கவனிக்க: இந்த மின்னூலைத் தனிப்பட்ட வாசிப்பு, உசாத்துணைத் தேவைகளுக்கு மட்டுமே பயன்படுத்தலாம். வேறு பயன்பாடுகளுக்கு ஆசிரியரின்/பதிப்புரிமையாளரின் அனுமதி பெறப்பட வேண்டும்.
இது கூகிள் எழுத்துணரியால் தானியக்கமாக உருவாக்கப்பட்ட கோப்பு. இந்த மின்னூல் மெய்ப்புப் பார்க்கப்படவில்லை.
இந்தப் படைப்பின் நூலகப் பக்கத்தினை பார்வையிட பின்வரும் இணைப்புக்குச் செல்லவும்: Geography: Grade 10

Page 1
AIR-BERLIN
tele. Ani
SRI LA
2 Deduru
Mafia
e Kotte
Moratuw
SABARA
RIL
GEOGI
Education Public

uradhapur
INKAS
Kandy
Pidurutalagala Mountain 2524m
GAMUWA DGES
RAPHY
de 10
cation Department

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The Composit
The Earth our home has a population of mo. should consider ourselves lucky because it is the or
water. Its gravity holds the atmosphere we breathe, a The Earth is composed of 4 spheres which have a s
1. Atmosphere (Air) 2. Hydrosphere (Water) 3. Lithosphere (Land) 4. Biosphere (Life)
KM Cx(
400
1.1 Atmosphere
The layer of air with a mixture of gases surrounding any celestial object is the atmosphere. Sun light keeps the atmosphere floating around the Earth like a many layered shield. The atmosphere protects us from the sun's harmful rays and keeps the Earth from getting too hot or too cold. The principal constituents of the atmosphere of the Earth are :-
Thermos
80 Meso
78% Nitrogen 21% Oxygen
1% Argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour & traces of hydrogen,
| 50 100
ozone methane, carbon mon oxide, helium, krypton & xenon.
Strat
15 Tr
Soaring over 500 km. into the sky, the atmosphere consists of 5 layers. There are no clear-cut borders between the layers. Starting from the Earth's surface these layers are:-
A. Troposphere (0 to 9-16 km.) B. Stratosphere (9-16 km. to 50 km.) C. Mesosphere (50 - 80 km.) D. Thermosphere (80 - 480 km.) C. Exosphere (480 & beyond)

ion of the Earth
re than 6 billon people (6000 million). We aly planet with the right temperature for liquid nd it supports the existence of many life forms. strong inter relationship.
Ospher
sphere
Ionosphere
Low temperature
osphere
ce High temperature
Non Reflective Sphere :
OZONE LAYER Osphere
oposphere
Reflective sphere
Fig. 1.1

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5. Plateau
An area of flat high groun
6. Mountains - Mass of land rising to a gre
r—————
—————
Activities :- | 1. Mark the continents, sub continents and mou | 2. Name the peninsulas, plateau, deserts and gra | 3. Describe how any two of the above features :
L ————
1:4 Biosphere
The part of the Earth's surface and atmosphere i which they interact to form the global ecosystem. Th sustains all life.
Global Ecosystem
Is the relationships and interactions between one or more living organisms and their physical, biological and chemical environments.
An example is a pond and its associated plants,
fish, insects, birds and other animals.
The study of an ecosystem is commonly based on transfers of energy along a food chain. In most natural ecosystems, several food chains interact to form complex food or energy webs.
Geo Circles
Plants produce food with the help of various other factors. It is consumed by plant eaters and m absorbed in producing food again. Imbalance of the Biosphere
This is a result of natural causes as well as irrespo Natural - Volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods a Human - Nuclear tests, poisonous chemicals, ind
Adverse Impacts - Acid rain, extinction of anima —————————————————— Activities:- | 1. Draw the carbon cycle and Nitrogen cycle. | 2. Discuss in groups "The importance of maintair | 3. Give examples of
a. Living-Living b. Living - Nonlivir L_ _clusters in the biosphere.__

d. eg. Decaan, Tibet.
eat height. eg. Rockies, Andes, Himalayas.
— — — — — — —
ntain ranges on a world map. asslands of the world. are made use of by human beings.
n which living organisms are found, and with is includes the land, ocean and atmosphere that
Fig.1.3
eat eaters. A part of it is added to the soil and
onsible human behaviour. nd droughts. Lustrialization and deforestation. Is and organisms, adverse weather conditions.
— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
ning the equilibrium of the Biosphere"
g c. Nonliving - Nonliving
— — — —
5

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The Dynami
The formation of the Earth dates back to 4 gas and dust had evolved into its present form.
middle of the earth has caused the surface to b the globe.
The Earth could be divided into 3 main ar
2:1 Crust:-
The Earth's crust is a very thin cover, simi 10-20 km. The crust is broken into huge land on the move and are moulding the face of the
2:2 Mantle :-
Below the crust is the thicker mantle, (30 it behaves like melted plastic. It consists of
Uranium, Chromium, Nickel and Monasite.
2:3 Core :-
Closer to the centre is a fluid outer core, whi of melted iron, sulphur and other minerals. It the inner core - a solid iron crystal of the size of It too completes its daily rotation almost one se than the rest of the planet. C——————————————-
Activity :- Make a model showing the
interior of the earth
L
—
2:4 Plate Tectonics :-
Plate tectonics is the study of the moving i have a thickness of 50-80 km and they carry 1 the speed of 1-10 cm. per year. Different in s rock. Due to interior pressure these plates cr: causing all sorts of geological phenomena.

Structure and the c Nature of the Earth
-.6 billion years. It is believed that a swirling cloud of - The forces generated by rising currents of heat in the reak into huge pieces. They formed the outer crust of
reas.
Flar to the skin of an apple. Its thickness varies from I masses called tectonic plates. These plates are still e planet.
--700km) a layer of rock so hot, (nearly 5000C) that
Therium,
Crust Atmosphere
Mant le
Outer Core
ch is made surrounds the Moon. cond faster
Inner Core
--1
L
Earth's Layers
Fig. 2.1
plates that make up the crust of the Earth. The plates the continents, sea floor or both and move slowly at ize they float on a sea of superheated, partly melted ash head on, or pull a part, or rub against each other

Page 17
2:5 Major Plates :-
Eurasian Plate
Philippine (sea Plate
Cocos
Plate Pacific Plate
Indian-Australian Plate
Hot spot active
more than 10 million years ago
Hot spot active * inpast 10
million years
Antarctic Young orogenic O (Alpine and Te
than 100 milli
Fig. 2.2 Major Tectonic
i m + n
North American Carribean Pacific Nazca South American
African 7. Antarctica
8. Urasia 9. Arabi: 10. Philip 11. Indo12. Scotia 13. Cocos 14. Juan o
6.
r—————
------
Activities:-
Mark the geo plates on a world map, colour | 2. Mark the cities close to the plate boundaries
L———————————
Movement of Tectonic plates
1) Rift valley lake
When two continental plates pull apart, a wedge water fills the gap it forms arift valley lake.

American late
Eurasian Plate
Caribbean
HindiaAustralian
Plate
South American
Plate
African Plate
e Plate
belts ertiary,less on years
Fracture zones and transformation faults
Major plate boundries
Plates of the world
an pine
Australian
5
le Fuca
them in different shades.
of land often collapses between them. When

Page 18
2) Volcanic Islands
When oceanic plates collide one dives belo surface and piles up volcanic islands form. Jap
3) Folded Mountains
When continental plates collide, their ec beneath the other. Then they fold and ripple a eg. Himalayas, Pyrenees.
4) Volcanic Mountains
When an oceanic plate meets a high - riding down into the fiery-hot mantle. Its edge melt volcano, eg. Cascades (N. America) Andes (S
5) Earthquakes
Most earthquakes take place along the bo strain of the plate's motions against one anot deep in the earth where the rocks break is kno by the breaking rocks causes shock waves, kn and over its surface. The waves cause the gr quake's epicenter, the point on the ground dire
Fau
Siesmic wa
Fig. 2.3 Ana

w the other and volcanoes result. If lava comes to the anese islands were formed in this way.
ual density keeps one plate from sliding very far t the edges. These folds are called fold mountains.
continental plate, the heavier oceanic plate is pushed nto magma, which forces its way to the surface as a 1. America)
pundary, or fault, between two tectonic plates. The her causes rocks along the fault to break. The place own as the quake's hypocenter. The energy released Dwn as seismic waves. They ripple through the Earth ound to rumble. The strongest waves are felt at the ectly above the hypocenter.
Epicenter
Hypocenter
ves
tomy of an Earthquake

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———
, Activities :- | 1. Mark the earthquake zones on a world m | 2.
Note the number of major earthquakes whic
colours. | 3. Describe how Tsunami waves are caused t | 4. How do you measure an earth quake?
L————— Volcanic Activity
Below the earth's crust there is molten rock wi molten rock rises towards the surface and gets reservoirs. A central vent connects the magma res volcanoes have one or more side vents.
Steam, ash and gas erupting from a volcano can a pyroclastic flow, a hot cloud of gas, ash and pum everything in its path.
The Earth has about 1400 active volcanoes dis countries with the most numbers of volcanoes.
Eruption Cloud
Gas
Acid Rain
119
Russia
- 171 Indonesia - 161
USA
146 Japan Chile
110 Ethiopia - 72 Philippines - 53 Iceland
- 33
Pyroclastic Flow
Lava Flow
Fis
r--
———————
Activities :- | 1. What causes volcanic activity? | 2. What are the changes that happen before a | 3. Prepare a chart containing the following V
country, placel mountain, geo-plate, L ————.

ap. ch happened recently. Mark them in different
by earthquakes.
L — — —
——————————
th temperatures between 600°C - 1200°C. The collected in the crust, in pools called magma ervoir with the volcano's summit crater. Some
rise in a tall eruption cloud. Sometimes it can be nice that rushes down the mountain destroying
tributed within a few countries. Below are the
Prevailing Wind
Eruption Column
Pyroclastic
Flow
Landslide
Magma Reservoir
g. 2.4 Volcanic Eruption
volcanic eruption Folcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes 1996-2006!

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3.3 Natural Vegetation
The growth of vegetation without human interve and growth of vegetation in any region depends ont the distribution of natural vegetation in the world. Ot of vegetation cover, the vegetation of the world ma
1) Forests 2) Grass lands 3) Desert shrublands.
160 360 120 10080
Arctic Circle
Tropic of Cancer
Equator
Tropic of Capricom
Antarctic Circle
60
40
120
100
2000 2004
Fig.3.1 Natural Vegetatio Temperate Vegetation
Tropical Vegetatio
Cold Climate Vegetation
Tundra and
Ice Desert Cool Temperate Vegetation
Tropic:
Temperate deciduous Forest Mediterranean Serub
Tropic
Coniferous Forest
Steppe
Forests Tropical rain forests
Found in regions between 10° N latitudes a It is found in about 6% of the land area oft Found in Amazon basin in South America ar Along the river valleys of the Nile, Niger ai Islands.

ation is known as "natural vegetation" The type ne climate, soil and topography map 3.1 shows the basis of climatic differences and the density y be divided into three broad categories.
20•
60°
80° 100° 120
180°
n Zones in the world
I Thorn Forest
Monsoon Forest
Desert
Rain Forest
EF =
Sub Tropical Forest
Mountain Vegetation
Savannah
nd 10° Slatitudes. he earth. id Congo Basin in Africa. dZambezi, Central America and East Indian
17

Page 28
Receives rainfall throughout the year 1 Temperature of 27°C. Red latasol soil. Diversity of plants and animals. The trees are tall and the ground is over Trees of economic value- Mahogany, S and Rosewood.
Controls soil erosion.
3.3.2 Deciduous Forest
Found in countries with a temperate cli Eastern regions of North America. Certain regions of Japan and Australia. Many parts of Europe Southern regions of south America. As the leaves drop during a particular
100*
Principal regions where tropical rain for
Fig.3.2 Tr
18

500-3000 mm.
laid with decaying vegetation. landal wood, Rubber, Cinchona, Iron wood, Ebony
mate.
period it is known as deciduous forest
Erk by test seda
rest is the natural vegetation
1 U LUAR ml
3.830 h
ppical rain forest

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Physical Chai
Territorial Limits:
Territorial Sea
Every coastal state has the right to establi twelve nautical miles measured from the base area covering the territorial sea, the state has sub soil.
Contiguous zone - 24 nautical miles
A contiguous zone may extend upto 24 na following rights.
Prevent infringement of its rights. Have fiscal control Functions according to the immigratio Sanitary laws to prevent contaminatio
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
The EEZ extends to a distance of 200 nautic from the base line, within the EEZ the coastal st enjoy the following rights.
Resources in the water column Sea bed Sub surface
The Relief of Sri Lanka
The relief of Sri Lanka can be divided into fiv (Fig.4.2) It is so divided according to sign features belonging to each zone. They are :-:
1. The coastal plain 2. The intermediate plain
The central highlands
The Sabaragamuwa ridges 5. The Galoya hills

racteristics of Sri Lanka
ish, the breadth of its territorial sea not exceeding = line. A nautical mile is equal to 1852 meters. In the s the sovereign right of air space, sea, sea bed and
utical miles. In this zone. the state may exercise the
n laws of the country n of the sea
al miles ate may
Kilinochceli
Mulaittivu
Ушушка
Trtcomuke
Penne Plain
Алард
Coastal Plain
Pustakan
leasawa
Coastal Plain
i Battierakoa
eZones ificant
Кипарла
laatide
- Karuly
Gal Oya Hills
Aирига
Kegalla
Câu
CENTRAL HIGHLANDS
Namara Eliya
Colombo
Badulla
Manga
Rapura
Kaubatan
Penne
Rakwana
Massif
Plain
llawnbustota
Galle
Latuna
Fig.4.1 Physical features of Sri Lanka

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1. Low Country Wet Zone
Annual rainfall 2500-3500 mm and it cove 300 m. Receives rainfall through out the year February and September are drier than oth
2. Low country dry zone
Annual rainfall is between 1905-1270mm. Receives rainfall mainly from the North East monsoon. Receives little rainfall and high evaporation A period of drought lasting for 30-60 days annually.
3: Hill country wet zone
The region that covers this zone is formed by joining places such as
Matale, Kandy, Nuwara Eliya and Haputale. The western part of the region thus formed is the hill country wet zone. Receives rainfall through out the year Annual rainfall is between 2500-4500
m. The region which receives the highest rainfall is Watawala.
4. Hill country dry zone
The region which belongs to this zone is the Eastern part of the hill country. Average annual rainfall is about 15002000mm It lies in the rain shadow of the central
hills
C——
———
— —
Activities:- | 1. List the main climatic zones of Sri lanka | 2. Draw on a map the climatic zones of Sri lan
H

rs the region having an elevation not less than
er months.
Arid Zone
Dry Zone
Intermediate
Zone
Wet Zone
Arid Zone
Fig.4.2 Climatic zones of Sri Lanka

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| Natural vegetation of Sri Lanka
The trees, plants and creepers that grow in any place without the intervention of man is called Natural vegetation. The climatic differences bring about a diverse variety of plant and animal life. Natural vegetation is helpful to man and other living things. It depends mainly on topography, soil and climate. Natural vegetation zones of Sri Lanka are shown on (Fig.4.3) Some of the characteristics of these zones are given below.
Tropical wet forests
Distributed in the low country and mid country wetzones. Present coverage of this forest is only 8% which is the Sinharaja forest considered as a world Heritage forest. Bio-diversity is a special feature of these forests. Trees are of varying heights. There are layers of other plants below the tall trees. Trees of economic value are found such as Hora, Keena, Badidel, Godapara,
Nadun are a few examples. The average rainfall is over 2000 mm.
Dry mixed ever green forests
Distributed extensively in the dry zone. As the leaves drop from some trees it Average annual rainfall is between 12 There is a long drought period from less rainfall. The average height of a tree is betwe grow to a height of 2-3 metres. Trees of economic value are - Satin we The animals found here are elephants
24

Point Pedro
Bay of Bengal
Jaffna
Elephantpass
Kilinochchi
Mullaittivu
Indian Ocean
Mannar
Gulf of Mamar
Vavuniya
Medawachchiya
Trincomalee
„Anuradhapura
Puttalant
Polonnaruwa
Dambulla
Batticaloa
Chilaw
Kurunegala
Matale
Kandy
Ampara
Gampaha
Watawala
Nuwarakliya
Badulla
Colombo
Hanwella
Hatton
Monaragala
Ratnapura
Kalutara
Indian Ocean
Hambantota
Galle
40
60
Matara
Kilometres
Fig.4.3 Natural vegetation zones
is called dry mixed. 50 mm - 2000 mm. May - August and there is excessive evaporation and
een 15-20 metres, there is no under growth, bushes
Dod, Halmilla, Hulanhik, Palu and Milla. , wild boar, deer, etc.

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Recent Changes
In central Asia there has been a tendency to paid jobs on construction projects or in oil field of work. In many countries the governments h agricultural life. In Saudi Arabia, for example, farm machinery to the settlers at half the cost ofr trees at half price and by providing a new wells
5:4. Mediterranean Agriculture
Mediterranean agriculture as its name ir Mediterranean sea. This type of agriculture 30°S-45°S of the equator. The area within th summers comprise Central and Southern Ca province (Africa) and the South West and south
The Mediterranean climate is mild. With presence of mountain hills, piedmont plains, sm
The soil in these regions are shallow and s where alluvial soil there is intensive cultivation. of the land holding is small terracing on the hil regions cereal are grown for subsistence commercial purposes. Mediterranean agricu
i. The growing of cereals and vegetables
The cultivation of planted crops of oli
without artificial watering. iii. The cultivation of widely distributed su
plants by irrigation. iv. Livestock farming includes cattle, shee
Mediterranean agriculture is a fairly ad Horticulture and specializes on specify crops f and wine, Spain in oranges, olive oil and vine is being supported by tariffs and competes w
5:5 Plantation Agriculture
Plantation agriculture is a distinctive type o scale specialized agriculture. It is considered of agriculture goes back to the colonizatio Indonesia, Malaysia and West Africa.
Plantation agriculture is related to grow crop. It is grown as a mono crop. For insta coffee plantation just as coffee is grown.
36

wards sedentarization. Many nomads have found s and mines. Others have gone to the cities in search ave undertaken to establish the nomads in a settled the government encourages such a shift by renting maintenance and operation, by selling seeds and fruit - guidance service and other aids.
mplies is carried on in the regions close to the is carried out roughly between 30°N-45°N and ese latitudes with mild, wet winters and hot, dry lifornia (North America) the South West of Cape nern part of Australia, California.
most winters and hot, dry summer caused by the all valleys and coastal plains. tony except those in the deltas and in those areas,
Agricultural practices are more advanced if the size Il sides is a common feature. In the Mediterranean
whereas, fruit and vegetables farming is for Llture has some distinct features. These are:
with the aid of seasonal precipitation. ves, figs, dates, and grapes which ripens in autumn
ammer crops of fruits and vegetables and forage
ep, goats, and poultry.
vanced types of farming it includes floriculture, For instance Greece specializes in producing raisins e. Italy in wheat. In Italy, the cultivation of wheat
ith the commercial wheat of the United States.
f farming and the oldest of the modern type of large an export oriented mode of production. This type n of the tropical regions like India, Sri Lanka,
-ing, processing and marketing of a single cash nce in a tea plantation only tea is grown and in a Plantation agriculture has been favoured by a

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Major rice producing districts in Sri Lanl Climatic zone
(I) Dry zone
Anuradhapura, ] Trincomalee, Kil Mannar, Puttala and parts of Mo: Kalutara, Galle, small extent in N Part of Gampah Part of Kuruneg
(II) Wet zone
(III) Intermediate zone
karagat Arsim
buit Tank
мsta Aчraliana Rice Researen Station
Ra'angarie Tahun
-Ravria
Butalagaflar Rice Research
Statius
Agricu Statio
Bombuwals Rice Research
Station
Fig. 6.1)

Districts
Polonnaruwa, Batticaloa,
inochchi, Mullativu, Amparai, Vavuniya, m, Part of Kurunegala, Hambantota, naragala.
Matale, Kandy, parts of Gampaha, and a uwara Eliya. a, Amparai, Ratnapura, Matara, Monaragala, ala. (Fig. 6.1)
Paddy Cultivation
Piel Cartreef en
иные tiak
linn
Haliloviar
Makakasrakawiwa
a
Haruda
Raamheilie
Kirun Mineri
f'dketuri
Samufraga
imburettiin
Maulanan Umhche Reservoir
Nir akiritiru
Caloje
Clสมาณ Fituriya
Reservoir Refavoir Central,
Seminaruka tural Research
Sawsuuks 1.Gawwruwa
Rustemhe Randemigue Reitervenir
Reservoire
keduoja
Reservoir
C'kggal kalteta
Udalwe Reservoir
Lumugamwekera
Reservoir
Tirsa ном
Chatillrika
Ridivagatha
Winar
paddy cultivation
41

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Sri Lanka: The Major Ex
Fig. 6.2
44

sport Crops and Other Landuse
Natural Forest | Rangeland, marsh, barren land | Chena cultivation and permanent dry cropping
Traditional agriculture: purana system, village tanks and irrigated rice cultivation surrounded by chena and bigtans crops
| Large scale irrigation schemes for paddy cultivation TIE Large-scale sugarcane cultivation P7 Coconut Triangle: Coconut plantations and small holongs
mired with villages and Purana type of paddy cultivation Minor exportcrops (cacao, coffee, cardarmon, pepper) Tobacco and vegetables
Homesteads: Village setlements and homegardens in the south mixed with cinnarnon in the north wiyh paltiyran
Coconut Plantations
Rubber Plantations Tea Plantations Oilpalm Plantations Paimyrah Plantations Salterns Plantations
Tanks, rivers, coasiline

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Recent developments
Introduction of fisheries in the university cu Insurance scheme and opening of fisheries Loan scheme for fisherman. Streamlining the fisheries cooperatives. Establishment of fisheries training schools.
IMyliddy
Palk Strait
Pedro Bank
Point Pedro
Jaffna
Jaffna Poeneryn Lagoon
Vodge Bank
Mullaitivu
Mannar
Gulf of Mannar
Padawiya
Kalpiliya
Puttalam Lagoon
Puttalam
Udappuwa
Dambulla
Chilaw
Pambala
Rambodagalla
Wennappuwa
Negombo
Negomba Pitipana Lagoon 0
Nuwara Eliya
Ginigathena
Modara
Bambarakele
Beragala
Panadura Belgonda-Panaudura
Estuary
Kalutara
Panapitiya
Udawalawe
Beruwala
Ambalangoda
Murutha
Dodanduwa
Han
Galle
Devinuwara Weligama
Tangalle
Fig. 6.3 Major Areas in Sri L
50

arriculum. s banks.
Fisheries
Reference Continental Shelf
Fish Landing Centre
Fisheries Harbour
Cokkilai
Fresh water Fish Propagation Centre
Brackish Water Fish Propagating Centre Pearl Bank Prawn Farming Area District Boundary Province Boundary
Trincomalee
Polonnaruwa
Kalkudah
Batticaloa
Batticaloa Lagoon
Kaimunai
Inginiyagala
rela
mbantota
Kirinda
mbantota Bank
Kilometres
anka Fishing

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Page 67


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Kankesanthurai
O Achchuveli
Elephant Pass
Paranthan
Vavuniya
Mihintale
Kant:
Anuradhapura
Puttalam
Negampaha
Polonna
Nikaweratiya
Mahiy:
Chilaw
Rattota Kurunegala
Matale aththandiya
Pannala Lunuwila
Kandy
Pallekele Dankotuwa
Kegalle Katunayake
Yakkala Galigomuwa Ekala
Kelaniya Sapugaskandal Biyagama
Nuwara Eliya
Avissawella Colombo
Ratmalana
Oruwala,
Maskeliya Piliyandala
Kuruwita Panadura
Horana
Balangoda
Badu
Kalutara
Sewanagala
Embilipitiya
Ambalangoda
Karandeniya
Baddegama'
Beliatta
Yatiyana
Gintota
Galle
Koggala
Matara
Fig. 8.1 Indust
66

Reference
anufacturing Industries
*
Sugar Salt Textile and Appared Ceramics
Metal
Paper
Brick and Tile
Glass
Cement
Tyre
Steel
Plywood
O Refinery
Nilaveli
Uppuveli Trincomalee
Chemicals Leather Goods Industrial Park
Investment Promotion Zone
ale
ruwa
Valachchenai
RUBBER - TYRE INDUSTRY
angana
Ampara
Hingurana
COIR - BRUSH MAKING
alla
Monaragala Buttala
Pelwatta
METAL - FOUNDRY
ambantota
20
80
Kilometres
CLAY - BRICK MAKING
ries of Sri Lanka

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Sand
Sand is an important mineral in constructio formation of the sea coast. A great demand for s. construction. Hence there was wanton mining y formation which in turn weakened the river ban
Moreover due to uncontrolled sand mining fr river were deepened below sea level causing the i affecting paddy cultivation. Therefore measures sl
Limestone
Limestone is another important resource in oi regions north of a lin e drawn from Puttalam and I Badulla, Welimada, Kandy, Nalanda and Balan type of limestone called corals are found. They ai buildings.
Graphite
Sri Lanka has also been renowned for its gra material. Nearly 6,000 shallow pits and small mine half of that number is in operation. Scattered throu south western regions. The State Mining and mine graphite mining industry of Sri Lanka, now depen Kahatagaha. Graphite is used as a raw material in pencils.
Rock Phosphate
Sri Lanka discovered a major phosphate rese 30 million tons of high quality phosphate rock deposit the maximum benefits have not been re in converting it to soluble phosphate that p environmental impacts survey is underway to i
Mineral Sands
The beaches of Sri Lanka are rich in sands cor monazite and zircon. At Pulmoddai about 8km off sands containing 70-72%, ilmenite 8-10%, Zircon concentrations of mineiral sands are silica which Nattandiya and Madampe. Mineral sand is exte electronic goods, clocks, watches and computer felspar which is used in the manufacture of por mineral sands are also found at Kaikawela, Polk

a work. Sand brought by rivers is useful in the and exists with the developments in the field of hich resulted in inadequacy of sand for coastal
ES.
om the Kelani river, Deduru oya the beds of the low of sea water into the interior of the land and nould be taken to limit such problems.
er country. Sedimentary limestone is seen in the Mullaitivu. Dolomite is found in some regions in goda. In the south western coastal area another ve baked in kilns and used in the construction of
phite, the worlds major source of high quality s operated during World War I, but presently only ughout the country, particularly in the central and eral development corporation which controls the don two main underground mines at Bogala and i industries which produce batteries, polish and
ve at Eppawala in 1971 with a firm reserve of . Despite the high potential of the phosphate aped due to the lack of technical know how lants can absorb. Chemical research and nake this a successful venture.
taining minerals sands such as ilmenite, rutile, the coast contains about 6m tons of raw mineral 8%, rutile 0.3%, monazite 1%. Among the other is found scattered in places such as Marawila, Isively used in the manufacture of glassware, accessories (Silica chips). Another mineral is celain and glassware. Other cencentrations of tuwa and Kudremalai.
69

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Future Mineral Prospects
The discovery of a copper magnetite deposit metal found in Sri Lanka has opened a new area between major areas in the high land and Eastern for further base metal investigations.
Jaffna
Paranthan
Mullaitivu
Oddusuddan
Mannar
Pulmoddal
Murunkan
A Vavuniya
Duhwewa
Атлаһарга
Eluwarnlaulama
Eppawala
Tabbowa
Puttalam
Andigama
Polonna
Elahera
Nauda
Talagoda
Kahatagaha Kurunegala
Panirendawa
Rattota
Kaikawala
Marawila
* Matale
Wilagedara
Talabuoya
Kochchikade
A várigama Kegalle
Kandy.
Negombo
Bogala
Muturajawela Gampaha
Nuwara Eliya
Colombo.
Kelaniya
Badul
Boralesgomwa
Ketawela
!
Pinnawala
Dediyawela
Ratnapura
Dela Thoragolla
Opata
Kalawana Neboda
Hambeg
Kalutara
ji
Godalcawela
Beruwala
Hiniduma
Katuwara
Meetiyagoda Akurala
Galle
Matara
Fig. 8.2 Mineral i
70

at Seruwila in the Trincomalee area. The first base or explorations. Location of these base metal ores Vijayan complex indicates a potential target area
Mineral Resources
Iron Ore
Silica Sand
Peat
Reference
Miocene Limestone Main Graphite Area Dolomitie marbles Clay (Brick, Tile & Ceramics) Clay (Cement) Kaolin Black Carbonaceous Shale
Feldspar Apatite(phosphate) Imenite
Monosite
Mica
Gem Bearing Area
CORAL MINING AT AKURALA
Trincomalee
CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONE (MARBLE) QUARRYING AT DIGANA
ruwa
Batticaloa
MODERN GEMPIT
Carametiya
Ampara
Thirukkovil
Namaloya
Udumulla
GRAPHITE MINING
Umilta
Monaragala Odkampitiya
amuwa
PUTTALAM SALTERNS
Hambantota
20
40
60
80
Kilometres
resources of Sri Lanka

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Page 84
a reasonably advanced state compared to her n
The transport sector has expanded during demand for services however, the passenger tr demand satisfactorily, particularly due to the re-entering of the private sector to the passeng this sector to some extent.
Private Bus Services
The government allowed the private sector i services commencing from 1979. The private se fleet of transport. Private bus passenger kilom 26,400mn km in 1995 by earning attractive pro
However, problems began to emerge in the for a long period of time, increasing compe organizational weaknesses.
Peoplised Bus Companies
Starting in 1990 bus depots under the SL to form peoplised bus companies and this pi companies were formed.
To increase efficiency and make the peoplise bus companies by clustering peoplised bus co companies have already been created.
Port Services
Being an island economy with a high trade d economy by facilitating trade and linking it wit and proximity to main international shipping lar other shipping services. The port of Colombo since the construction of the south west break-w Trincomalee harbour declined. Colombo harb
world. The image of the port of Colombo fade after 1977, with the liberal economic policies.
Civil Aviation
Civil aviation was brought under governn were taken into the Sri Lanka air craft register declared open in February 1938, the Putt emergency landing field and now it is comp
The national carrier Air Lanka was set up in inadequate, a decision was taken to shift the ope which was hitherto used by the Air force. Fa modernised to facilitate international flights.
74

neigbhours. the last five decades. With a continued growth of ansport sector was unable to cope with the growing e inefficiency of the public transport system. The per services sector after 1979 eased the problems of
to participate in the provision of passenger transport ector responded favourably by adding to the existing veterage rose rapidly from 2,145 mn km- in 1980to ofits.
early 1990’s owing to non-adjustment of bus fares etition among operators in the system and other
CTB were converted into independent companies Cogramme ended in 1993 when 93 peoplised bus
ed bus companies viable the formation of 11 regional ompanies has been proposed. Several regional bus
lependence, ports provide the life line of Sri Lanka’s h the global economy. Due to locational advantages nes Sri Lanka attracts many vessels for bunkering and has been functioning as the premier port in the land water in 1883, after which the popularity of Galle and pur ranks the 7th busiest and greatest harbours in the ed after 1950’s then again it regained its popularity
ment regulation in 1938, there after three air crafts - for the first time. The Ratmalana aerodrome was salam air port was constructed in 1939 as an letely abandoned.
1947, as the facilities at Ratmalana aerodrome were eration of international flights to Katunayake air port cilities at Katunayaka air port were enhanced and

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Comparison of Industrial and an
When we talk of a country and its people, what is economy is the system of trade and industry by whic used.
In a country in which the people depend for their is called an agriculture based economy. When the occupation it is called an industrial based economy
Tropic of Capricorn
OCEAN
Activity 1:-
In groups discuss what you think are the factor: industrial. Each group should write their findings on
You now know what are the factors that makes a now look at two agricultural countries and compare t
Such a comparison can be done between two countries such as Argentina and Germany. Germany as you know is a major choice of an agricultural economy. An agricultural economy depends on the types of natural vegetation that is found in the area. Of the total land area in Argentina, 52% is temperate grasslands. The land area that
PACIFIC could be used for cultivation is limited to the Pampas grassland area. Crops can be cultivated only on 10% of the land as the land that could be used for agriculture is limited, Argentina has a very rich soil. Wheat is grown in Cordobo in the North, to Buenos Aires in the south.
Wheat is grown in 4% of the total land area, 96% of the land is used for other crops such as rye, oats, barley, sorghum, sunflower and sugar cåne. Other factors which influence the agriculture of Argentina is its climate. Arainfall of more than 500mm per annum and a high and dry temperature during the harvesting season makes the area eminently suitable for the growing of crops. In 2000
150
200400 k 1990

the Economy of an Agricultural Country
of paramount importance is its economy. The h the wealth of a country is made and how it is
livelihood on agriculture and rearing animals e economy is based on industries and allied
s which make a country to be agricultural or
a poster and present it to the class. country agricultural or industrial. We would hem with two industrial countries.
68o
GRAN CHACO
PARAGUAY
Mount Palermo
6120m
Asunción
*Salta
San Miguel de Tucumán
Resistencia
Mount Pissis a
Salado
Posadas
BRAZIL
Avellaneda
MESOPOTAMI
iguay
Mount Aconcague
6959m | Santiago
Cordoba * San Juan Santa Fe * Mendoza y Rosario URUGUAY
Buenos Aires e Montevideo ARGENTINA
CHILE
Colarada
"Mar del Plata
*Neuquen
Bahia Blanca
SOMUNCURA
PLATEAU
VALDES
PENINSULA O Chubut Rawson
ATLANTIC OCEAN
PAT
Comodoro Rivadavia
Santa Crust
FALKLAND ISLANDS
ISLAS MALVINAS) (Adaministered by U.K.
claimed by Argentina) Rio Gallegos
Strait of Magellan
HERRADE Ushuaia
ISLA DE LOS
ESTADOS
mi
Argentina also claims a portion of Antarctica; ail claims in Antarctica
are in abeyance under the terms of the Antarctic
Treatly ett live in 1961.
Fig. 9.1
79

Page 90
Argentina produced 19 million tons of Suga
Most of these products are exported.
Besides the production of crops, Argentin cattle, sheep, pigs and chickens. The most im more than 27m tons per annum The country h Sheep are reared for meat and wool. In 2002
Although Argentina has an agricultural t technology. For all agricultural products ma number of people employed in the agricultural in the agricultural sector. Although Argentina i twice as much as Sri Lanka. The per capit agricultural.
Activity 2:-
On a chart or graph mark the different agr
Germany on the other hand presents a diff temperate. Crops can be cultivated only on 34% of the land. The land that can be used for agricultures is limited to the grass lands, but the soil of the Elbe and Rhine Valleys are extremely rich and yield a rich harvest. Yet the contribution to the German economy through agriculture is very little. 1/3 of the food requirement of Germany is imported.
The crops grown in Germany are wheat, rye, oats, and barley. Vegetables and fruits especially grapes are grown on the small scale farms.
Forestry is another agricultural activity. Fishing is also done on a fairly large scale in the mixed agricultural areas and new technology is now used.
Of the urban population only 3% are engaged in the agricultural sector and the urban population is almost 89% of the total population. The per capita income was U.S $ 5445. Germany spends most of its revenue for food imports.
BEI

'cane, Soya beans 19m tons and wheat 14.7 m tons.
ans are involved in animal husbandry too. They rear portant product of animal husbandry is meat which is id 5 million cattle, 14 m sheep and 3.2 m pigs in 2002. 1, 65,000m tons of wool was produced. ased economy most of the agriculture is done using chinery is used and new methods are evolved. The sector was 14-7 million, which is 11% people working s47 times the size of Sri Lanka the population is only al income was US $ 603. Most of the exports are
cultural products of Argentina as a percentage.
erent picture. Of the total land area, 18% of the land is
5°
DEN MAI
BALTIC SEA
NORTH SEA
stock
*Hamburg
Bremen
POLAND
Berlin
nover
oder
FOREST TEUTOBURG
名美的MANY
Dortmund isburg-Essen
Düsseldorf Pologne
Erfurt
Dresden
Grosser Beer 982m
Frankfurt am Main
ague
CZECH REPUBLIC
Luxembourg
80 mi 120 km
Nürnberg
Stuttgart
RES? Danabe
Rhine
BLACK FOREST
FRANCE
* Munich
Lake Cansiance
AVARIAN ALP
AUSTRIA
SWITZERLAND
999, Encyclopædia Britannica, tne,
Fig. 9.2
Prague

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problems.
Of the total land area 12% is used for agricul is hilly. 51.3% of the national income is from tl agriculture. Agriculture contributes very little agriculture 40% is used for paddy the staple f given to rice cultivation. The other agricultura husbandry is the occupation of some of the Ja
India uses 57% of its total land area for agri river valleys and on the Deccan area. Crop pr chena cultivation as in Sri Lanka. Although the vast population of India. Paddy cultivation byı other cereals, such as sorghum and millet are are tobacco, sugar cane, potatoes, dhal and sumer agriculture. Paddy and wheat are the n produce too is insufficient. Therefore India im
India also grows raw materials such as c grown in the Punjab, Sind, Maharashthra and such as rubber, tea and coffee. Assam, Ultra Cops. About 2 million acres are under coffee
India, although an agricultural country economy. The resources available for industry gold. It has sources of lime stone too. India h fuel and hydro power. It produces 88% of the India are the small scale industries for domestic of household goods needed for the domestici goods such as cameras and information techn this, heavy industrial machines such as tractor
machinery too is manufactured in India.
—————————
- - Activity 3:- | 1. Write a short description of an industri
On a map of the world mark 3 agricult countries mentioned in the lesson. Fin

ture. The cultivable land is limited as parts of the land ne agricultural sector. Of the work force 72.4% are in = to the economy of the country. Of the land used for ood of the Japanese being rice. More importance is 1 products are potatoes, beet and sugar cane. Animal -panese farmers. iculture. Agriculture is usually practised close to the Foduction in India is done in 4 major areas. There is contribution to the economy is little it helps to feed the
means of irrigation in the dry areas, the cultivation of the other dry area products. Other agricultural crops vegetables. The second type of agriculture is connain crops in the upper Ganges and the Indus. This aports about 70m. tons of paddy per year. otton, jute, sugar cane and rubber. These crops are Madras areas. India also has commercial Agriculture Pradesh, Bihar, Nilagiri are the areas under these as a domestic consumption crop. y has many industries which contribute to its - are iron ore, coal, manganese, aluminium, zinc and Las the resources to produce electricity such as coal e energy needed for its industries. The industries in
use such as agricultural implements, and production market and for export. High technology industrial nology instruments are also manufactured. Besides 5, machinery for factories and other heavy industrial
Lal and an agricultural country in the world. cural and 3 industrial countries other than the ad out the resources these countries possess.
L — —
—————————

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Page 94
Man found the discovery of fire of great use weapons by hardening the point of a stick ini could warm himself and so the more easily res
As time went on his brain developed. He les stone or bone as the use of metal had not bee histroy.
Then he learnt to build. The study of man’s would have been very crude. Perhaps he made ground; any where he might get protectioon building of houses-beehive huts built of unher also made dwellings erected on piles in the m enemies. He could not make elaborate stone bu shaped.
He discovered how to make a primitive bo bent branches or by sometimes hollowing out These first boats cannot have been sea worthy means of them he could cross lakes or rivers o
The early life of man was a struggle a cont which befell him and a continuous struggle f desire to express himself, to make or draw th carved patterns on the hilt of the knives he use animals. He made images of the Gods he wors
In the advance of primitive man we may tra
1) The hunter stage - chief occupatian w:
Sometimes he worked alone. someti soon found that he could live better i
was a wanderer. When he had finis hunting ground he was forced to move
2) Sometimes, we do not know when,
animals he used to kill. Perhaps he ke purposes and perhaps some he kept a his way of life took place. Though he s now became that of a shepherd. He different kind. With his tents of animal seeking for pasture for his flocks and]
Then came the next step and another in to till the soil. No longer did he have to cultivate the ground. Villages came into
84

to him. He now could cook his food, he could make he flame, he could make pottery of baked clay. He st the cold. irnt to make better and better tools. They were still of n disscovered, until we reach the period of written
habitation is an interesting one. At first their homes : himself safe in the trees, or caves, or in holes in the rom danger and get some warmth. Then came the vn stones, gradually coming to a point at the top. He iddle of lakes to give greater protection against his ildings as he had no tools with which stones could be
at or canoe sometimes made of skins stretched over the trunk of a tree with his stone hatchet or with fire. boats and so long journeys were not possible but by r go on short fishing expeditions. inuous effort to protect himself against the dangers or food. But when he became less barbaric, he had a ings. Man began to decorate the things he used. He id. He painted the walls of his caves with pictures of shipped.
ace three stages of social development.
as seeking and killing his food. mes in a hunting group, for he n a group than by himself. He ned the supply of food in one e to another.
he learnt to tame some of the pt some of them for sacrificial as pets. As a result a change in still hunted, his chief occpation
was still a wanderer but of a skins he moved about in tribes herds.
Fig. 10.2 mportant change in man's life took place. He learned - wander from place to place. He settled down now to b being, houses were built, and man became a farmer.

Page 95
Man, becoming a farmer was one of the most im he did not own land. Man did not need land as aj grow crops he became bound to one definite piece i and the beginnings of states and nations. A newty
The period covering the story of pre-hisoric man, i thousands of years. Next we shall consider the story o learn of the earliest stages of human history. At this ste
Many different tribes lived in different parts of the w country. They were the people who were originally the indigenous people of the world their numbers have du in the future. The tribes first settled along the importa their chief occupation. They also supported themselv forest and by a little hunting and fishing.
The indigenous people spread to all parts of th lived.
The Artic regions inhabited by Eskimos and the
South America - The Amazon Indiar
North America
With numerous tr
Iriquois, Cheroke Africa
The dark continea
other numerous tri Asia
Sri Lanka Veddahs
India - Nagas Australia and
Aborigines and Ma Newzealand
This list does not include some of the lesser kno
Each of these tribes has its own language, cus different one from the other. We will now go on to
Sioux
Fig. 10.3

portant events in his life. Asahunter or shepherd permanent possession. But when he started to of earth. So this was the beginning of settled life pe of society had come into being. s the greater part ofman's history and covers many Fman in historic times. In the historic era we shall
ge we find indigenous tribes inhabiting the earth. orld. Each continent had tribes indigenous to that inhabitants of those areas. When you examine the rindled and perhaps the tribes may become extinct ntriver basins of the continents as agriculture was es by eating the wild fruits and roots, found in the
e world. We can identify the areas where they
Canadian trappers.
as and the Incas of Peru Gibes such as Red Indians, Sioux, Comanche ee etc rwith tribes such as the Pygmies, Nomads and
bes of people
Loris
wn tribes
toms, traditional dress and a way of thinking learn about some of the important tribes.
Cheyenne
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Perhaps you have heard of the American Indi They were called Indians because Christopher reached America in his travels to discover other of the coppery colour of their skin. They look ve came from Asia. The earliest to arrive were the S lived by hunting and food gathering. The northe and arrows and collected wild rice for food. T whaling. They lived in wigwams made of bark f the Indians helped the European settlers who ca Then disputes arose about land and wars broke and starvation also destroyed them. The Europe were built across North America and their lands up by the United States goverment. Now there However a surprising number of the old triba compaigned for fairer treatment for these comm
There were other important indigeous peop people of China who lived in the Hwang ho riv Egyptians the Euphrates Tigris civilization, the Ir. indigenons people lived and civilizations flourish
The simple life style of people is valued n Besides they constitute an important part of our the more developed and modern lifestyle has attra So the United Nations realizing their importar tecting indigenous people. August 9th has been e been held up to the world as model groups wh
The tribal people have had to face many chall their lives. Their homelands have been destroyed
way for development. Modern development is the exploitation of natursal resources such as n forests, oil deposits. Natural resources such a and fisheries have been over exploited. The cha indigenous people face is how to maintain a fine between modenisation programmes and age olo and tribal life.
86

ans, the native people of North and South America. Columbus thought he had arrived in India when he lands. Some people call them Red Indians because ery much like the sliteyed Mongols as they probably Sioux Indians, then the Apache’s and Navaho. They ern forest Indians lived by hunting game with bows
ribes on the northwest coast lived by fishing and from the forests or in skin tents on the plains. At first ame to America, and the two people lived in peace. out. The Indians were killed or driven out, Disease can settlers killed their buffaloes and when railways - lost the Indians accepted life in the reservations set e are about 700,000 Indians left, but they are poor. - customs are maintained Many associations have
unities.
le who are famous, for example in Asia. The tribal er basin, The Nile river which was the home of the adus civilization of India. These were the areas where
ned.
ow as it does not pose a threat to the enviromnet.
history. The indigenous people are fast vanishing as acted them. People feel that they should not dissapear. nce had declared 1994-2004 as the decade for prodeclared as the indigenous people's day. They have o have conserved nature not destroyed it.
lenges in I to make based on minerals, s forests llege the e balance a cultural
Fig. 10.4

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Adaptation of Sri Lanka to cha
The earliest settlers of the island were the Ve their settlements were in and around caves. TI outlook. The family was the unit they considere responsible for the acts of one of its member family. He developed the cooperative instinct
T
lived lived
the p
thou grouj also e
third Fig. 11.1
who they
and I they speak. They have rituals which are still pr their own dance forms and songs. They do not when dancing or singing but the rhythm of the up. In early times the Veddahs wore only a ski This was gradually converted into a strip of cl They carried an axe with a long handle, which
The Veddahs are referred today an Vanniel few areas such as Dambane and Mahiyangana. Vanniela Aththo. His father who was the chie
was regarded by the community as “the’’ chie community believe that Tissahamy was a go traditions and encouraged everyone to work t
As Adivassi people the Veddahs still contir they are a unique group. As such they hold thei have unwritten rules by which the community for their communal life. The chief of the Vanni
who breaks the rules. The chief is the fount of there is little cause for friction or breaking of tl
As a group of people who live very closely environment. They do not waste what is avai
88

the indigenous people in anges in the Environment
ddahs, an aboriginal tribe. They lived by hunting and hey were not solitary cave dwellers but were tribal in cd to be the centre of their lives. The whole family was s. He subordinated his interest to the interest of his and helped each other when it was necessary.
here are records of three types of Veddhas who have in Sri Lanka. They are the Gal Veddahs or those who in caves. They are considered as true descendants of ure Veddahs. They had never intermarried so were ght of as being the original tribal people. The second pare the Gam Veddahs who lived in villages and were engaged in growing yams and working in chenas. The group were the Weralaboda Veddahs or the Veddahs lived in the coastal areas. There are five areas where live- Dambana, Rathugala, Pallebedda, Heniyagala Jhana. The Veddahs have their own language which actised on various occasions and festivals. They have t seem to use any musical instruments in the rituals or Songs sung in unison by the group was constantly kept Et like covering round their waists made up of leaves. pth or the skins of animals. The upper body was bare. a they kept on their shoulders.. La Aththo or Addi Vassi. Today they are confined to a In Dambane the chief of the community is Uruwarige f before him was Uruwarige Tissahamy. Tissahamy fwho maintained the culture of their community. The od leader who worked hard and tried to maintain the ogether and live together in harmony. nue to practice their rituals and customs. They believe ir traditional beliefs still and value these greatly. They is governed. These unwritten rules are the guidelines jala Aththo advices, admonishes and punishes anyone their community and he is listened to and obeyed. So ne peace and the entire community lives peacefully.
with nature they have a rare respect and care for their lable in the environment neither would they destroy

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Latitudes is marked 90° north and 90° south from the C accurately defined by giving degrees, minutes and seco Sri Lanka is located at latitude between 5°N -9°N ar precised locations is slightly different form earlier mer latitudes 50 - 55’ to 9.51’and 790.42 to 81°- 52° east | location of an area is given in a small diagram which
»True north
Magenetic North
NEW ORLEANS
MERIDYAN
Fig.
Orientation
In the metric sheets the orientation is shown at the
Most maps are usually arranged so that north is a provided with a compass rose pointing to the magneti variations.
True North
The true north is measured clockwise from north.
Magnetic North
The true north has one great defect that there is no the field. Magnetic north may be defined as the direc any place. Bearing given relative to magnetic north are
Grid North
This indicates the direction of vertical grid lines at lines are called "Grid bearing"
Magnetic Variation
Because the earth acts on a gigantic (large) magne in northern Canada, the direction of magnetic north Instead they differ by a small angle called the magneti as approximately 30 degrees.

Pparallel of the equator. Points on map can be nds for both latitude and longitude for instances d east longitude between 790 - 81° but more tioned. Location of Sri lanka is between north ongitudes. (Fig 12.1) In the metric sheet the shows adjacent maps of this particular area.
N[o*
LOCATION
OF SRILANKA
12.1
22E
= bottom of the map t the north eastern point of the sheet, and are ic poles or some other indication of magnetic
It is normally used for a map in a field study.
convenient way of determineg its position in ction in which the compass needs to be set, in called compass bearing or magnetic bearning.
any point. Angles measured relative to these
et whose north (magnetic) pole is some where a and true north rarely coincide at any point. C variation. In Sri Lanka this variation appears

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