indiscriminately for a
We are not unmindful of the generally followed in coining technica rise to a "pseudo-Sinhalese jargon'. that in any language the scientific tec widely from the lay language and sor logy used up to that time. The lan countries have kept abreast with the
| by continuously introducing new te
the technical terms so introduced are ing (1961), while admitting that new and the like have to be given new nan ears of corn are almost smothered wit neologisms”. On the other hand, S static in the fields of science and techn at the present moment faced with a for which Sinhalese or Sinhalized Wol which there have never been any re. coined Sinhalese technical terms in th monstrous—especially to the student simply because of their unfamiliarity. was first encountered by Sir Arthur a person than the Professor of English
bridge, he was provoked to call suc mongrel at that'; and proceeded to st
15
 

HNICAL TERMS
1 renal becomes &a2S25cc and nephroreek for weight and is generally used need for giving two different roots to
uses 86.25) as an equivalent for both rould have to be translated by 8&o- භාරග්‍රාහය.)
o state is that it is uise to deal with lists than with ad hoc lists of unrelated words. ar synonyms such as visual, oculo-, imultaneously rather than in isolation. also their derivatives such as oculentum, considered at the same time. This lap and shows the need for technical glish: any one of such a list of terms nother.
ossibility that the principles we have 1 terms in Sinhalese may appear to give It is well to remember, however, hnical terminology employed departs metimes even from scientific terminoguages of the scientifically advanced advancement of scientific knowledge rms as the need arose. Whether all necessary is open to question. Pickerelements, new concepts, new ideas hes, remarks that "unfortunately these h weeds of unnecessary and imprecise inhalese has remained comparatively ology. This is precisely why we are multitude of English scientific terms lds have to be urgently found but for al Sinhalese equivalents. The newly e Glossary may appear at first to be of the "pure' Sinhalese but this is When the medical term "antibody” Quiller-Couch who was then no less Literature at the University of Camh a derivation “a barbarism, and a ate that “the man who uses it debases
3

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UNIVERSITY OF
the currency of learning. Howev "antibody' but also a whole host of C eventually achieved universal accep preceding Quiller-Couch's outburst was waiting, the other day, in the do those books . . . . . . . . I found myself of certain well-meaning bacilli g Roberts (1954) points out the irony ever, that in the very first sentence t room, a mongrel word if ever there w The simple truth of the matter lies i. to Quiller-Couch and he called it nar a word as antibody) was familiar to h without arousing any emotion as he
In conclusion, we would like to were not arbitrarily formulated by the slowly by the Committee out of a r However, we hope that we have no this system to be the final solution technical glossary in Sinhalese. We and advice regarding the methods w
Sum
The principles which we found the Official Language Department in in Sinhalese in the field of Physiolog
1. to avoid generally using
technical terms. 2. to deal with individual Wor 3. to transliterate international 4. to translate technical terms 1 basis of roots taken from S. equivalent to the roots of th
REFE
Bow MAN, W. (1842). Philos. Trans., 132, 57. CUSHNEY, A. R. (1917). Secretion of Urine. p.

CEYLON REVIEW
:r, with the passage of time not only ther similarly derived technical words tance. Incidentally, the passage just against antibody reads as follows: "I ictor's anteroom, and picked up one of engaged in following the manoeuvres bnerally described as Antibodies. of this situation thus: 'Observe, howne censorious writer himself uses anteas one—half Latin and half Teutonic.” 1 the fact that antibody was unfamiliar nes while anteroom (which is as bastard im and so came to him spontaneously was used to it.
state that the above principles and rules Glossary Committee but were evolved sal necessity in the course of its work. it given the impression that we claim to the complex task of compiling a would welcome criticisms, suggestions
have illustrated here.
Limary
to be desirable to adhere to in assisting preparing a glossary of technical terms y and Biochemistry were:
loose, common words in translating
is and not with phrases.
(C11) S. - lot on the basis of meaning, but on the
anskrit, Pali, latent Sinhalese, etc., and e technical terms in English.
V. BASNAYAKE, S. R. KOTTEGODA, T. W. WIKRAMANAYAKE.
RENCES
Cited by 39, London: Longmans.
154
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IHNDRIs, R. W. (1961). Clin. Pharmacol. The
OGDEN, C. K. AND RICHARDs, I. A. (1949). T
Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
PICKERING, G. (1961). Lancet, 2, 115.
QUILLER-COUCH, A. (1946). The Art of Wril
Press.
ROBERTS, F. (1954). Medical Terms. 1st editic SINCLAIR, H.M. (1948). Vitamins and Hormo
TROWELL, H. C., DAVIES, J. N. P. AND DEAN
Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
UNESCO (1958). Scientific and Technical Tr
We wish to thank Dr. A. G. H.
for reading through the script.

ECHNICAL TERMS
ኃ†., 2, 274. The Meaning of Meaning. 10th edition, pp. 135-6 London:
"ing. Guild books,426,pp. 29–30, Cambridge University
on, p. 5. London: Heinemann Medical Books Ltd. nes. 6, 101. , R. F. A. (1954). Kwashiorkor. p. 10, London: Edward
anslating. 2nd edition, UNESCO, Paris.
Thabrew and Mr. U. D. D. Dharmasena
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Reviews
Diaries in Ceylon, 1908-1911, by Leonard Vol. ΙΧ). 1960, RS. 10.
Leonard Woolf's Hambantota, Diaries are a wel work on the British occupation of Ceylon. They : eminence as a man of letters and critic of Imperialism, of a sensitive mind reacting to the humdrum problems of the British Empire. In Woolf's day the Civil Serv Government Agent possessed very real power-hepo, inistrative, revenue and judicial powers. And lest hi might reflect on the fact that Woolf in his recently explains that he resigned from the Civil Service beca expense of independence and freedom
Hambantota is the Siberia of the Ceylon Civil Se: He " fell in love with the country, the people, and th everything in London and Cambridge to which he He had an obsession for work stimulated by his love finest achievement at Hambantota was the record salt the simple device of altering the System of paying th him to get labour for the salterns. This was the A vigorous and efficient instrument in the hands of a ma
The great rinderpest epidemic of 1909-' a terrib test for Woolf. The epidemic had spread down in measures were necessary; all infested animals and c. uninfected cattle had to be impounded. These meas. epidemic but their ruthless application brought nothi ment. It was, Woolfinsists, the only occasion durin hostility of the people. Years later he looked back o they could be read as a moral tale about imperialismmode of life trying to impose its rule upon an entirely d p. 193).
But a Civil Servant's life-even at Hambantota ceremonial duties; he must organize the Empire Day Hambantota, consisting of curry and rice. Most succ volunteer parade and salute of flag. 2.30 p.m. Marc 6 p.m. sports.” May 24th 1909).
And there were more solemn occasions. 'May 2 Funeral was observed as a day of mourning. At 5 o'cl About 1,000 people assembled in the Barracks Squa Sinhalese and Tamil. The C.L.I. detachment were pri
More interesting, Woolf notes with pride that ol at cricket for the first time amidst enormous exciteme
This life had its obvious attractions but after a w pendence and freedom. And Woolf has claimed th: began to have serious doubts about imperialism itself. Miss Virginia Stevens to help him to decide to stay b
These diaries are less valuable for the light they
for the insight they provide on the working of the C diaries like Woolf's, some perhaps as readable and in
156

Woolf. (The Ceylon Historical Journal,
Come addition to the small volume of published are significant not only because of Woolf’s later put also because they provide a fascinating glimpse of provincial administration in a colonial outpost ice were the real rulers of Ceylon, and an Assistant ssessed at one and the same time very wide admiis modern counterparts envy him his power they published autobiography (Growing, 1961, p. 225) use it had brought him power and pomp at the
rvice, but that was not how it appeared to Woolf. he way of life which were entirely different from
had been born and bred ...” (Growing. p. 180). : for the people and a mania for efficiency. His harvest of 1910 which he had accomplished by e contractors. In turn this had made it easier for issistant Agency system at its most constructive, a in with initiative.
le catastrophe'he called it—was a more searching to Hambantota from Uva. To check it, drastic ontacts had to be immediately isolated, and the ires ruthlessly enforced checked the spread of the ng but unpopularity for Woolf and the Governg his stay in Ceylon when he was faced with the in these events and made the sage comment 'that —the absurdity of a people of one civilization and ifferent civilization and mode of life ...’ (Growing
- was not all a matter of hard work. He had r celebrations. . . . A feast to all inhabitants of essful, about 1,500 people coming to it .. 2 p.m. h past of school children and address, 3 p.m. to
20th (1910. The day of His Majesty's Edward VII ock rice and money were distributed to the poor. re and an address was read to them in English, esent. Afterwards memorial services were held.
in 2nd. October 1909 “Hambantota beat Tangalle ent.”
while Woolf found it irksome; it stified his inde
at towards the end of his stay at Hambantota he And there were the charms of Bloomsbury and
ck in England when he went there on leave.
throw on Woolf's intellectual development than Deylon Civil Service. There are dozens of other teresting. And no historian of the Ceylon Civil
s
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RE
Service can claim to have made a complete study able. They will be more valuable to him tha Archives at Nuwara Eliya or the Public Record
Mr. S. D. Saparamadu is to be congratulate he provides a brief but stimulating survey of the of the island. As he points out “no complete
nd when one considers that the Civil Service wa
more Reforms, the need for a definitive history that the Civil Service has been abolished, it
achievements be studied systematically and with
Co-operation, by W. R. S. Satth University Presss (Second Edition),
This is a new edition of a book that appeare on Indian Affairs.
The present re-edition is a very welcome add Its forty five pages gives a bird's eye view of and future role in the country's economy.
For the more serious student of the subject, edition gives more space to the origins and deve edition gives a brief historical survey, greater spa second and third Five Year Plans.
The present edition has one short coming: movement has shown its development to be lopof 1911, the Royal Commission on Agriculture o is no mention of this or some of the other diffi officials, the apathy of the Indian peasantry towe of the co-operatives to end up as joint stock com however, expect everything from a book of fort one coming from two seasoned campaigners. Co-operatives Societies, Madras, and Rao Bahadh became Chief Officer of the Agricultural Credit

VIEWS
if he has not read as many of these diaries as are avail1 all the despatches he can read at the Government Office in London.
i on the excellent introduction to these diaries. Here Ceylon Civil Service and its role in the recent history istory of the Ceylon Civil Service' has been written. the effective Government of Ceylon till the Donoughof the Ceylon Civil Service becomes obvious. Now s all the more necessary that its historic role and scientific detachment.
K. M. DE S.
ianadhan and J. C. Ryan. Oxford
1962, pp. vii -- 45.
in 1946, published as No. 39 of the Oxford Pamphlets
ition to the available literature on Indian Co-operation. the co-operative movement's history, development
it would be well to read both editions. The earlier lopment of the co-operative movement. The present ce being devoted to the role of the co-operative in the
it is prone to over-optimism. The brief history of the sided, as was pointed out by the Maclagan Committee f1928 and the more recent Saraiya Committee. There culties of the movement, like the shortage of trained irds co-operatives and the inevitable tendency of some panies controlled by a few shareholders. One cannot, 7 five pages and the present edition is a very admirable Mr. W. R. S. Satthianadhan, I.C.S., was Registrar of ur, J. C. Ryan also held a similar post and subsequently Department of the Reserve Bank of India.
S. R.
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Printed at the Ceylon University Press,
K. D. Somadasa, Acting Li
 

ombo 3, by R. L. de Alwis and published by , University of Ceylon, Peradeniya.
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