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International Centre for:
 

CES Lecture Discussion Series
S IN SRI LANKA
SNTAMIL NADU
SS by
EARACH(CH.
S
2008
thnic Studies, Colombo

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Osmund Bopearachchi is Di National Centre for Scientific R Central and South Asian Archa University.
August 2008
International Centre for Ethnic S 2, Kynsey Terrace
Colombo 8
Sri Lanka

rector of Research of the French esearch (Paris) and Professor of eology of the Paris IV-Sorbonne
tudies

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TAMILTRADERS
2. SINHALESE TRADE)
OSMUND BOP (C.N.R.S.
s
INTERNATIONAL CENTRE COLOM

S IN SRI LANKA d RSINTAMIL NADU
EARACHICH PARIS)
po
FOR ETHNIC STUDIES, MBO

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Tamil Traders and Sinhalese Trad
New Archaeolo on Cultural and Comr Between Ancient Sri L.
Osmund BOP (C.N.R.S.
The main aim of this paper is to and epigraphical evidence obtain exploratory programs conducted throw light on cultural, commer between South India and Sri LaI had maintained close contacts si their geographical proximity. Fro South Indian mercantile communit Nanadesis and Tisai Aiyirattu associated military communities li in different periods played an im political history of the island. Ob
Most of the new data discuss archaeological program on the org with the ancient ports on the west launched by the French Mission c Lanka in collaboration with the Ar I am most grateful to Dr. W. Wij Archaeology for his unfailing he
Apart from the epigraphic and activities of these South Indian c their coins found especially at Al ancient sites of the island, see O.
For further details see K. Indrap. 1984, 1990, 1994).

in Sri Lanka ers in Tamil Nadu,
gical Evidence mercial Relationships anka and Tamil Nadu
EARACHCHII
PARIS)
show how new archaeological ed from recent excavations and in Sri Lanka and in Tamil Nadu, 'cial and political relationships nka. Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka nce proto-historic times, due to m the early period onwards, the ties like Vanijha, Sattu, Aiyavole, Ainurruvar and their medieval ke Vrakkotiyar and Velaikkarar” portant role in the economic and viously, it is beyond the scope of
ed here were obtained from the anisation of maritime trade connected ern and southern coasts of Sri Lanka, fArchaeological Co-operation in Sri haeological Department of Sri Lanka. eyapala, former Director General of lp and collaboration.
literary evidence, the commercial ommunities are known to us through nuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and other Bopearachchi, 1993. ala, (1990), S. Pathmanathan, (1976,

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this article to deal with all the D trade with Sri Lanka. I have al detail in the light of numismat made an attempt in this paper, t Indian mercantile communities proto-historic and early historic S As we shall see later, recentarch in a different and important con A good number of inscripti Sinhalese or in Tamil scripts, dea shipping communities, have be Paranavitana and some other sch texts concerning political and ec are analysed to a certain exter these data, as we shall see later discoveries made in the western and in South India in recent ye importance of cultural and trad and Sri Lanka. Apart from thes beads, intaglios, seals and sealin or in an archaeological context, As I have pointed out in my earl characteristic of all the ancient Sri Lankan coast, as well as m their geographical situation at th of emporia along rivers must h the interior regions. The startin the spatial distribution of ancie coasts. It is significant that anc (Muciri), Porakad (Bacare), Kol Podouke (Putucceri) were situa mouth of the rivers, especially
ʻ O. Bopearachchi, 1993, 1995, 19 S. Paranavitana, 1970 & 1983;Y. Dec. 2001 papers presented at P “ N. Wijesekara, 1952. 7 O. Bopearachchi, 1998&1999.

ravidian communities involved in ready dealt with this question in ic and literary evidence.' I have ) highlight the activities of South whose existence, in relation to ri Lanka, is relatively little-known. aeological discoveries place them text. ons, written either in Brāhmī or in ling directly with the south Indian en brought to light by Senarath holars. The Indian and Sinhalese onomic aspects of these mariners it by N. Wijesekara." Further to , the numismatic and epigraphic and southern coasts of Sri Lanka ars enable us to re-evaluate the e relations between Tamil Nadu se Written documents, ceramics, gs discovered either sporadically are also particularly significant. ier work’ that the most important ports of the western and southern any others around the island, is e estuaries of rivers. The location ave facilitated transactions with g point of our investigations was int ports along the South Indian ient ports like Ponnani, Muziris kho (Korkai), Karikal (Camara), ted either on the banks or at the the Ponnani, the Achenkoil, the
8 and 1999. Subbarayalu Dec. 2001; K.V. Ramesh eradeniya University.

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Tamraparni, the Kavaeri, and Ariyan kuppam river, Kaverip Alagankulam on the Vaigai river at the Krishna river are well knc three Tamil capital cities were in several marts on the coast. For K kings, situated at the Amaravatir city of the Chola kings, the mai also called Kaveripumpattinam, i the capital city of the Pandyas, a Vaigailed to Saliyur (modern Al Thanks to the generosity of my T a great esteem, I was enabled ti sites, and examine archaeological I wish to thank very particularly S. Suresh, R. Krishnamurthy, Y. for their unfailing help.
Like in India, the most impo too were inland, but each had on most active port in ancient Sri La Ari river (Malvatu Oya or Kadar to the inland capital of Anuradha situation of the ancient capital c the Mahaveli Ganga, which flow
* In his excellent study, J. Deloch ( the role of ancient ports, situated of Tamilnadu, also see R. Nagasw
” K. Karttunen, 1995, p.85.
"o R.L. Brohier (1935, p. 12) assun Ganga between the island of Ka Trincomalee was of sufficient d small vessels. Though Gokannab eleventh century, when the r Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, that it was known as early as the reached the island from the east. T Gokanna at the mouth of the Maha during the reign of Kitsirimegha took him with him and came in a
3.

the Cenci. Arikamedu on the pattinam at the Kav, er i river, and Dharanikota and Vijayapuri wn sites of this nature. All the land towns, but each had one or arur, the capital city of the Cera iver, and for Uraiyur, the capital n port was the Kaveripattinam, in the Kaveri delta. For Madurai, direct river connection along the agankulam) near Ramesvaram.” amil colleagues for whom I hold o visit all these very important material denoting maritime trade. (ravatham Mahadevan, K. Rajan, Subbarayalu and S. Gurumurthy
rtant ancient capitals of Sri Lanka e port on the coast. Manthai, the nka, is located close to the Aruvi mna Nadi) which linked the port pura. Likewise, the geographical of Polonnaruwa on the banks of 's to the sea at Gokanna, is not a
1980 & 1985) has discussed in detail beside rivers or lagoons on the coast ramy, 1991.
mes that the section of the Mahawali linga in Polonnaruwa and the sea off epth at all times to be navigable for became a flourishing harbour from the oyal capital was transferred from there is sufficient evidence to show a fifth century AD to merchants who he Culavamsa (XLI, 70-80) mentions weli Ganga, attheBay ofTrincomalée, (AD 555-573) “He (Kittisirimegha) moment to the Gokanna Sea'.

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coincidence." In the same wa ancient city in the south, blosso bank of the Kirindi Oya which c port of Kirinda.
There is no reason to be centuries of our era, Roman tra Sri Lanka. This was probably ( two monsoon winds, used for sa reach. Lionel Cassono has con of the Periplus (circa first cer ships leaving Egypt for India, V and Berenice. It is now believe were brought via the Nile to Co across the desert by camel or do The propertime to leave Egypt the South-West monsoon winds, of Aden and reached the port September or in October. There for the month of November, tak monsoon winds. Merchants hard and load their ships with new m continued their voyage up to SI North-East winds which assur certainly more profitable for the products from the Indian marke island waiting for the next, Norththe South Indian traders may ha between Roman traders and reference to the ships of Taprob in contrast with the Roman ve 10,000 amphorae, shows that t
O. Bopearachchi, 2006 a.
o L. Casson, 1991.
D.P.M. Weerakkody, 1997, 226 more than six yards deep, but anchors touch the bottom. Fort end so that they do not need channel. Their capacity is about

ay, Tissamaharama, Sri Lanka's med due to its location on the left onnected the town to the ancient
lieve that during the first three ders had direct connections with lue to the time gap between the iling, which put Sri Lanka out of vincingly shown that, at the time tury AD) the starting point for were the ports of Myos, Hormos :d that the goods to be exported ptos and from there, transported nkey to the corresponding ports. for India was July. Making use of the ships sailed through the Gulf s of the west coast of India in turn journey had to be scheduled ing advantage of the North-East ly had a month to sell their goods erchandise. Sailors may have not i Lanka, for risk of missing the ed their return journey. It was merchants to buy the Sri Lankan ets, than spending a year on the East monsoon. During this period, ave played the intermediary role Sri Lankans. Pliny’s specific )ane carrying 3000 amphorae', }ssels capable of carrying over he navigation through the straits
: “The sea in between is shallow, not in certain channels so deep that no his reason ships have prows at either to turn about in the narrows of the t three thousand amphorae.”

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of Mannar was undertaken not by was during this period when the S. the intermediary role between R that they came from Andhra-Tam of merchandise.
The following sea ports sub all situated at the estuaries of riv, Deduru-oya, Wattala at the Kelai at the Kalu Ganga, Bhīmatittha ( Gimhatittha (Gintota) at the C (Welligama) at the Polwatta Gang Nilwala Ganga, Gothapabbata (G Kirinda at the Kirindi Oya.
We obtained positive resu explorations conducted at Giriba Oya, which flows to the sea at U
o Concerning the explorations con see O. Bopearachchi, 1999, p. 16.
For the excavations conducte Bopearachchi, 1999, p. 8. In 1998 the French Mission of Archaeolo pits over a distance of 100 mete excavation of an unused furnac tuyeres were fixed. The second sc of a U-shaped furnace entirely ma where iron ore was reduced are si the heap of slags. After each red the slags and scarps were piled u in voluminous blocs, fragments with solidified impurities and cha out on seven P.R. 1. samples by th Laboratory in Miami, Florida, reve the Xth and XIth centuries. Aside ements of the furnaces were tak University of Montpellier II Scienc from the debris in the heaps dispo two most interesting samples cc tuyeres (SL.P. 1 & SL.P2-c). Two mixed with clayey earth (SL.P2-a8 are glass fragments (SL.P.2-d&S element (SLP4).

Romans but by Sri Lankans. It outh Indian traders were playing oman traders and Sri Lankans, il Nadu to Sri Lanka in Search
jected to our investigations are ers: Salavattota (Chilaw) at the ni Ganga, Kāla littha (Kalutara) Bentota) at the Bentota Ganga, Gin-Ganga, Mahāvālukagama a, Nilwalatittha (Matara) at the odavaya) at Walawe Ganga and
ilts from the excavations and wa on the left bank of the Kala ruvelapattna; at Panirendava,
ducted in the area around Giribawa,
d at Panirendava, 1998, see O. the Department of Archaeology and gical Co-Operation opened two test :rs. The sondage P.R.1 enabled the e wall to which six conical-shaped indage, P.R.2, revealed the existence ide of refractory walls. The furnaces ituated in the cavity in the middle of uction, the furnace was broken and p, creating layers composed of slags of furnace walls, and tuyères filled coal. The carbon 14 analysis carried e Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating aled that the centre was active during from the carbon samples, several el en to France to be analysed at the :es. These samples had been collected ised in the form of a horse-shoe. The »rrespond to ferruginous slags and other samples are ferruginous slags SL.P2-b). The fifth and sixth samples L.P.3) and the lastone, a crystallised

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on the left bank of the Deduru the ancient port of Salavattota;: right bank of the Kelani Ganga, ancient sea port of Wattala' an of the Walawe Ganga which fl port of Gothapabbata. Althoug in our excavations is not discuss findings will be highlighted in rela between Tamil Nadu and Sri La Let us now look at the cultural and trade relationship. India during the proto-histor Proto-historic Sri Lanka was mo1 In the excavations conducted Pomparippu, Kantarodai and Ibl of potsherds were found, wh early historical wares of South and Red Ware.
* Concerning the sondages in sun close to Kelaniya, see O. Bopea rafts can go up to Sitawaka, abol one of the short-lived capitals H.W. Cave (1908) has describ twentieth century, sailing craft miles down this river to the se warehouses of Colombo. " For the results of the exploratior 1993 to 1996, O. Bopearachchi, 1 See S. Daraniyagala, 1972, 19 Anurdhapura; V. Begley, 1970 Kantarodai; and H.-J. Weisshaal ' The Department of Archaec Archaeological Co-operation i. sondages insummer 1997, atthe about seven kilometres from the clarify the stratigraphy and to phases of the early historic sett

Oya, which flows to the sea at at the village of Pilapitiya, on the about seven kilometres from the d at Ridiyagma on the left bank )ws to the sea at the ancient sea h each and every discovery made ed here, the importance of major ation to cross-cultural relationships Inka.
archaeological evidence on s between Sri Lanka and South ic and early historic periods. e closely linked with South India. id at Gedige in Anuradhapura, pankatuwa, substantial quantities ich parallel the Iron Age and India, such as Megalithic Black
nmer 1997, at the village of Pilapitiya rachchi, 1999, pp. 10-13. Even today it forty km from the river mouth, where of the sixteenth century was situated. ed how, even at the beginning of the carried chests of low-grown teas 60 'a and thence to the harbour and the
ls and excavations at Ridiyagma, from 999, pp. 13-16. 86, 1992 for excavations at Gedige, for Pomparippu; V. Begley, 1967 for , 1992, for Ibbankatuwa. ology and the French Mission of n Sri Lanka jointly carried out three village of Pilapitiya close to Kelaniya, estuary of the river Kelani, in order to determine the different chronological lements of the site.

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The excavations conducted Pilapitiya close to Kelaniya, als and Red Ware.' We were also able to collect at R along the Walawe Ganga, large quá and Red Ware, some of which we symbols.
K. Rajan and I undertook a ( firing graffiti marks, usually foun Black and Red Ware, attested fror in Tamil Nadu and from our ex Ridiyagama and Kelaniya in Sri Li takes the form of the Brahmi aksa composite form on the potsherds symbol composed of one verticall lines on its side, meeting at a poi element, also appears in more e strokes. The ladder like symbol, attested in Kodumanal, Ridiyaga
From 1993 to 1996 we carriec excavations at Ridiyagama, about mouth of the River Walawe. The the two ancient reservoirs, are tod of an extension built by the Britis 1995, the excavation brought to lig into 45 different contexts determi phases of occupation go downto a and Red Ware were numerous in th copper slags, mica, burnt charcoal, objects and beads. This layer different human activities. The n small number of potsherds and beginning of human settlement. T phases of settlement from the fo AD is supported by Roman coi ceramics, copper slag followed by than twenty furnace structures we may have been used for forging i ” O. Bopearachchi& K. Rajan,200.

by us in 1997, at the village of o yielded early historic Black
idiyagama' and at many sites intities of early megalithic Black re engraved with early historic
:omparative study on these post d on the shoulder portion of the in his excavations at Kodumanal plorations and excavations at anka. The moon symbol which tra ma occurs individually or in
collected from both sites. The ine at the centre and two oblique nt on the top, serving as a basic laborate forms with additional in simple or composite form, is ma and Kelaniya. The swastika
out systematic explorations and twelve kilometres upstream from the ancient settlements, clustered round ay completely under wateras a result h at the beginning of the century. In ht six stratigraphic layers, subdivided ned by significant features. Different depth of 1.35m. Fragments of Black ethird layer. The fourth layer yielded early Black and Red Ware, terracotta s thus characterised by extensive lost ancient layer brought to light a l copper slag, thus indicating the le approximate dating of the different urth century BC to seventh century ls, Black and Red Ware and other iron slags and beads. In 1996, more e excavated. Some of these furnaces on or for cementation.

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symbol is found in both sites ind forms with arms branched out. most ancient layers of the exc: light fragments of Black and Re
confirmed by the calibrated dati goes without saying that most attested on the Black and Red Wa Excavations at Anuradhpura.'
Various scholars have clas marks, owner's marks or as clan graffiti marks attested in the me clan symbols, but he made it cle that graffito found in the habitat The limited excavations and lac elude in understanding the true signs. However, occurrence oft graffiti marks both in Sri Lankar to suppose without much of a r cultural and trade contact bet interesting to note here that the thin-sectioning of Black and Re our excavations at Ridiyagama a Louis Reille, du Département de de l’Espace de l’Université Mor clearly, that in spite of the dist kilometres which separate the tv pottery as far as the charact concerned.
The possibility of one proc seems to have come to light, tha
* See S. Daraniyagala, 1972, p.
Anurdhapura. S. Seneviratne (1984) identified symbols. * K. Rajan, 1997, pp. 79-80. 2. See I.W. Ardika, & al. 1993; V.D *° V. Begley, 1988.

ividually or in various composite It is interesting to note that the avations at Kelaniya brought to d Ware which can be dated with ry BC. This chronology is now ng obtained by C l4 analyses. It of these graffiti marks are also ure fragments found in the Gedige
sified these symbols as potter's
marks.' K. Rajan identified the galithic burials at Kodumanal as :ar, based on statistical analyses, ion had other meanings as well.' sk of proper documentation still meaning that stands behind these he same individual or composite and Tamil Nadu sites, enable us isk that there was a continuous ween these two regions. It is 2 petrographic analysis done on 2d Ware samples collected from nd Kelaniya, carried out by Jeans Science de la Terre de l'Eau et ntpellier II Sciences, shows very ance of more than two hundred wo sites, the homogeneity of the ristic mineral inclusions are
iuction centre in time and space inks to the X-ray diffractometer
123-42 for excavations at Gedige,
few of these symbols as clan or family
). Gogte, 1997.

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analysis done by Indian and Aust so-called Rouletted Ware from South-East Asian sites. As we k the hypothesis put forward by M which Rouletted Ware found at the Roman World. Begley treate product and not import, though th have been acquired from the class Siran Deraniyagala suggested, ir that the Rouletted Ware had its C Ware and that its characteristic gu inputs from the Northern Black Gangetic Valley.** Having analys India, Sri Lanka and South-East arrived at the same conclusion: " that not only was RW produced the painted circular decorations developed into the beautiful ind NBP period, contrary to the view t by the Classical or Imperial Rom It is also interesting to ni Rouletted Ware during the termi 250 B.C.) at Chanraketugarh, Arikameduo and Anuradhapura Rouletted Ware from the North chronology is further confirmed between 250 to 185 B.C. with 68. context 9 of our own excavatic fragments of Rouletted Ware.
7 R.E.M. Wheeler & al. 1946. ** S.U. Deraniyagala, 1992, p. 712. * VD. Gogte, 1997, p. 83. 30 V.D. Gogte, 1997, p. 80-2.
B.B. Lal, 1949. o R. Nagaswamy, 1991. *° V. Begley, 1988; V. Begley & al. 19 o“ S.U. Deraniyagala, 1992, pp. 712

ralian specialists, on samples of various Indian, Sri Lanka and now, Vimala Begley contested ortimer Wheeler' according to Arikamedu was an import from d Rouletted ware as a regional he technique of decoration could ical world at some point of time. 1992, that one could postulate origins in the medium-fine Grey n-metal lustre reflected technical Polished Ware tradition of the sed representative samples from Asia, by XRD, Vishwas Gogte It is therefore highly suggestive in the Ganga Plain but also that of the PGW period gradually ented concentric patterns in the hat the technique was influenced han worlds”.?o ote that the occurrence of the nal phase of the NBP period (c. o Sisupalgarh,o Alagankullamoo suggests the evolution of the ern Black Polished Ware. This by the calibrated dating by c. 14 % probability, obtained from the ons at Kelaniya which yielded
996, pp. 115-285. 3.

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According to Vishwas Go from India, Sri Lanka and Sou analysis, contain minerals iden and clay from Chandraketugarh Gangetic delta. Likewise, he con Tamluk region was the source other Indian sites, Sri Lanka an
The analyses on Roulettec and some scholars do not comp K. Rajan is of the opinion that found in Tamil Nadu particular this ware would not have been Tamluk region alone. At Alaga cultural deposit yielding Roulet than a century was found. If R imported from Chandraketugarh suggested by Gogte, then other c have come from that region. In co quite a number of Roman artefa origin, but not of Chandraketu further collaborative evidence is conclusion. Whether there were we begin to understand the pat through the Megalithic period or India and Sri Lanka. The exports followed by Rouletted Ware may through these trade routes. So, Arikamedu, Algankulam in Soutl visited by these traders.
V.D. Gogte, 1997, pp. 80-2, an Weisshaar, H. Roth & W. Wijeyap
Personal communication.
o7 S. Suresh, 2004.
1

gte, the Rouletted Ware samples th East Asia subjetcted to XRD tical to those of Rouletted Ware , the famous port situated in the cluded that the Chandraketugarhof the Rouletted Ware found in d South-East Asia.
| Ware are still in an initial stage letely share Gogte’s hypothesis. : the amount of Rouletted Ware ly in Alagankulam suggests that produced in Chandraketugarhnkulam, more than a two metre ted Ware, covering a phase more ouletted Ware was continuously -Tamluk region over a century as ultural material definitely would ntrast to that, Algankulam yielded cts, Brahmiscript of Sri Lankan garh-Tamluk region. Therefore necessary before coming to any one or many producing centres, terns of trade routes developed hwards between the East coast of of Northern Black Polished Ware have reached the island of Lanka , the ports like Kaveripatinam, n India may have been frequently
i more recently V.D. Gogte, in H.-J. )ala, 2001, p. 198-202,

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As we know, around ninety of South India have revealed the number of finds is, not surprisin region. Several discs made usi unearthed from Tissamaharama. us at Kelaniya, yielded several Ware, similar to the ones found was the first time in the Sri Lank the western Wet Zone, away frc kings in the northern Dry Zone, which can be dated with certail centuries BC. It is also interesting the Indian sea port closest to Kelaniya revealed three out of Ware." Similar types of Roulet Arikamedu excavations. The R throughout Coromandel coastar well-established communication coast of India with Sri Lanka. Th and explorations on the western show that not only the North, bu island, should be included in the
Apart from ceramics, bead Lanka highlight the close comm countries. Hundreds of beads ma bone, shell, clay and above all se
The excavations conducted by S under H.-J. Weisshaar & W. (Tissamaharama), yielded not or but also several fragments of Rol J. Weisshaar, H. Roth & W. Wije clandestine diggings at Al Tissamaharama unprecedented Rouletted Ware were founc Wickremesinhe, 1999, pp. 118-9. ’ R. Nagaswamy, 1991 and N. Kas S. Gurumurthy, 1981, p.300. * See for example, V. Begley et al.,

Indian sites spread in most part rouletted ware. The maximum gly, from Andhra and Tamilnadu ng broken rouletted ware were The excavations conducted by ragments of imported Rouletted in the South Indian coasts. This kan history, that a site situated in om the capitals of the Sinhalese yielded archaeological material nty back to the fourth and third to note that like in Algankulam, Sri Lanka, the excavations at five major types of Rouletted ted ware are also attested in the ouletted Ware is known to occur ld also in Sri Lanka, indicating a network, linking the entire East he results of our own excavations and southern coasts of Sri Lanka, it also the West and South of the communication network. s found in South in India and Sri unication networks linking both ide of crystal, glass, stone, ivory, miprecious and precious stones,
ri Lankan and German archaeologists
Wijeyapala (1993) at Akurugoda ly early historic Black and Red Ware, ulettedWare, see V.D. Gogte, dans H.- apala, 2001, p. 198-202, As a result of urugoda and Minihagodana in number of engraved disks made of l, see O. Bopearachchi & R.M.
inathan, 1992.
1996, p. 243.

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were found at Ridiyagama anc semiprecious and precious sto crystals, agate, amethysts were The discovery of unpo fragments of semiprecious sto existence of a bead maki Tissamaharama and Giribawa. T with corrumdum tip (missing) us in the cavity, is further proof th perforated at the site of Tissam discovery with this regard was The presence at Giribawa of raw of melting furnaces and alumir enable us to think of this site as In recent years there have the early historical sites of And an important class of finds in mo sites include Amaravati, Dhulika Yeleswaram (in Andra Prades Kanchipuram, Appukallu, Tiruv Perur, Kodumanal, Karur, U Tamilnadu). Some of these sites have yielded coins (both Roma especially beads similar to t Anuradahapura, Kelaniya, Ridiy early sites of Sri Lanka. The b similar, in colour and shape, to th sites of South India viz. Arika Alagankulam.“o
* See O. Bopearachchi& R.M. Wic
36, P.34. See R. Nagaswamy, 1991 for Alagankulam, and for beads of si pp. 16-7; and from Tissamah Wickremesinhe, 1999, pp. 126-31 “ P. Francis, 1987, p. 29. *° O. Bopearachchi, 1999, pp. 16-7.

Kelaniya. Among the beads of mes, carnelian, lapis lazuli, rock found in hundreds. rforated beads together with nes confirms beyond doubt, the ng industry at Ridiyagama, The agate bead with the metal rod ed for perforation, still seen stuck hat beads were cut, polished and aharama.' The most fascinating made at Pabalugala at Giribawa. glass, unfinished beads, remains ha sand source at the proximity, a glass-producing workshop.
been a series of excavations at hra-Tamilnadu. Beads constitute st of the South Indian sites. These tta, Kotalingala, Peddabankur and sh), Arikamedu (Pondicherry), "amathur, Karaikadu, Mallapadi, Jiraiyur and Alaganku lam (in , especially the Tamilnadu sites, n and indigenous), ceramics and hose reported from Manthai, agama, Tissamaharama and other eads from Ridiyagama are very 2 types recovered from four major medu, Karaikadu, Uraiyur and
kremesinhe, 1999, p. 129, no. P. 34; pl.
different varieties of beads from milar type see O. Bopearachchi, 1999, arama, O. Bopearachchi & R.M.

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The bead making industry productive." The majority of th ΟΙ pear-shaped, similar to those beads, identical to the ones from F in small quantities in the so-cal periods of Arikamedu i.e. from th the second century AD.
Bernard Gratuze and Laure Babelon (CNRS - Orleans) carri dealing with ancient glass in the project is to determine the comp have a better understanding of exchanges. Glass samples from workshop and consummation sites Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Alag Giribawa,“o Ridiyagama and Kela
Two analytical methods w Ablation - Induced Coupled Pla FNAA (Fast Neutrons Activation to measure with a great sensitivi without causing the destruction
“ We carried out a series of explo) The historical significance of this at the left bank of the Kala Oyaw The site itself is not far away Parakrambahu I. The Culavamsa bridge passable by files of elepha with iron bands and nails, made ( broad. Even today the ruins archaeological site extends fro kilometres. We systematically co iron objects and particularly gla ploughing the fields or digging fascinating experience was the di of glazed tiles, glass beads and h at the site called Pabalugala. Th collected samples.

at Arikamedu was large and beads found here are spheroid from Ridiyagama. Lug-collared .idiyagama,' have been reported led Arretine and post-Arretine e first century BC to the end of
Dussubieux of he Centre Ernest d out a large research program Indian Ocean. The aim of this osition of glass objects so as to ancient technology and trade a large number of sites (glass ) were analysed, especially from ankulam in. Tamil Nadu and niya in Sri Lanka. vere used: LA-ICP-MS (Laser sma - Mass Spectrometry) and Analysis). These methods enable ty between 30 and 50 elements of the sample. The samples are
rations in the area around Giribawa. site lies in the fact that it is situated hich flows to the sea at Uruvelapttna.
from the ancient bridge built by (LXX, 123-130) describesitas a solid nts, horses and chariots, held together of beams of timber and twenty cubits of this bridge can be seen. The m the bridge to a distance of five llected and photographed potsherds, ss beads found by the villages when holes in their gardens. The most scovery of glass furnaces, thousands undreds of glass fragments and slag e analyses were carried out on these

Page 18
mainly small monochrome beads A minority of disc-shaped beads, were analysed as well. Each site several glass types, three out of diffused through Tamil Nadu anc The most important (by the is a glass type which is the result and of a soda flux taken from m to give a red, an orange or a turqu acts as a white opacifying agent one when combined with lead. through Sri Lanka and South In are known in Arikamedu. A se Pure potash ashes or saltpetre melted with high silica sand. Mo: dark blue (this colour is due to co and aqua-blue (likely due to th Arikamedu yielded a big numbe production site of this potash gla the important number ofpotash gli it enables us to suppose that it w The third glass type has close means that a mixed fluxing agent and of lime are similar too. This big amounts of cuprite (cop diffraction). Only disc-shaped b Such beads were found in Ridiy and Kodumanal.
Beads made of glass have layers in our excavations at Kel second century BC to the third most of the beads collected in ou explorations at Ridiyagama, K attested in all the important sett conclusion to be drawn from thesi to the same trade network.

obtained by the drawn method. collar beads, and moulded beads under the investigations yielded them seem to have been largely d Sri Lanka.
number of specimens identified) of the melt of an aluminous sand ineral deposit. Copper was used oise blue colour to the glass. Tin when oxidised and as a yellow This glass type is widely spread dia, even if very few specimens :cond glass type is potash like. was used as fluxing agent and st of the potash glass samples are balt), purple (due to manganese) e accidental presence of iron). r of potash beads. Although the ss is still unknown judging from ass finds excavated in Arikamedu, (as a glass producing workshop. levels in soda and in potash. It was used. The levels of alumina glass is red and owes its colour to per oxide, detected by X-ray eads are included in this group. vagama, Kelaniya, Alagankulam
been recovered from stratified aniya, ranging in date from the century AD. It is now clear that r excavations or from our surface elaniya and Giribawa are also lement sites of South India. The : discoveries is that they belonged

Page 19
The epigraphic and literary by the Tamil merchants in the ea is numerous. A recent study ur revealed the existence of a numl Prakrit (old Sinhalese) language v at or near ancient sea ports aloi 10 inscribed potsherds published Brāhmī script were reported f Kodumanal, Arikamedu and palaeographic and linguistic fea dated from the second century B examine eight out of them.
1. Arikamedhu: “Ku bi ra h written on a Grey Ware in Brāhmī . Kubira in Prakrit of fortune and wealth. Th inscriptions fund in the isla
2. Arikamedhu, first centur
Sanskrit bhūta.
3. Kanchipuram, first century khi ta, a proper name il lakshita. in Sinhala-Brahm
4. Poompuhar (Kaviripattina century B.C.: a bi maga t t
5. Kodumanal, on a Red Slipp la sa, of Mala; Skt. malla.
o I. Mahadevan, 1996 a &b. ' Two other inscribed objects, as Bengal I. Mahadevan, 1996b. Al

vidence for the active role played rly phase of Sri Lanka's history dertaken by I. Mahadevan has er of inscribed potsherds in the ritten in the BrahmT script, found g the east coast of India. The by Mahadevan, bearing Prakrit "om ancient trade centres like Algankulam. According to tures, these inscriptions can be C to the first century AD. Let us
a'. It is a complete inscription Sinhala-Prakrit and in Sinhalaor Kubera in Sanskrit is the god e same name is also attested in nd.
y A.D.: bu ta sa, of Butta, in
’ B.C., on a Grey Ware: pu sa la n Sanskrit pushya-rakshita /-
.
m), on a Red Coarse Ware, first o, ofprincess Maga. Skt. mágha.
ed Ware, first century B.C.: Ima
eal and a sealing were reported from to see K. Rajavelu, 1999.

Page 20
6. Alagankulam, on a Grey V
(probably Samu(da); skt.
7. Alagankulam, on a Black F
sa mu ta ha, of Samuda;
8. Alagankulam, on a Black : saga, Skt. samgha. probal origin is attested by the ga
According to S. Paranavit “Dameda” the prototype of ‘Den in Sinhalese literature as well as people who inhabit the extreme affinity to Pali, Damia, Skt. “ which are the names, in the res people, is also not difficult to rei
The epigraphical evidence Tamil merchants in the early numerous, and the following art
No. 94: The inscription in early area to the north-west of the Anuradhapura, records that the t householders (gahapatikana) Tamil, of Illubarata.
The record states that the TI the seat of honour and probabl householders.
Two Brāhmī inscriptions from P the same personage, a Tamil me as a householder (gapati).
“o S. Paranavitana, 1970, pp. lxxxixo The se numbers correspond to
S. Paranavitana, 1970, n 94.

Ware, first century B.C.: sa mu ... Samudra proper name.
ouletted Ware, first century B.C.: Skt. samudra.
and Red Ware, first century B.C.: ply Samgha Buddhist. Sri Lankan a instead of gha.
ana' : “It is easy to recognise in hela or Demala, the designation in the current speech of the Tamil south of the Indian Peninsula. Its Dramida” or “Dravida” in Tamil, spective languages, of the Tamil cognise*.
for the active role played by the phase of Sri Lanka's history is 2 a few examples among many:
Brahmi script on a boulder in the ancient Abhayagiri Dagaba at errace (Pasade) was of the Tamil and was made by Samana, the
amil ship-captain was entitled to
y was the leader of the Dameda
eriya-Puliyankulama, are both of rchant named Visaka, referred to
KC. 5. Paranavitana, 1970.

Page 21
No 356: “The cave of the h merchant.
No 357: “The work of the flig Visaskha, the Tamil merchant”
Perhaps the most evocative ins from Kuduvil in the Ampari Dis
No. 480: “The cave of the m Dighavapi, of the sons of . . . . . As Paranavitana correctly obs place of residence of these br Rohana, second in importance might well have attracted merci practised their own customs”.
Coins of the South Indian also important evidence for int labelled as Lakshmi plaques certainly struck in Sri Lanka, wi South India. Significantly a Li recovered from the river bed o situated in land around 250 kn way to Chera country. The c elephant, temple and on the rev be dated to c. 210-177 BC, bec Lanka show many parallels wit was inspired. The earliest coins from the second series of Pandy, the period circa 210-175 BC an obverse, among which an elephal to note that a similar type of coir
S. Paranavitana, 1970: n°480. °° O. Bopearachchi, 1993, pp. 83-4 *“ R. Krisnamurthy, 1997:34, pl. 3, °° O. Bopearachchi, 2006b.

ouseholder Visakha, the Tamil
ht of steps is of the householder
cription in this context is the one trict.
archants who are the citizens of and of the wife Tissa, the Tamil”. erved: “Dighavapi, given as the others, was a seat of royalty in to Mahagama only, and the place hants from foreign countries who
dynasties found in Sri Lanka are er-regional transactions. Coins depicting the goddess Lakshmi, ere found in the coastal regions of akshmi plaque of Sri Lanka was f Amaravathi, near Karur, a city n west of Kaveripatinam on the oins depicting on the obverse: erse, the symbol of the fish can ause the earliest coin types of Sri h that of the Pandyas, by which it in Sri Lanka bear designs derived an multi-type coins, struck during d bear a group of symbols on the ht normally figures. It is interesting 1 was found in structural period G.
no. 29.

Page 22
which dates to the Second century excavations conducted at Salgah of Anuradhapura. The Pandyan fi appears on the reverse of these e The most important discovery beyond any doubt the existence soil, came from the southern coas recently published a group of locall unknown in a Sri Lankan context, thousand years before the already basis of the palaeography, thes much of a risk between the seco century AD.
Among the 44 coins that w bear Tamil names. Coin no. A. 21 obverse a floral design and on th which we have deciphered as: We concluded: “This coin is of utm us a personal name in a clear T aksara na C, representing an alv in Ceylonese Brāhmī rock inscrip from South Indian inscriptions in two of our coins (here and no. A the foremost authority on Tami accepting our initial reading adde identified the Tamil alveolar nasa Tamil texts, this character termi the legend is titirana which has to conventions of Early Tamil Brahm in Tamil”. He further developedh
** O. Bopearach chi & R.M. Wickren H. Falk & R. Wickremesinhe, 2000 These numbers correspond to Bopearach chi& R.M. Wickremesi So Ibidem. o I. Mahadevan, 2000, p. 152. o I. Mahadevan, 1996a, fig. 5.30 etp
18

BC from Sri Lankan and British a Watta 2 in the ancient citadel sh symbol is also borrowed and arliest Sinhalese issues.o
7 made in recent years, to confirm pf Tamil traders on Sri Lankan it of Sri Lanka. Hary Falk and I y issued inscribed coins, hitherto which can be dated at least to a known inscribed coin. On the e coins can be fixed without nd century BC and the second
ve have deciphered, two coins of our catalogue, depicts on the e reverse the legend in Brahmi ütirana. Swastika f.o” ost importance in that it presents amil nominative form with an eolar nasal, which is not found tions, but which is well-known Tamil Brāhmī, and now, from l. 37 below). I. Mahadevan, Brahmi, in a recent article, :d: “The authors have correctly al na here and point out that in nates proper names. However be read in accordance with the l, as 

Page 23
name Uttiran is derived from asterism Uttara Phalugini. The Brāhmī pottery inscription from Our Second coin is no. 1 composed of four spokes on the in deciphering the legend in Bra following reading:?X?t ( “The reading is not absolutely clear that here again a Tamil prop form, as in no. A. 21’.“ 1. Mal revised reading: t{i*] sapit, à partly in Prakrit and Tamil. Tis used names in early inscriptions occurs 32 times.' Representing an auspicious asterism, known Devan ampliya Tissa.o Regar Mahadevan has underlined that and also in a Tamil Brahminscr exactly as on our coin.
I. Mahadevan has also id have published, and correctly in origin. The first is no. A. 17 dep right on the obverse. We read ; U mahdicita apo, /mahacit *mahacitta-atmanas, admitting to decipher it. Mahadevan sugg coin-mould has not been reverse to be obtained from the mirror-ref from the 30 clock position an direction. He reads it as: mala
“ O. Bopearachchi & R.M. Wickre o S. Paranavitana, 1970, p. lxxxiv. * O. Bopearachchi& R.M. Wickr o I. Mahadevan, 2000, p. 153. “o O. Bopearachchi & R.M. Wickre o I. Mahadevan, 2000, p. 153. 67 Ibidem.

Uttiram, the Tamil name for the name Uttiran occurs in a Tamil | Arikamedu”.o A. 37 with a design of a wheel obverse. We had many difficulties hmi, and tentatively proposed the . ? (ta)sapijana, and concluded: clear, but the final nā makes it er name is found in the nominative hadevan, proposed the following na.Tissa Pittan, a personal name sa is one of the most commonly s. Like the name of Parumakas, it Skt. tisya it again is the name of as a royal name from the time of 'ding the Tamil name Pittan, it is attested in Sangam literature iption from Kongarpuliyankulam
entified two more coins that we nterpreted the names as of Tamil icting a cock bird running to the the Legend in Brahmi: UW a appo/, "Of Mahäcitta”, Skt. the greatest difficulties we had 2sted that it looks to him as if the :d and hence the true reading has lection of the coin-legend, starting d proceeding in the clockwise c[a] ta a na. oo He then pointed
mesinhe, 1999, p.59, no. A.37.
mesinhe, 1999, p. 53.
mesinhe, 1999, no. A. 17, p. 54-5.


Page 24
out that both Mallan and Catta Tamil Brahmi inscription. The Mahadevan deciphered as a Tai Like many other coins from Tiss obverse a floral design. Deciphe A + 8 : U 2kapatikajaha apo/, “Of?Kapatikaja”, we admi is more than uncertain.° I. Mal pā ti ka tā la a na. Mahadevar Katalan” is a personal name in Tal Prakrit: “The title gapati (var. from Paligahapati Skt. grihapa merchants and others'. Mahad ga to ka in the title betrays Tam name “Katalan” is concerned, he references in Sangam literature inscription from Mangulam."
These inscribed coins subj only attested in the area of Tiss they are not so far attested in A city of the ancient kings of Sri La if such coins surface, there one coin moulds at Akurugoda," far and administrative centres like evidence that the coins in questio (no. A. 5),7* Tissa (nos. A. 9-12, 32 & 44) are well known names c no valid reason to believe that the The absence of the title raja ( significant in this context. Instea
** O. Bopearach chi& R.M. Wickrer o I. Mahadevan, 2000, p. 154. 7o Ibidem., p. 153. ”'. O. Bopearach chi& R.M. Wickrer ' These numbers correspond t Bopearach chi& R.M. Wickremes
2

n occur as personal names in a next coin from our book that I. mil personal name is no. A. 20. amaharama, this coin has on the ring the legend in Brahmi: +U ipo. Divider R, /?kapatikajaha tted that our reading of the name hadevan's revised reading is: ka i then pointed out that “Kapati mil with a prefixed title in Sinhala gapiti) in Sinh. Pkt. is derived ti “householder” a title borne by evan then shows that the change il influence. As far as the Tamil correctly draws the attention to
and in an early Tamil Brahmi
ected to our research are so far amaharama. To our knowledge nuradhapura, the oldest capital anka. We would not be surprised day. However, the discovery of away from the central political : Anuradhapura, is conclusive n were locally produced. Majima & 43) and Naga (nos. A. 24, 30fSri Lankan kings, but we have y were issued by the same kings. or maharaja on these coins is d of the title raja, we find titles
nesinhe, 1999, no. A. 20, p.55.
mesinhhe, 1999, no. B. 1, p. 61. ) the catalogue of the book: O. inhhe, 1999, pp. 51-60.


Page 25
such as gapati 'householder' ( (no. A. 1). Many other coins ar. 6, 9, 10), as if ordinary people is that local rulers, lords, househ involved in these monetary acti by lords and householders as wi and on the other, the discovery hoards' at the same site ma transactions were particularly issuing of coins in their own na Tamil, account for the fact tha were actively involved in trade i As I. Mahadevan' himself emp recent discoveries in Tamilnadu poetry from the port cities of Kaverippumpattinam on the e. Kodumanal, provide evidence o in Tamilnadu in the same perio at Anuradhapura and Tissama discoveries add to the growing close cultural, Social, religious an Sri Lanka and Tamillnadu ir Archaeology has no frontiers. I preconceived ideology, to show a given Society.
78 Ibidem. for coin moulds: pp
hoards: p. 98. * I. Mahadevan, 2000, p. 154.

nos. A. 7 & 8) or barata “lord" e even without such titles (e.g. A. sued some of these coins. It seems olders and even individuals were vities. The finding of coins issued ell as individuals on the one hand of coin moulds, money boxes and ake us to think that monetary
developed in these areas. The mes written in their own script in t Sinhalese and Tamil merchants n the Southern coast of Sri Lanka. hasised, in his remarkable article, of Sinhala Prakrit inscriptions on f Arikamedu, Alagankulam and ast coast and, further inland, at f the presence of Sinhalese traders d when Tamil traders were active harama in Sri Lanka. The new body of evidence attesting to the ld commercial intercourse between the early Historical Period. have attempted here, without any the function of material culture in
. 61, l 10-1; for money boxes and


Page 26
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Page 31
Illust
(1) Spatial distribution of a
South Indian.
Рomпатi
Muziris
o
ܘܠ
Nelcynda
 
 
 

rations
ncient sites and ports along the
Anuradhapura
O Uruvelapattina
Sri Lanka
27


Page 32
(2) Location of coin finds and
attato
:)
Cap
 
 

ancient sea ports in Sri Lanka.
SQAGE RSS


Page 33
(3) Pilapitiya ( Kelaniya) €
historic Black and Red
2
 

xcavations: layer with early Ware.


Page 34
(4) Ridiyagama: Fragment ( Ware with Swastika syr arms branched out.
(5) Fragments of Rouletted
of Pilapitiya (Kelaniya).
 
 

of early historic Black and Red mbol in composite forms with
Ware found in the excavations


Page 35
(6) Inscribed potsherd in tl the Brahmi script, bear Butta, in Sanskrit bh century A.D.).
 

he Prakrit language written in ing the inscription bu ta sa, of ûta, from Arika medhu (first
31


Page 36
(7) Coin bearing the legend v  from TisSamal
(8) Coin bearing the legend W “Kalpati Katalan” from T
 
 

Written in early Tamil Brahmi:
222.
ritten in early Tamil Brahmi: isSamaharama.


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