Page 1

پر قبیلہ:
*

Page 2


Page 3
ERRATA
Page 155, paragraph 2, line 5, median instead of medial. Page 156, paragraph 5, line 4, these instead oftbese. Page 156, paragraph 5, line 7, geographical instead of geogr: Pzge 157, paragraph l, line 3, all instead of alli. Page 157, paragraph 1, line 8, equally instead of epqually Page 157, paragraph l, line 9, 8.6% instead of 86%. Page 157, paragraph, l, line 9, contributed instead of contrip Page 157, paragraph l, line l4, deminant instead of domihal Page 157, paragraph l, line 16, stand instead of staod. Page 157, paragraph l, line l6, calculation instead of ealcula Page 157, paragraph 1, line 16, percentage instead of mercen Page 157, paragraph l, line 17, likely instead of liklyg. Page 157, paragraph l, line 19, then a shade loving instead Page 157, paragraph l, line 20, established instead of estabis Page 159, table l, column 1, line 14, Exotics. Page 159, table 2, caption, Sorensen's instead of Surensen's. Page l59, table 2, column l, line 3, Summit instead of Sout] Page l61, line 22, Moorman instead of Moroman. Page 164, table l, column 8, line 5, Artocarpus instead of Au Page 165, footnote, *See Loris instead of See Loris. Page 166, table 2, column 4, line 5, de Rosayro 1956 instead Page l66, table 2, column 4, line 9, Cullenia instead of (Cull Page 166, table 2, column 7, line 21, none instead of non. Page 167, footnote, line 2, inches instead of inch. Page 168, paragraph 2, line 3, Gordonia instead of Gordenia
Page 168, paragraph 2, line 9, should read as Elaeocarpus
nilagirica,
Page il 68, paragraph 3, line 7, Thorn-scrub instead of Tho.

phica.
buted.
htö.
tion. tage.
of their a lowing. hed.
rtearpus.
l of de Rosarye 156. enia)
Spp., Cinnamomum Ovellifolium. Michelia

Page 4


Page 5
THE SRI LAN
(THE CEYLO)
VOL. XV Nos. 3 & 4 (NE
CoNT
NEWS BRIEF
INDUSTRIALUTILIZATION OF TROPICAL PLAN RENCE TO FOREST PRODUCTS - E. W. SENEVI
SOME NOTES ON FORESTRY AND FOREST MA
CRATICREPUBLIC - A. N. S. BAMINIWATTE
FOREST COVER MAPPING AND MONITORING
AND M. SOMMER AND A. N. S. BAMINIIWATTE
PLANTS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF SKELE SYSTEM OF MEDICINE IN SRI LANKA-D. T.
A PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THREE S PERADENIYA, KANDY DISTRICT - ANDRI I. A. U. N. GUNATILLEKE AND S. BALASUBRAMANIAM
A PRELIMINARY FLORISTIC CLIMATIC CLAS LANKA - ANDREW M. GRELLER AND S. BALASUBRA
THE FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF SINHARAJA SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ENDEMICS. C. V. S
TILLEKE Q 3O
UNDERSTOREY VEGETATION STRUCTURE OF GREEN FOREST TYPE - R. J. MITCHELL AND L.
SESBANIA FOR PAPERMAKING-P. MANOKERA
X-RAY RADIOGRAPHY OF RED SANDERS ( FRUITS - ADARSH KUMAR it d
JUVENILE GROWTH OF BENQUET PINE (PIN
LINGS PLANTED UNDER ALNUS STANDS
RECOMMENDED TREES FOR AFFORESTATIC LANDS - J. K. GNARATNAM . . . 8
AUTHOR'S INDEX : A
SUBJECT INDEX

KA FORESTER
N FORESTER)
WSERIES) m JAN.-DEC, 1980
ENTS
Page
101
NTS IN SRI ILANKA WITH SPECIAL REFE-. RATNE O ... 103
NAGEMENT IN THE GERMAN DEMO
o o ... 123
USING SATELLITE IMAGES - U. GEISER
... 131
TAL FRACTURES IN THE INDIGENOUS , EKANAYAKE . . ... 145
STANDS OF FOREST IN THE VICINITY OF EW M. GRELLER, C. V. S. GUNATILLEKE,
153
SSIFICATION OF THE FORESTS OF SR
AMANIAM 8
- A RAIN FOREST IN SRI LANKA WITH . GUNATILLEKEAND I. A. U. N. GUNA
163
171
THE SINHARAJA TROPICAL WET EVERK. ID. TILAEKRATNE ... 181
N • w . . 187 PTEROCARPUS SANTALINUS LINN. F.)
a ... 193
JS KESIYA ROYLE EX GORDON) SEED– S. R. PENAFIEL, B. F. NoBLE AND L. NoALES 197
N AND REFORESTATION ON ESTATE
... 205
211
213

Page 6


Page 7
THE SRI LANK
(THE CEYLON
The Sri Lanka Forester (The Ceyl December (biannually) by the Sri Lank
The new series was started in 19 reviews and research communications subjects.
Articles published express the c necessarily represent the views of the
SUBSCRIPTC
Foreign :
Annual (2 numbers) Half-Yearly (1 number)
Local :
Annual (2 numbers) Half-Yearly (1 number)
Cheques/Money Orders/Postal C the "CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS
All correspondence regarding should be addressed to
THE EDITOR o SRI LANKA FORESTE FOREST DEPARTMENT, COLO SRI LANKA
Editorial FOREST DEP, P. O. BOX
COLOMB SRI LAN

A FORESTER
FORESTER)
on Forester) is published in June and (a Forest Department.
53 and the journal publishes articles, pertaining to forestry and allied
pinions of the authors and dico not
Forest Department.
DIN RATTES
U. S. $ 2.50
U.S. $ 1.50
RS, 5.00
RS, 3.00
Drders should be drawn in favour of
and crossed.
contributions, subscriptions, etc.,
R” MBO 2
Office ARTMENT
509
2
KA

Page 8
THE SRI LAN
(THE CEYLON
VOL. XIV Nos. 3 & 4 (N)
“The forest is a peculiar organism of that makes no demand for its suste products of its life activity : it affor shade even to the axeman who dest
NEWS B
International Society of Tropical Foresters (ISTF)
Mr. W. R. Nanayakkara, Conservator of President of the International Society of Tropic Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse Ca We congratulate Mr. Nanayakkara on his appc honoured as such.
International Council of UFRO
Mr. V. R. Nanayakkara, Conservator of Research Officer, have been nominated as Sri Lank respectively in the International Council of the Organisations (IUFRO) based in Vienna, Austria.
USAID Forestry Projects
The USAID approved US$ 4.35 million Watershed Management Project, in an agreement
The Project, the total cost of which is US$
(1) Establishing 35,000 acres of fuelwood
(2) Re-establishing forest cover on 15,000 a Catchment Area between 1980 and 198
(3) Establishing a Forestry Extension Ser
Sri Lanka ;
(4) Improving the National Forestry Train (5) Developing Forestry Research, and ; (6) Providing training facilities for Forest
The Project will be administered by the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Mr. A. D. R. Ra

KA FORESTER FORESTER)
W SERIES) JAN-DEC., 1980
unlimited kindness and benevolence nance and extends generously the 's protection to all beings, offering oys it.”-GAUTAMA BUDDHA
RIEFS
Forests, has been elected an honorary Viceal Foresters (ISTF) based in the College of mpus, State University of New York, U.S.A. bintment. He is the first Sri Lankan to be
Forests and Dr. K. Vivekanandan, Chief ca's Representative and Deputy Representative ! International Union of Forestry Research
as loan and grant for a Reforestation and signed with the Government of Sri Lanka.
14.68 million, aims at
lantations between 1980 and 1984;
cres of degraded lands in the Upper Mahaweli 4;
rice to introduce Social Forestry practices in
ing Programme ;
Department technical personnel.
Special Projects Branch under the charge of narajah.

Page 9
O2
Consultants
A Sri Lankan evaluation team led by the also visited the United States to selectConsulta Watershed Management. Other members oft Conservator of Forests, Special Projects and Environment, Ministry of Lands and Land Faculties of the Universities of Hawaii, Washi the Virginia Tech State University.
SECID, the South-East Consortium for Carolina, a Consortium of several Universities was selected to provide the consultancy service
Sri Lanka Representations in Overseas Semina
* Mr. E. W. Seneviratne, Deputy Con Education), participated in an Intern
Utilization of Tropical Plants' held 1st to 6th September, 1980. The Sy Japan.
Mr. K. P. Sri Bharathie, Deputy Col Asian Symposium on "Mangrove E at the University of Malaysia in Au UNESCO.
o Dr. K. Vivekanandan, Chief Resea Singapore in May, 1980. The Work ment Research Centre (IDRC) Canaa
Post-Graduate Training
* Mr. M. Pushparajah, Assistant Co obtaining an M.Sc. Degree in Forestr to the post of Deputy Conservator and Forest Inventory Branch.
* Mr. S. Sahajanandan, Assistant Co) M.Sc. Degree course at the Universi
Administrative Matters
Mr. E. W. Seneviratne, Deputy Conse act for Mr. S. Muttiah, Deputy Conservator the island, in addition to his duties as Deputy
Mr. S. Muttiah, Deputy Conservator Laos on a Forestry Assignment for the Asian

Conservator of Forests Mr. W. R. Nanayakkara, hts for the USAID Projecton Reforestation and he team were Mr. A. D. R. Ratnarajah, Deputy Mr. A. A. Wijetunge, Director of Forestry and Development. The team visited the Forestry ngton State, Idaho, Arizona, Georgia, Duke and
International Development, Chapel Hill, North with University of Georgia as the lead University s for this Project.
s and Conferences
servator of Forests (Management, Research and tional Symposium on "The Advanced Industrial at the Tsukuba Research Centre, Japan, from mposium was sponsored by the Government of
servator of Forests (Development), attended the Environment, Research and Management' held gust, 1980. The Symposium was sponsored by
urch Officer, attended a Bamboo Workshop in shop was organized by the International Developla.
servator of Forests, returned to the island afte f from University of Oxford. He is now promoted pf Forests and is in charge of the Working Plans
servator of Forests, left for U. K. to pursue the y of Oxford.
vator of Forests, Management, was appointed to Forests, Research and Education, who is out of Conservator of Forests, Management.
of Forests, Research and Education, is away in development Bank.

Page 10
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4,
Industrial Utilization of T with Special Referen
EARDLEY W (Deputy Conservator of Forests, M
INTROL
The industrial utilization of tropical p several Ministries, which have established Publ industrial and commercial enterprises. Such
The forest wealth of Sri Lanka compri of which afford valuable timber, while others natural form are converted into other products employed with every confidence as any of the
Forests are the worlds most importa managed not only for its industrial products bl the former that is of special significance to us a
Wood is unique in many ways and put to or improvedwood, reconstructed wood or che that wood is subjected to various physical and which are in great demand in both the developi
In Sri Lanka, forest species are utilized sawmilling, sawnwood processing, wood-based products and products other than timber whic industrial utilization of the major and minor a
There is great potential in the utilizati ongoing scientific research, better understanding cal strengths of timbers and with improved te progress rapidly in her wood-based industries.
GOVERNM) General
In the recent past, Sri Lanka has been pa activity like many other developing countries w specific agricultural commodities only. Thes impact of price development and changes of th domestic economy as well as the existing finan
* An edited version of the Report presented at t Utilization of Tropical Plants' held at the Tsukuba R 1980.

January - December, 1980
ropical Plaats in Sri Lanka ce to Forest Products *
. SENEVIRATNE sanagement, Research and Education)
DUCTION
lants in Sri Lanka come under the purview of ic Corporations to encourage, foster and develop activities have been given the highest priority.
ses innumerable species of tropical plants, some though inferior and unsuitable for use in their , or seasoned and treated with preservatives and best grade naturally durable timbers.
unt natural and renewable resource, which are It also for obtaining certain basic services. It is ut this Symposium.
) many uses industrially as solid wood, converted mically processed wood. It is evident, therefore chemical processes to yield many useful products 2d and developing countries.
in various major industries, chief of which are panels, pulp and paper, wood and wood-based h are dealt with in this paper. In addition, the gricultural export crops are dealt with in brief.
on of tropical plants in this country and with ; of the technological characteristies and mechanichniques in utilization, Sri Lanka will no doubt
NT POLOY
ssing through a cyclic fluctuation in her economic hich depend so heavily on agriculture and export e agricultural products are exposed to the full e world market which in turn has influenced the cial structure.
he International Symposium on "The Advanced Industrial esearch Centre, Ibaraki, Japan, from 1-6th September,
)3

Page 11
04
It is obvious that in a predominantly agri as a whole is dominated by the development of of the economy and the transformation of the ec structural shift towards industry. Therefore, th facturing, mining and construction) has been set
Industrial production in Sri Lanka is based have been established under the State Industrial 1977 intensive industrialisation is under way, p covering an extent of 51,200 hectares close to
Commission is empowered to foster and generate c foreign investment, encourage and foster the esta commercial enterprises, ctc., within the Republic tives the main development of the Industrial Pri within which factories assembling imported and be established with the participation of foreign in
Forest Policy
The present forest policy is as follows :-
(a) To reserve and maintain adequate and of local climatic conditions, the cons aesthetic purposes.
(b) To scientificallymanage the forest reso
ments of the country ; and
(c) To progressively build up the plantal
requirements of the country both for
Some of the principal features of the polic ment on Forestry involves the conservation, the and economic use of the forest resources. Whil the optimum utilization of the scarce and dimi emphasis of policy is directed towards the devel dingly, the Ministry had laid down certain proce which would be elaborated and added to from ti
Forestry Organisation
The implementation of the Forest Policy ordinated organizations, namely, the Departmer tion. It is the State Timber Corporation that harvesting of forests, the exploitation of forests export of timber.
Agricultural Policies
The major constraint in the expansion o production of the crop. The constraints to incr producers traditional aversion to cash crop ris

ultural economy, the growth of the economy agriculture. However, the sustained growth bnomy which takes place everywhere require a 2 projected growth rate for industries (man
at the highest of all economic Sectors.
to a large extent on public corporations which
Corporations Act of 1957. However, since articularly in the Industrial Promotion Zone Colombo. The Greater Colombo Economic conomic development, encourage and promote blishment and development of industrial and of Sri Lanka. In order to achieve these objecomotion Zone will consist of industrial Zones locally produced components for export will WęStOTS.
suitable forest resources for the amelioration ervation of soil and water resources and for
urces so as to meet part of the timber require
Lion forest estate to meet the future timber internal consumption as well as for export.
y of the Ministry of Lands and Land Developbroper and prudent management, development ist every attempt should be made to maximise nishing forest resources, the main thrust and opment and conservation of forests. Accorlures and guidelines to further these objectives me to time.
is carried out by two separate but closely coit of Forestry and the State Timber Corporavirtually has the monopoly of the scientific
coming under development schemes and the
minor agricultural exports is the inadequate :ase production of minor export crops are the -taking, especially for exports, the historical

Page 12
role of producing secondary crops solely to su ferences ; the long gestation periods of minor e structure to stimulate production and marketing
The Government has intervened by way o in cash or kind and through agricultural producti to processing and marketing including pricing as ting policies.
Production Policies
The Government policies in increasing commodities have centred around the following
(1) The intensification of cultivation thro (2) The control of pests and diseases.
(3) The rehabilitation of existing plantati (4) The introduction of good agricultural (5) New planting with selected hybrid pla (6) Research on Crop production.
(7) Specialized Extension Scheme.
(8) Agricultural credit schemes through S
In order to implement these production major assistance schemes
(1) The Minor Export Crops Assistance S (2) The Tea and Rubber Crop Diversifica (3) The Inter-Cropping Programme in Co (4) The National Livestock Board Assista
Proteins Police
The Government policies in regard to pro ties have centred round two important aspects of
(1) Material assistance for improvemento
(2) Improving the quality standards by fo tions on minor agricultural commodit
Institutional Arrangements to Promote Minor Exp
The Government has established the neces minor exports. The Export Promotion Secreta policies. The Trade Information Service is mea is a State Trading Organization handling expo) private sector. The quality aspect is being serv

05
plement incomes ; traditional consumer preport perennials and the lack of market infra
production incentives in the form of subsidies bn credit. The State has extended its assistance well as through various processing and marke
the production of minor agricultural export
ugh fertilizer application.
DS.
practices and management.
nting material.
tate-owned Banks.
policies, the Government has introduced four
Scheme.
tion Scheme.
Conut.
nce Scheme for Minor Crops.
cessing of minor agricultural export commodi
development as follows :-
f processing commodities.
ormulating national quality standard specificates.
Orts
sary infra-structure of Institutions to promote riat Co-ordinates national export promotion unt to service exporters while Consol Exports its of minor exports in competition with the iced by the Bureau of Ceylon Standards.

Page 13
06
NDUSTRAL UTTILIZATI(
Forest Resources
It is an undisputed fact that Forests are m it produces but also for purposes of obtaining of special significance to us at this Symposium of my paper.
The traditional wood products like logs and paper are far too well known. The other tı canes and bamboos.
Another important contribution that Fo the rural economy is that of forest products othe forest produce'. The most important of these drugs, edible fruits etc.
There are yet other raw materials which been tapped commercially and economically. It largely (a) as a source of chemicals, polymers an and (c) for the manufacture of proteins, lignos liquor of the pulp industry.
The Forest wealth comprises innumerab some of which afford valuable timber, while othe inferior species because of their low value end Species which are not in general use can be class
(1) Timbers which are inherently durable
their properties
(2) Timbers which are not inherently dura lity can be improved by proper seaso
(3) Timbers which are not suitable for u be converted into some other produc wood, particle board, hardbord or pu
Wood is put to many uses industrially four main heads :-
(1) as solid wood-used in its native for
required
(2) as converted or improved wood (3) as reconstructed wood where its origi (4) as chemically processed wood.
Industrial uses of wood
Knowledge of the technological characte
timbers has improved in recent years and is c(
different species not previously employed are be

N - FOREST PRODUCTS
naged not only for the industrial products which certain basic services. It is the former that is ind which will essentially be the subject matter
sawn timber, the wood based panels and pulp ditional wood products are firewood, charcoal,
ests can make especially for the upliftment of than timber more often referred to as "minor are the essential oils, dyes and tans, exudates,
exist in the Forest ecosystem which have not has been recognised that Forests can contribute liquid fuels (b) as a high quality animal fodder ulphuric acids and glues by utilizing the waste
le species of plants-trees, shrubs, herbs etc., rs though abundantly available are considered products and are therefore not fully utilized. ified into these groups.
but are not used due to lack of knowledge of
ble under certain conditions but whose durabi-. ning or preservative treatment
se in their natural form but which will have to before they can be used, as for example, plyр.
nd for convenience may be considered under
m except for cutting to shape and dimensions.
all nature is no longer discernible and
stics and mechanical strengths of our tropical stantly being added to. A large number of g increasingly used not only as substitutes for

Page 14
better known timbers but even as superior
lack of such need no longer be a deciding fac species of timber. A very large number of eff vative treatment have been developed that ar now be preservatively treated and employed naturally durable timbers. In way of illusta Tree, Hevea brasiliensis, which was generall fuelwood, but is now used and is being employ furniture making after preservative treatment
Scientific research has shown how we artificially what might be called "improved mechanical strength or physical character de development of synthetic resins, of phenol, u moldehyde in place of the animal and veget earlier days of gluing wood together. The woods of this kind is the now common and o different types are used nowadays in the const from tea chests to large passenger carrying air designed to meet special requirements, like wa ted house building, decorative panelling, floo of all kinds etc.
It is possible to design and build up ur trusses, cathedral assembly or exhibition hal beauty by gluing together small slats or lami by no means points of weakness inherent in than the wood itself and tend to make the w the stronger, more durable and less prone t insect attack than untreated timber.
Further elaboration is wood improv temperatures and compressed at high pressu in these ways are that they are made infinitel the untreated woods of the same species. giving different types of products known un treatment or of the resultant product, such a
"Staypack'-wood heated and com or without gluing to improve its dime
“Impreg-Wood impregnated with
"Compreg-Wood impregnated wit ture and pressure.
Another important category of wood parent material is paper. To begin with p. bags, &c. but today it is entirely of wood pu but a number of tropical hardwoods includ "Gedumba, Bamboo and several Eucalypt

i07
|ternatives to them. Natural durability or the or in the selection or rejection of any particular :tive timber preservatives and methods of presertimber of the required mechnical strength may with every confidence as any of the best grade tion, I might mention the wood of the Rubber thought of as unfit for anything else but as a di quite satisfactorily in building construction and by the Boron diffusion process.
might, using wood as a raw material, build up rood' of a composite nature to suit almost any ired. This has been possible principally by the ea, melamine and resorcinol combined with forable glues which alone we had to depend on in best known and most widely used of composite "dinary plywood. Plywood of a large number of uction of a vast variety of different things ranging Craft. There are many different types of plywood Eer and weather proof plywood used in prefabricaring, furniture making, cooperage and containers
its like keels of boats, stair rails, roof and bridge l arches of great sizes, strength and architectural nae of timber. The glue bonds in such units are such structures. They are indeed much stronger food besides the structural unit as a whole, much o decay through exposure to weather, fungi and
'd by resinification followed by heating to high res. The virtues of wood treated and converted y harder, stronger and dimensionally stable unlike There are a large number of different processes ler diferent names indicative of the nature of the
ressed either in the solid or laminated state with lsional ability.
ynthetic resin and heated.
synthetic resins and compressed at high tempera
products in which we can no longer discern the per was manufactured from waste textiles, cotton . Such pulp is still largely from coniferous woods g the weed tree Trema orientalis locally known as species have been found to be suitable. World

Page 15
08
wood pulp production has grown over the years this will be as newsprint but there is a large num simulating nearly every kind of material from parc There are in addition innumerable other pulp pro cups, water proof roofing felts, &c. W
The next most important use to which wood. They fall into two main groups-the soft and hard b ted wood compressed with bonding and sizing age used mainly for sound and heat insulation purpo: treated with synthetic resins and pressed under uses such as for panelling, ceiling boards, furniture
Other boards such as 'chipboard', 'particle b from waste wood such as wood chips and saw dus now being embarked on profitably by many deve quantities of wood Waste for which there was no oth is being reduced to fine strands for construction o
In all the foregoing industrial uses of wood that the methods were concerned almost entirely w wood in its natural state even if defibrated to fibre considered is the chemical processing of cellulose. used as viscose pulp in the manufacture of cellulosi
Partial hydrolysis of wood chips produces straw as a food for cattle and horses as was evidenc war years. -
Production of ethyl alcohol by the hydroly liquors of the sulphite process in the manufacture products obtained from the chemical processing of
There are many chemical processes which h wood so that there is no reason why wood, if sensi make even a greater contribution to the welfare of 1
Forest Industries in Sri Lanka
The industrial utilization of tropical plants i following six Ministries
(1) Agricultural Development and Research (2) Indigenous medicine; (3) Industries and Scientific Affairs; (4) Lands and Land Development; (5) Coconut Industries and ; (6) Rural Industrial Development.

ind consumption is still growing. Most of ber of variations of paper for different uses ment to embroidery cloth and even leather. lucts such as card boards, cartons, drinking
bre is put is the manufacture of fibre boards. oards. The soft boards are made of defibraits to form soft boards of different sizes and es. Hard boards are made of wood fibres Ligh temperatures. They find innumerable making and so on.
ard' and moulded board' are manufactured t without defibrating. These processes are loping countries in view of the enormous er use. Today, even waste plywood veneer
a type of fibre board.
which have been considered, it is evident ith the physical processes and in the use of 's. In the last of the four categories to be Wood pulp in a specially purified state is » plastic and synthetic rayons.
a palatable fodder of equivalent grade to ed in the Scandinavian countries during the
sis of wood, industrial alcohol from waste of paper, wood sugars etc. are some of the wood.
ave yielded many useful compounds from bly and scientifically employed, should not hankind.
Sri Lanka come under the control of the

Page 16
Sri Lanks's Forest Industries consist of 1 (a) Sawmilling;
(b) Sawnwood Processing Industries:
(i) Furniture (ii) Packaging (iii) Other Wood Products (iv) Timber Seasoning and Impregn
(c) Wood-based Panels Industries:
(i) Plywood (ii) Fibre Board (iii) Particle Board
(d) Pulp and Paper Industries
(e) Wood and Wood-Based Industries:
(i) Safety Match (ii) Boat building (iii) Boron treated wood
(f) Industries of Forest Products other th
(i) Essential oils
(ii) Tans andi dyes (iii) Grasses, bamboos and canes (iv) Oils and fats from seeds (v) Gums, resins and oleo-resins (vi) Medicinal plants (vii) Beedi wrapper leaf
(viii) Miscellaneous products
SAWMILLING
As shown earlier, most of the forests in tionally used constructional and furniture tim Halmilla, Milla, Panakka, Ramai and Kolon), a logs in the past has been from the Dry Zone. of saw logs are now Wet Zone species.
In the Dry Zone the annual net incremer whereas the annually available cut of saw log hectare which is 10 times as high as in the Dry. area. With the recommended felling cycle of 25 metres. Accordingly only 3,200 hectares shoul hectares in the Dry Zone for the extraction of a the projected demand for sawnwood in 1981.

09
he following
ation
han timber
INDUSTRY
Sri Lanka are in the Dry Zone. All the tradibers are Dry Zone species (e.g. Satin, Palu, nd it is apparent that the main supply of saw his has, however, changed and a fair quantity
t is estimated at û.23 cubic mètres per hectare, pecies in the Wet Zone is 2 cubic metres per one and indicates the growth potential of this years, the cut per hectare would be 53.12 cubic | be worked annually as against about 40,000 bout 170,000 cubic metres of sawlogs which is

Page 17
O
There has been no survey of the sawmill be in the region of 250 mills consisting of Ban both horizontal and vertical; Circular saws 1 to 5 and mobile saw mills.
The State Timber Corporation owns 2. the country and a further 10 mills are owned Woods Corporation, Forestry Department, Ce Development, Port (Cargo) Corporation, Dep the private sector, and are mainly small sawm Saw Mills is about 25,000 cubic metres.
The average output in the sawmills is v metres of sawnwood a day or 0.3 mio per hour. a Scandinavian mill with one circular saw on diameter, but of softwoods. The reasons for lack of spare parts and operating material, h blades and machines and defective engines (dic
House construction is by far the most i
SAWNWOOD PROC
This category includes many small carp it may be too ambitious to call all these "in doubtedly furniture manufacture while oth manufacture and repair of transport vehicles.
Furniture
Wood is the most common material f furniture. Cane and rattan are also used Wid small tables.
The main species used are Satin, Teak, Helamba, Neralu, Suriyamara, Ranai, Ubberi
Packaging
The use as packing material is also a
next after house building. This end-use is in used essentially in internal trade like packagin
The species used are generally softwoo and Rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis).
Another timber product which must required for the assembly and strength of plyv chest battens is the Ceylon Plywoods Corpo although in the past battens were imported m
The species used are Diyataliya, Godak

ing industry in recent years but it is estimated to Saws both horizontal and vertical ; frame saws with the number of saw benches varying from
2 large Sawmills which are installed throughout y various State Institutions like the Ceylon Plylon Government Railway, Department of Land rtment of Buildings, while the rest are owned by ills. The installed annual capacity of the State
ery low, some of which average only 2.5 cubic This is approximately one fifth of the output of ly working on much smaller logs, 0.2 metre top the low output of these mills are lack of logs, gh idle running time, poor maintenance of saw sel powered mills).
mportant use of sawn timber.
ESSING INDUSTRIES
entry workshops using only hand tools, so that dustries”. The largest processing sector is unr activities include joinery products and the
or furniture in Sri Lanka, specially for heavier ely but restricted to lighter pieces like chairs and
Halmilla, Kolon, Nedun, Mahogany, Panakka, ra, Tawenna and Hulanhik.
very important end-use of sawn timber, coming tainly concentrated in the private sector as it is g of dried fish, beverages, soaps etc.
Is like Albizia, Melia dubia, Mangifera zeylanica
e included under "packaging' are the battens 'ood tea chests. The largest manufacturer of tea ation and the country is virtually self sufficient inly from Sweden and Japan.
rilla, Katuboda, Kirihembiliya and Pelen.

Page 18
Other Wood Products
In the joinery sector there are a few esta concentrate on the manufacture of door and win which is the Ceylon Plywoods Corporation.
The construction of agricultural impleme activities and such industries are located throughou
Timber Seasoning and Impregnation
The common feature of nearly all the indu packaging material, building construction, joinery impregnation facilities.
Under Sri Lanka conditions, depending O equilibrium moisture content will vary from 12equilibrium may be attained in about 2 months for longer in respect of timbers that are difficult to dry. and Chloroxylon swietenia have been observed to c(
Air drying is the common method adopted facilities are available in State organizations.
In the field of wood preservation, the pre: groups some of which have been used recently.
WOOD-BASED PANE
Despite the many natural advantages of w wood for construction. Among the most import longitudinal shrinkage in wood is negligible and sh 1.5 times the shrinkage in the radial direction. Shri shrinkage leads to warping as well.
Another feature of wood is the fact that its In other words it is an anisotropic material. Form this is immaterial since strength is required only uniformity of strength is required. e.g. boxes, table to be increased to compensate for anisotropy, w. wooden members is limited by the size of the tree fr comparatively large area are required e.g. table top to be used.
Several methods are used in an attempt to of the oldest of such attempts. Others of more rece
Plywood
There are two factories installed in the col Corporation-a State Organization. One factory : mately 104 kilometres from Colombo and the seco mately 45 kilometres from Colombo.

blishments engaged in this industry which dow frames, sashes and doors, the chief of
hts and lorry bodies are fairly important it the island on a small scale.
Lstries referred to above, be they furniture, tc. is that they have no timber seasoning or
in species and atmospheric conditions, the 8%. In timbers that are easily dried, this 1" planks but the period may be very much Dense timbers such as Chukrasia tabularis ntinue shrinking even after a year or so.
in Sri Lanka although limited kiln drying
servatives used in Sri Lanka fall into four
S INDUSTRIES
ood, there are several drawbacks in using ant of these is differential shrinkage. The rinkage in the tangential direction is about nkage by itself is undesirable, but differential
strength in different directions is different. any purposes, e.g. beams, posts, rafters etc. in one direction, but for purposes where ops etc. the thickness of the wood used has th consequent waste. Finally the size of om which it is sawn and if wooden sheets of s, partitions etc. several narrow pieces have
vercome these problems. Plywood is one nt origin are particle board and fibre board.
ntry and owned by the Ceylon Plywoods located at Gintota in the South, approxiud factory is situated at Kosgama approxi

Page 19
2
The supply of timber to these two fa production of plywood and teachests owing to The bulk of the supplies to Gintota is made f the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiadeniya gro for harvesting of peeler and hardwood saw log Corporation, on the other hand is the main su at Kosgama. In addition, the Corporation ol private sector and imported nearly 12,000 m (
The total log timber supplies to the Ply Corporation, its own extraction project and f 37,000 m3.
In Sri Lanka, the veneers are produced to 1/16" so that the 3-plywood which is the glue is spread so thinly that its thickness is no
Different types of glues have been and country the only glues used are of the Ure: The former is cheaper but is not water resistan exposed to moisture or even very high humi adhesive (marine grade) is used.
Laminated wood is not produced in Sri in the construction of trussies, arches and the l
Hollow core construction is another ty doors are manufactured by the Plywoods Corp are of 3-ply board while the core is built up of edgewise in such a manner as to afford suppo not only aesthetically pleasing but also light in
Fibre board
This is manufactured from wood that h basic difference between fibre board and pa bending on synthetic resins while fibre boards d resins may be introduced during the process of are used principally as panels, insulation, par of moderate strength are required. It is liabl have been used during the process of manufa
Fibre board is not produced in Sri Lal imports. Imports of fibre board commenced and fell sharply in 1963-65 and 1970-77 due t 1977. Practically all this board has been con
The main uses of fibre board in Sri Lal and manufacture of built-in-cupboards andin with a plastic overlay.

ctories has been the biggest constraint to the the restricted harvesting of the Wet Zone forests. rom the Corporation's own extraction project at up of forests, released by the Forestry Department is purely on a selection basis. The State Timber plier of log timber to the wood working complex ptained large quantities of Rubberwood from the of peeler logs from Malaysia and Indonesia.
woods Corporation during 1978 from the Timber rom foreign sources amounted to approximately
by the "rotary' method and are generally cut type used for making tea chests is 3/16". The it taken into account.
are being used in the Plywood industry. In this -formaldehyde and Phenol-formaldehyde type. t. Hence for uses where plywood is likely to be dity, plywood bonded with phenol formaldehyde
Lanka although there is a demand for this wood ike.
ype of application in Sri Lanka where by flush oration. In this type of construction the facings wood strips or any other similar material placed ort to the plywood facings. The flush doors are
relation to its strength.
as been reduced to individual fibres. This is the rticle board. Particle boards depend for their epcnd on natural fibre to fibre bonding, although manufacture to improve the natural bond. They titions and other constructions where flat sheets 2 to insect and fungus attack unless preservatives ctures. It is not suitable for exterior use.
nka and the consumption depends completely on in 1953 and increased gradually over the years to import restrictions, but showed recovery after
pressed fibre board (hardboard).
nka are as constructional material in partitioning furniture as cabinet backs and table tops usually

Page 20
Particle board ,
This is the preferred term for what is o of distinct particles of Wood (other materials m board by synthetic resin which is cured by hea have surfaces of higher quality than the core.
Particle board can be sawn, worked anc equal in all directions and it is dimensionally m contact with water, but frequent or prolonged
The surface is often covered with venee of wood. It is much less strong than solid wo fungus attack as the wood from which it wasma
Chipboard manufacture in Sri Lanka is imited scale at the Kosgama wood working cc facture.
Pulp and Paper Industries
The manufacture of paper based on m establishment of the Mill at Valaichenai in the tion in 1956 with a capacity of 3,750 tons of w
The raw materials selected for this mil. straw. The Mill finally went into full product of 6,500 to 7,000 tons per annum, which was 1 With further experience and slight modificatic tons per annum was reached. In 1967 a seco to produce paper board was installed. With further improvements to the original plant, w of the Valaichenai plant was increased to 22,5:
A second paper mill was constructed a 1976. This plant has a capacity of 15,000 ton: The raw material used is mainly rice straw an to be used as raw material. The pulp in processe the as present production capacity is 37,000 tor paper is in the region of 120,000 tons per annun third mill in the North Central Province of Sr
Raw Material
The pulp and paper industry is depende material and both Woody, and non woody mat mainly from Woody materials and constitute 7 balance is made up of waste paper 20%, and in that could be used for the development of the (a) Agricultural residues — straw, bagai (b) Hardwood (c) Long fibre substitutes - Kenafand (d) Long fibre materials - Conifers and (e) Waste Material - Waste paper
3-A 59686

3
ften referred to as "chipboard'. It is composed ay also be used) bound together in the form of a it and pressure. They may be homogeneous or
| finished like wood. Its strength properties are ore stable than wood. Particle board can tolerate contact may cause distortion.
rs of wood so as to give the natural appearance pod along the grain. It is as liable to insect and de. Particle board is not suitable for exterior use.
of recent origin and is only manufactured to a omplex. It is used primarily in furniture manu
odern technology started in Sri Lanka with the Eastern Province. This mill was put into operariting and printing paper per annum.
were Illuk grass, Imperata cylindrica and Rice ion in 1959 and the production was in the region early double the rated capacity of the machine. ons to the plant, a production capacity of 9,000 ld paper machine with a capacity of 12,000 tons the integration of the paper board machine and hich were completed by 1971 the rated capacity 50 tons per annum.
t Embilipitiya and went into production by mid soffine paper (Writing and printing) per annum. d in addition tropical hardwoods and kenaf was mployed is the caustic soda process. With this mill is per annum although the demand for all types of h. To meet this demand the establish ment of a i Lanka is under consideration.
nt largely on the vegetable kingdom for its raw erials are used. The world's pulp production is 5% of the fibrous raw material supply while the on woody raw material 5%. The raw materials pulp and paper industry in Sri Lanka are :-
SSG
Sunn Hemp
Bamboo

Page 21
4
The suitability of these raw materials depend of pulping process chosen, the production cap
The techno-economic values of raw Lanka are as follows :-
Straw
Rice Straw is the main raw material u straw has advantages in view of its ready avai like short fibre length, high content of Silic: process and the high cost of transport being a
Bagasse
This is a by-product of the Sugar Can
Tropical Hardwood
In view of the advances made in techn hardwoods along with long fibred material pi facture of differcnt grades of paper.
Rubber Wood
Rubber wood has not yet established industry in spite of its ready availability. T confirmed the difficulties of using this raw mi
Sunn Hemp
Sunn hemp has gained importance as
ture of hard tissues such as cigarette, carbo
farmers as a green manure. Trials are bein;
Kenaf
Mill trials conducted with Kenaf at partly replace the imported wood pulp.
Bamboo
Bamboo is not a new raw material foi India and Pakistan for the manufacture of p growing bamboo and the Forestry Departm strictus but protection against elephant dam
Conifers
Large extents of Pinus caribaea and ( by the Forestry Department. It will be p Pulp and Paper industry in Sri Lanka in the is 15 years.

on the grade of paper to be produced, the type acity of the mill and its location.
haterials available for the paper industry in Sri
sed for the production of paper. Although rice
lability there are various technological limitations
giving rise to various difficulties in the pulping bulky material.
e industry but is not used in Sri Lanka.
)logy it is now possible to use 50% mixed tropical oduced from Conifers and Bamboo for the manu
itself as a raw material for the pulp and paper he main problem is the latex and mill trials have aterial . ܗܝ
a potential source of raw material for the manufacnizing air mail etc. It is grown in Sri Lanka by g carried out by the Paper Mills at Embilipitiya,
Valaichchenai have indicated that the pulp could
paper making as it is presently being used both in ulp and paper. Sri Lanka has ideal conditions for lent raised extensive plantations of Dendrocalamus age has posed a servere problem.
other Pinus species are raised on a plantation scale ossible to meet the long fibre requirements of the next few years. The rotation fixed for this species

Page 22
WOOD AND WOOD
Safety Match
The match industry is a small branch respect that it makes Sri Lanka practically self
The industry was first established in 19 Ltd. and since then the industry has grown c controlled by the State under the Manufacture
The match industry faces the same pro several species since there is no single species, available in large quantities.
The two most popular matchwood speci The former is suitable for both splints and box thin veneer. The latter species is very suitable straight grain. Other accepted species are Al for splints and boxes, Spondias pinnata for sp zeylanica for boxes and splints and Albizia found that Albizia becomes too soft and less the tree is too quick. Another species found : which is presently available in simni quantities. as is done in Central Africa, where this specie
Boat Building
Mechanized wooden boats and smaller for the Fisheries Industry. Today, there is a for the export market and a fair quantity of panelling and fittings.
Borwood Industry
This industry is primarily concerned v The rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis is the mair Sri Lanka. The tree is cultivated in many Asia ever, the most important rubber growing coun
Indonesia - Malaysia - Thailand -
Sri Lanka —
India ۔۔۔۔۔تـــــــــــــ۔
Vietnam ۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔
Géngo
Nigeria −ç−

5
-BASED INDUSTRIES
of forest based industries but important in the sufficient in safety matches.
18 with one factory viz. the Ceylon Match Co. ver the years. The manufacture of matches is of Matches Ordinance.
blem as the plywood industry that it has to use acceptable both for splints and boxes, which are
es are Bombax malabarica and Aleurites triloba as but is mainly used for boxes as if gives a tough for splints due to its light colour and relatively stonia scholaris, for splints, Meliosma arnolitiana Lints, Myristica dactyloides for boxes, Mangifera moluccana, for splints and boxes. It has been suitable in the match industry if the growth of suitable for splints and boxes is Gmelina arborea , but could be easily grown on a plantation scale S is used successfully for match manufacture.
unpropelled fishing boats and canoes are built heavy investment in the manufacture of yachts Sri Lanka's luxury timbers are used for internal
fith the industrial utilization of the rubber tree species used in the Borwood timber industry in n, South American and African countries. Howtries in relation to area are :-
1,600,000 hectares 1,400,000 hectares 320,000 hectares 256,000 hectares 120,000 hectares 96,000 hectares 80,000 hectares
80,000 hectares

Page 23
6
In the past years, Sri Lanka had only concentr potential of rubber timber. It has been esti. could yield as much as 114,000 cubic metres rubber wood unlike timber from natural forest ing very much easier.
The utilization of rubber wood in Sri mechanical properties of rubber wood were de structural and furniture components. The pri during 1969/70 brought about a new concept Lanka (Todd, 1977). The availability of the was a spring board to the manu.acture of a n Borwood. Elegant and aesthetic furniture public and private sector institutions which ( requires furniture of the highest standards.
The development of the Borwood tim doubt that processed timber conditioned to sta
The preservatives used for processing is but harmless to humans. The penetration anc with international standards and are adequate the Furniture beetle, the Powder post beetle, t
The timber is a medium textured wood pleasing grain and is somewhat irregular. A an easy timber for sawing, planing and mould
Sri Lanka's Rubberwood industry has p the past eight years. Some of this has found from floorings and panelling to furniture in sol
industries of Forest Products other than timber
This is the preferred term for what used term being disliked because of its derogatory c(
Essential oils
Distillation and extraction products whi oils. The most important of these are Eucaly the latter two are discussed under Agricultural Industrial Research (CISIR) carried out test dis Department. Distillation of this material yiel The British Pharmocopea lays down a standarc considered suitable for pharmaceutical purpose 69%, cineole. It was felt that the material was globulus (which is the species from which oil is distillation takes place as a cottage industry. T to facilitate easy collection of leaves.

ited on the rubber latex and totally neglected the nated that 3,200 hectares of rubber plantations of rubber wood. It must be remembered that , is a uniform raw material which makes process
anka com: 1 ced as far back as 1969 when the termined a di a study made of its usage for both sence of 2, anish Architect/Furniture Designer of a mod l r furniture for the first time in Sri mechanical roperties and the processed timber ew concept of furniture in this country using
was manufactured and supplied to both the overed sections like the hotel industry which
ber industry from 1969 has proved beyond all ndards can be used for practically every purpose.
a mixture of Boron salts which is toxic to insects retention of the preservatives are in accordance to protect the timber against inscct pests such as he House long horn and the Death watch beetle.
of light creamy colour which has sometimes a s far as working properties are concerned, it is ing and can be painted, lacquered or waxed.
processed approximately 8,600 cubic metres over markets abroad in the form of finished products. me developed countries.
L to be called "minor forest produce’-the latter »nnotation.
ch include leaf oils, Wood oils and various grass ptus oil, Citronolla oil and Lemon grass oil and products. The Ceylon Institute of Scientific and tillations of Et calyptus leaves sent by the Forest led 2-2.5% oil based on dry weight of leaves. 1 of 70%. Ciece in Eucalyptus oil if is it to be 3. The oil distilled by the CISIR contained 55sub-standa.d. At the present time, Eucalyptus
distilled) is used mainly for firewood although his species could be grown on a coppice rotation

Page 24
Tans and dyes
At the present time the only tan-barks whic Rhizophara spccies The right to collect these ba However, most tanning in Sri Lanka is done us bark and Wattle extract.
Wattle trees (chiefly Acacia mollissima) a species was analysed by the OISIR and found to cessing of wattle bark to make wattle extract is a pi is exportable. Wattle bark is also the source of tannin-formeldehyde adhesive which is waterproof
Tanning materials can also be used as dye Lanka to make a black dye.
Grasses, Bamboos and Canes
The utilization of grasses and bamboos in
Fourteen species of Bamboo have been id Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Indocalamus, Ochlan Oxytenanthera. However, only B. busa, Den important in Sri Lanka from an utilization point (
The most common uses are for the manufac in the Kalutara District of Sri Lanka which was scaffolding and rural housing and as a support foi
It is in the utilization of cane that much available in the forests and the Genus Calamus is believed to be endemic. Nine species are found
Rattans and Canes are used for all types handles, walking sticks, blinds, scaffolding, etc. ar population of Sri Lanka.
Oils and fats from seeds
The oil from the seeds of Madhuca longifol facture of edible fats such as margarine. The oilf group as Corn oil, Palm oil, Sunflower oil etc. R. points to the existence of untapped resources.
Gums, resins and oleo-resins
Several species in Sri Lanka yield gums o Anogeissus latifolia, Lannea coramandelica and Pte
Dammar resins are produced by various sp Dipterocarpus glandulosus.
Species of Pinus caribaea and Canarium : used as an insence. However, resin from the lat (oil of Elemi) which is exportable.

7
sh are collected are from Cassia auriculata and rks is advertised and sold by tender annually. ing imported tanning materials chiefly wattle
*e available in Sri Lanka. The bark of this
be comparable to imported bark. The proossible secondary industry and the end product a tanning which could be used as a base for a fand suitable for use in the Plywood industry.
s. Terminalia chebula seeds were used in Sri
he paper industry has already been discussed
entified in Sri Lanka consisting of species of ndra, Chimonobambusa, Telnostachyum and drocalamus and Ochlandra are considered of view.
ture of planting baskets a flourishing industry destroyed with the advent of polythene, for
bean vines.
progress can be made. Cane is abundantly represented by ten species of which seven are exclusively in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka.
of furniture, baskets, ornamental ware, bag ld is now finding wider use amongst the rural
ia is found to be very suitable for the manurom this seed is a 'Soft' oil and is in the same ubber seed too yields oil and oil cake which
f interest to commerce, chief of which are rocarpus masupium.
recies of Dipterocarps, the best known being
Zeylanicum produce an oleo-resin which are ter species on distillation vields phyllandrin

Page 25
8
Medicinal products
There are a large number of medicinal which are commonly used in Ayurvedic medici Corcinium fenestratum, Terminalia chebula, Te interesting to note that Corcinium is exported
Beedi wrapper leaf
This is a cottage industry in Sri Lanka v sum of money is spent on importing the beedi which the leaves are collected-Diospyros in cultivation of this species combined with arti would appear to be the answer.
Miscellaneous products
An example of how intensive research i Tamarind Seed industry of India. Tamarinds used as a “sizing' material in the textile indu which Jellies are prepared. Tamarind is grow
INDUSTRAL UTILIZATIO
Sri Lanka's Agricultural Industries cons
(1) Major Plantation Industries
(a) Tea (b) Rubber * (c) Coconut
(2) Minor Export Crops
(a) Essential Oils (b) Spice Crops
(i) Cinnamon (ii) Cardamom (iii) Pepper (iv) Cloves
(c) Other Crops
(i) Cocoa (ii) Coffee (iii) Papain (iv) Cashew
(1) Major Plantation Industries
It is a well known fact that Sri Lanka coconut and is now nearing self sufficiency i three commodities in the export trade is indica

productss which could be collected from forests ne. Chief among them are Rauwolfia serpentina, Irminalia belarica and Phyllanthus ennblica. It is to pharmaceutical firms in Japan and Germany.
which is of importance to her economy. A large, wrapper leaf from India although the tree from zelanoxylon is found in Sri Lanka. Intensive ficial curing in barns (as is done with tobacco)
into minor products can pay rich dividends is the eeds which were a waste product are today being stry, besides yielding a valuable “ jellose ” from n extensively in Sri Lanka.
N - AGRICULTURAL CROPS
sist mainly of two industries-1
specializes it: the production of tea, rubber and n the production of paddy. The dominance of tive of a high degree of specialization.

Page 26
As a supplier of food products and raw the world demand (1977) in tea, a small prod output and a fairly significant producer of coco oil 21% of World production and major produc
Sri Lanka's exports are predominantly about 14.0% (1978) of merchandise exports. T of the Sri Lanka economy. In 1978, the mar of the total value added in the economy, where 44% (6). The contrast is even greater in term in these sectors. In 1978, the manufacturing while the agricultural sector employed 55.3%.
(a) Tea Industry.-The tea industry in S. immediate future, the mainstay of the country today is reckoned to be 241,877 hectares of W Tea generates about 48% of Sri Lanka's forei 15% of the total cultivated land area, and cont and 5.2% of the GNP.
(b) The Rubber Industry.-Rubber is Sri for 15-17% of total export earnings. Nationa production and domestic consumption accoun Sri Lanka. The principal exporters of rubber together supply about 80% of the world natura
The country's total registered rubber ext cultivated area is estimated to be 256,083 hecta and estates of different sizes. The estates are n State Plantations Corporation and the Janatha 61,926 hectares equivalent to 24% of the cultivat of the private sector with an individual ownershi Laws of 1972 and 1975.
The average rubber yield is about 818 kg yield potential of the clones that are cultivated. to recommended cultural practices, senility, non is a backlog of about 92,000 hectares awaiting r
Of the total quantity of rubber exporte rubber for 43%. There is considerable scope switching over to premium grade rubbers such that a shift from the production of sheet to block from scrap rubber.
(c) The Coconut Industry.- The total ar hectares. Of this extent only 54% or 281,364 h mixed planting or Small holdings (below 10 hect

9
materials, Sri Lanka supplies nearly 29.8% of ucer of rubber contributing 10% of the workd ut products--(dessicated coconut 32%, coconut er of brown coir fibre).
agricultural and industrial goods account for his reflects the still primarily agricultural nature ufacturing sector contributed only about 16% as the agricultural sector's contribution came to s of the relative shares of the labour employed sector employed only 17% of the work force (Central Bank 1978).
ri Lanka is and has been and will remain in the seconomy. The total extent of land under tea hich 45,281 hectares consist of small holdings. gn exchange earnings from exports and covers ibutes over 20% to the total agricultural output
Lanka's second largest export earner accounting production amounts to about 5% of the workd ts for about 4% of total rubber production in are Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand which l rubber output while Sri Lanka ranks fourth.
ent is estimated to be 297,000 hectares, but the res which is distributed between small holdings ow managed by two State Agencies namely the Estate Development Board, which account for ed rubber extent and the balance is in the hands p ceiling of 20 hectares under the Land Reform
g. per hectare which is low compared with the The poor average yield is due to non-adherence -fertilizing and the vagaries of weather. There eplanting.
d, sheet rubber accounted for 57% and crepe for improving low grade sheet as well as for as latex crepe. It is believed in trade circles rubber could assist in raising the price received
ea under coconut is estimated to be 522,727 ectares are in pure stands whilst the balance is ares).

Page 27
20
Sri Lanka accounts for less than 19% o the Philipines. In desiccated coconut, where ! tons, the World market is shared by the Philip and expanding market while fresh coconut exp
In the non-kernel products market, Sri I and India share the world's coir supply. Of t tons, Sri Lanka supplies 92.9 thousand metric tons of bristle fibre, and 40.5 thousand metri thousand metric tons which is made up of 0.1 th metric tons of curled fibre.
Cori Fibre.-This industry is mainly ex production is the export demand. The major bedding and upholstery manufacturing and bri
Coir Yarn.—This is a minor export ite since 1980. The bulk of this item, howeve exchange earnings from coir yarn increased fro to increased export demand and higher prices.
Coconut shell.-This coconut by-produ items like coconut shell floss, coconut shell pi the extensive use of coconut shells for fuel and processing and export is limited. Until recen production, Sri Lanka was the leading export the European Economic Community market.
Coconut Ekel.-The export of coconut owing to a demand from Pakistan. In 1976 c export earnings from all coconut products.
(2) Minor export Crops
These crops refer to the perennial crops past several years and which have been proces
(a) Essential Oils.--These oils are spari and occur in almost every part of the plant obtained in Sri Lanka are given below
Source Οι
Cinnamon ... Bark Oil : Cardamom . . Cardamon Ginger . . ... Ginger oil Citronella grass . . Citronella Mint .. ... Mint oil Citrus .. ... Lime oil Nutmeg . . ... Nutmeg o
Mace .. ... Mace oil

f world coconut oil exports and ranks second to Sri Lanka exports around 30,000-45,000 metric pines and Sri Lanka. In Copra, there is a large orts represent a small market.
anka's share is considerable and both Sri Lanka he world's coir supply of 105.3 thousand metric tons which is made up of 52.0 thousand metric tons of matress fibre whilst India supplies 0.9 ousand metric tons of mat fibre and 0.8 thousand
port oriented so that the key factor governing industries that use coir fibre are the automobile, Ish making industries.
m which has shown a continuous improvement r, is domestically consumed. Yet the foreign m 1 million in 1970 to 7.5 million in 1976 owing
ct provides a base for several other exportable eces and activated carbon. However, owing to firing of copra kilns, the proportion available for tly when the Philipines expanded their charcoal er of charcoal, mainly to the United States and
ekel became a significant export item since 1973 oconut ekel contributed to about 1% of the total
which have been grown in Sri Lanka during the sed mainly for the export market.
ngly soluble in water, generally volatile in steam ... Plant material from which essential oils are
f Material
Leaf Oil ... Bark, Chips, featherings and leaf oil ... Seeds nd pods
Rhizomes oil ... Leaves
Leaves
. . Rindi
1. ... Seeds
Aril

Page 28
Essential oils find wide application in indust cosmetic, food flavoruing, pharmaceauticals, soap :
(b) Spice Crops-Cinnamon-(Cinnamomum in Sri Lanka which yield the cinnamon quills of c. to the essential oil obtained by steam distillatio estimated to be in the region of 16,000 hectares.
Cardamoms (Elettaria cardamomum).--The which yield three commescial products namely, the Arab countries for the preparation of Arab Coffe countries use cardamom in baking and food fla estimated to be 4,400 hectares.
Pepper (Piper nigrum).--There are six com vine-whole black pepper, white pepper, peppe dehydrated green pepper.
In the industralized countries with markete economies, the food industries and in particular t The extent under Pepper is estimated to be 5,400 h.
Cloves (Syzyguin aromaticun).-These are stems, leaf oil, bud oil and stem oil are commercia spice in different countries-e.g. flavouring, perf estimated to be 1,800 hectares.
(c) Other Crops-Cocoa (Theobroma cacac Lanka which produce the cocoa beans and by-pr powder.
The chocolate and confectionery manufactu
The extent under Cocoa is estimated to be
Coffee-(Coffea arabica).—There are two v the well known beverage.
The extent under Coffee is estimated to be
Papain (Carica papaya).-The vegetable late the papain of commerce. Essentially used for t tanning of skins and hides, and other commercial
The extent under cultivation for papain late
Cashew (Anacardium occidentialis).—The industrial oil known as Cashew Nut Shell liquid fr
The extent under Cashew cultivation is estin in the small holdings sector and the balance 3,200

I2
ry. The primary uses are in the perfumary, nd paint industries.
zeylanicun).-There are five varieties grown bmmerce, for the export market, in addition n of the leaf. Extent under Cinnamon is
re are three varieties grown in Sri Lanka capsules, seeds and oil used throughout the e and for culinery purposes. Scandinavian ivouring. The extent under Cardamom is
mercial products obtained from the pepper r oil, pepper oleoresin, green pepper and
conomy and in Eastern European Socialist he meat sectors are the biggest pepper uses. ectareS.
the dried unopened flower buds and buds, lly produced. There are diverse uses of this umery, pharmaceuticals etc. The extent is
).-There are three varieties grown in Sri oducts of commerce, viz. butter, liquor and
rers are the largest consumers.
11,400 hectares.
arieties grown in Sri Lanka which produces
2,320 hectares.
x of the papaya is oven or sun dried to give enderizing meat, manufacture of light bear,
SS.
x extraction is 400 hectares.
ashew produces the edible kernel and an om the outer shell.
nated to be 8,000 hectares with 4,800 hectares hectares in the State Sector.

Page 29
22.
Prospect for minor export crops
Sri Lanka is an important producer of supplier of Cashew and Coffee. Systematic owing to the emphasis on commercial plantal early 19th century.
North America and Western Europe : import demand for most spices. In the As imported spices is Japan followed by Australia are traded through Singapore and Hongkong being the world's leading user of cloves.
Conclusion
The foregoing reveals the stupendous plants in Sri Lanka. The present Governm forms of industries and the results are alrea fields of industry.
REFE]
ABEYSINGHE, ARIYA (1980)-Problems in Mar. reference to Minor Export Crops. M.S
ANDREWs J. R. T. (1961)-A Forest Invent Project). Government Press, Colombo
CENTRAL BANK OF CEYLON (1978)-Annual R
CENTRAL BANK OF CEYLON (1978)-Econo Department, Vol. 1, No. 2, December (
HoLMES C. H. (1958)-Industrial uses of wood KING K. F. S. (1976)–Forest Resources oft ToDD, HoPE (1977)—Borwood. Karmantha 1D

pices, cocoa and papain but yet an insignificant cultivation of thSse crops has been neglected ion crops like tea, rubber and coconut since the
re the two most important regions in terms of an and Pacific region, the major consumer of and New Zealand, although substantial quantities
Indonesia is a substantial importer of spices,
potential in the industrial utilization of tropical ent is actively sponsoring and encouraging all ly evident from the increased production in all
RENCES
keting of Primary Export Commodities with special c. Dissertation, PGIA (Unpublished).
ory of Ceylon (A Canada-Ceylon Colombo Plan , Ceylon : 116 pp.
eport for 1979.
nic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka, Statistics p. 16).
l. Ceylon Forester, 3 (3 & 4).
he World. Proc. XVI. IUFRO Congress, Norway.
B. Publication.

Page 30
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4, Janu
Some Notes on Forestry an
in the German Dem
A. N. S. BAM
(Assistant Conservator of Forests, Wor,
INTRODUC
In the German Democratic Republic Fore socialist economic planning. Due to the rapid in war period the demand for wood as a raw materia country's own needs, the limited forest resources long tradition of forestry in Germany, every Germ. forestry to their homeland. In this paper the au forestry and forest management in the GDR.
COUNTR
The GDR lies between 54°41'; 50°10' north tudes, and covers an area of 108,178 square kilom million (155 per square kilometre).
The climate is strongly influenced by the gu moist-temperate, changeable transitional climate, The average annual atmospheric temperature is 8.5° temperature during summer is about--30°C, and 1 average annual precipitation is 585 mm (during 19 normally in the month July (18.1 mm).
Glaciers that moved across much of Europ deposited sand and gravel on large areas between Northern German plains (Norddeutsches Flachla1 part extends at it's widest some 402 km south fron relatively poor soil and lies less than 91 metres abo
South of Elbe-Havel valley and Berlin lies a and wide allvuial and often marshy valleys. Many regions, which were once barren heathlands, today
The southern and south western parts of th range from nearly flat to mountainous and known includes the mountain-ranges Erzgebirge, Harz, Thu birge. The highest elevation is the Fichtelberg wi were spreading loess oveo southern areas resulting s
23

y - December, 1980
d Forest Management
cratic Republic
NIWATTE
ing Plans and Forest Inventory)
TON
st Management is an integral part of the lustralization of the country since the post l is steadily rising. In order to satisfy the are very intensively managed. Due to the in today is well aware of the importance of hor describes some of his observations on
Y
ern latitudes and 9°54“ ; 15°2' castern longiretres. The present population is nearly 17
lf stream and can be characterized as a subject to oceanic and continental influences. C (during years 1901-1950). The maximum he minimum during Winter is-20-C. The 01-1950), and the highest amount will be
thousands of years ago during the ice age river valleys. This caused the formation of hd), the northern part of the GDR. This n the Baltic sea. This vast land area has a ve mean sea level.
region of alternating areas of sterile sands of the sandy areas of this Fleming and Lausitz | support vast gloomy forests of conifers.
Le country consist of series of plateaus that as Mittelgebirge (Central highlands). This eringer Wald, Lausitzer gebirge and Elsterge th 1214 metres. During the ice age winds oil of highest fertility.

Page 31
24
The country consists of 15 administ1
lized country with a centrally planned econo Assistance.
F
The total woodland area of the GD) land area, thus making 0.17 hectares per woodland area is very small and it is caused energy. However these strip.mined areas stung). Therefore the woodland area rema
Out of the growing stock scots pine (P and it thrives well in the middle and norther. forestry divisions). Another coniferous tre (Thueringer Wald and Harz areas). Amaj Marx Stadt forestry divisions consists of Sp
Beech (Fagus silvatica) and Oak (Que species found in the country. Beech is to b. sion) and on northern recent diluviums, whi area (Waren forestry division).
Apart from these species some other Larix decidua (European Larch), Picea sitche fir), Abies alba (fir), Pinus strobus (White pine platanus (Maple), Populus spp. (Poplar), Ulmu Quercus robur (Red Oak) and Alnus glutinos
The species composition of forests cou
Coniferous
Broad leaved

tive districts (Bezirke). GDR, a highly industriay, is a member of the Council for Mutual Economic
)RESTS
amounts to 2,953,200 hectares (27.2% of the total ead of population). The annual retrogression of by mining for lignite, the country's major source of re later reclaimed and reforested (Kippenaufforns more or less the same.
nus silvestris) is the main coniferous species growing ! German plains (e.g. Waren, Potsdam and Cottbus , Spruce (Picea abies) grows on higher elevations or portion of the growing stock of Suhl and Karl
CC.
rcus sessiflora are the two important broad leaved a found in the Thuringia region (Suhl forestry divie the latter grows in lower-Harz and Mecklenburg
species grown in mixture with above species are nsis (Sitka Spruce), Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Douglas }), Fraxinus excelsior (European Ash), Acer pseudo's carpinifolia (Cornish Elm), Betula pendula (Birch) a (Alder).
ld be summarized as follows (data from year 1970)-
Species Percentage Pines 54 Spruce 21 Larch 1 Others 1.
Total 77
Oak 5 Beech 8 Other hardwoods 3 Alder 2 Poplar 1 Other softwoods 5
(broad leaved)
Total 23

Page 32
FOREST OWN
62.5 per cent of all forests are nationally ow asforests under State supervision (Betreuungswald). by various co-operative organisations, and 9 per c owned by religious institutions. The Christian C service. During the formation of the socialist state. forests owned by big landlords (lands exceeding 100 of forests in pre-war Germany was under private o
AGE CLASSES DISTRIBUTION
The age classes distribution of the growings tage of the forest area (data from 1970) The opti
Age class
II
III
IV
W
VI
VII Uneven aged
The higher frequency of younger age classes is main during and after the second world war. Reforestat highest during the post war period (105,675 and 113
The reforestation figure for 1976 is 18,860 h. work were done in 168,443 hectares of woodland du
GROWING STOCK
During the post-war period the volume of from a lower level. The following figures show successive inventories (source: Studienmaterial fuer
Species
Spruce, fir, douglas fir Pine, larch Oak
Beech
Soft broad leaved species

25
ERSHIP
ned (Volkswald) and the balance is known
Out of the balance 83.6 percent are owned 2nt are private forests. The rest (7.4%) is hurch of GDR maintains a Srperate forest a land reform was carried out, nationalizing ha) and by war criminals. A major portion vnership (49.9%).
OF GROWING STOCK
Lock of all species is given below as percenmal distribution is given within brackets.
Area (%)
29.2 (19) 17.4 (18) 16.6 (18) 16.4(18) 10.4 (18)
5.4 3.3 (9)
1.3
ly due to over-exploitation of forests before ion figures for years 1951 and 1952 are the 176 hectares respectively).
:ctares, and tending and other maintenance ring the samc year.
BY VOLUME
growing stock has improved considerably rowing stock of State forests during two das Fach Forstoekonomie, Tharandt, 1973.
Volume (m/ha)
N ーい 1956/57 1964
134.7 .. 169.
94.5 . . 114.4
147.2 . . 160.9
120.7 .. 215.9
75.6 . . 84.3

Page 33
舅26
At present the total growing stock fo metres, thus giving 164 cubic metres per hecta is mainly due to the gradual reduction of annu
OUTPUT OF WOOD AND
The total wood consumption rose betw try, transport, construction, furniture making large quantities of wood, which cannot be cov import industrial wood annually in average C exports by the country's main trade partner, tions to step up mesaures to increase wood p
The roundwood removals (including pr below (Source : Statistisches Jahrbuch der D)
Roundwood Removals (in
Year Total mosha Industrial
wood
1970 ... 7372.2 ... 2.73 .. 6689.7 1971 ... 8336.6 . . 2.98 .. 7640.2 1972 ... 7893.7 ... 2.92 .. 7157.0 1973 ... 9423.2 . . 3.49 .. 8576.9 1974 ... 8141.0 . . 3.02 .. 7504.3 .. 1975 ... 8328.7 .. 3.08 .. 7758.7 976 ... 8540.4 . . 3.17 . . 8042.2
The GDR produces resins by taping pines ar figure for 1976 is 11,443.2 metric tons. Spr was a major product in early fifrees, has now
FOREST (
The topmost organ is the State Comm wirtschaft=SKF), which functions under t stuffs industry in East Berlin. It is headed tration of SKF there are five forestry division Suhl). Each of these divisions has a numb (Staatlicher Forestwirtscaftsbetrieb= StFB). hectares woodland and is managed by a direc (Diplom-forstimginieur). Such an enterprise forest engineering, economics, book keeping, and game management. It maintains a close c ment in Potsdam. There are about 96 StFB;

r the country is estimated as 440 million cubic 'e (irrespective of the species). This improvement
al cut during the period 1950 to 1966.
OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS
reen 1960-1978 by fifteen percent. Mining indus, chemical, paper and cellulose industries require rered by own resources. This makes the GDR to f 9,500,000 cubic metres. The reduction of wood the USSR, in 1976 made the responsible instituproduction in their own forests.
ivate consumption) during 1970-1976 are tabulated DR, 1977, p. 211).
1000 cubic meters - stripped)
Fuel wood Industrial Fuel Imports Exports
wood wood
% %
682.5 . . 90.7 9.3 1041.9 . . 96.3 681. 4. . . 91.7 8.3 995.5 .. 102.2 736.7 ... 90.7 9.3 , , 964.2 . . 109.0 846.3 ... 91.0 9.0 . , 936.7 .. 319.9 636.7 ... 92.2 . , 7.8 884.0 . . 976.0 570.0 . . 93.2 . , 6.8 995.5 . . 586.7 538.2 . . 93.7 6.3 901.9 . . . . 418.0
di spruce on an industrial scale. The production Luce and Oak bark extractions for tanning, which
declined to a very low level.
ORGANIZATION
mittee for forestry (Staatliche Komitee fuer Forsthe Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food py the "Generalforstmeister. Under the adminisS (Waren, Potsdam, Cottbus, Karlmarx Stadt and 2r of sub units known as State forest enterprises
A StFB normally consists of 35,000-40,000 tor who had Forestry education at University level has departments for silviculture, forest utilization, further training of cadre, work study, work safety ‘ollaboration with the Institute for Forest Manages in the country.

Page 34
The next unit that comes under StFB is t Woodland). A StFB normally consists of 3-5 of s "Oberfoerster, who is responsible for all forestry W. of 5-6 ranges (Revier), extent of each varying betw. by a “Revierfoerster' (forest ranger), who has (Forstinginieur).
Apart from this administrative apparatus, t forest technology (Oberlichtenau), Forest Manag research (Eberswalde) and cadre training.
FOREST MANA
Forest Management (German term : Forst originally developed in german speaking countries. in different years indicate its development as a pra richtung, Teil, 1, Tharandt, 1974). HARTIG (17 yields of forests. Another classical forester JUD an optimal order of sequence for whole forest area saw the main task of forest management as the rc MANTEL (1948) sees it as periodical forestry pla
Considering various views of classical and -defined the term for the GDR as the science of per forests, mid and long-termed planning and periodic
ORGANIZATION OF FO
The forest management in GDR is centraliz for the whole country. The Institute for Forest Potsdam is responsible for the management of all f State Committee for Forestry. It has four outs Potsdam. Each of these has a Working Plans tear investigators. There is a very close collaboration prises. -
The forest mapping in GDR is well develo) practice. Forest base maps (scale 1 : 5000) show (scale 1 : 10000) including topographic features, m and site quality maps including tree species and ag
CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS)
For the purpose of intensive management fo groups
Protective forests (Schutzwald) :- 1% of woodlan
The management of these forests is base conservation criteria. This includes slopes whic areas on terrain difficult for timber extraction, prot fauna protection.

27
le “Oberfoersterel' (5.000-10000 hectares of Ich units. Chief of this unit is known as the rk within his unit. A Oberfoersterei consists en 1,500-2,000 hectares. A range is managed graduated from a forestry technical college
e State Committee has sub-organisations for ment (Potsdam), seed processing (Tabarz),
GEMENT
inrichtung) is an applied science which was Definitions for the term by various authors ctical science (Source : Kurth, H., Forstein95) described it as fixing present and future EICH (1871) explained it as maintaining of to meet economic targets. BAADER (1945) gulation of yield on a sustained yield basis. inning of a forest enterprise.
recent foresters RICHTER (1952, 53, 63) iodical assessment of the present state of the cal efficiency test.
REST MANAGEMENT
ed and the methods applied are standardized
Management (VEB Forstprojektierund) in prests in the country and functions under the ations in Dresden, Weimar, Schwerin and h (about 15 persons), land surveyors and site between these offices and state forest enter
bed and following maps are used in forestry ing forest and non-forest land, range maps p of the forestry enterprise (scale 1 : 50000)
classes.
N MANAGEMENT GROUPS
rests of the GDR are classified in three main
area)
strictly on land improvement and nature are liable for severe soil erosion, wooded :cted coastal areas and areas under flora and

Page 35
28
Special forests (Sonderforsten) : 11.7% of
Forest with special objectives or common practice of forest management. forests serving as teaching objects, recogni, areas on exposed hill tops and on sand du health resorts and sanatoria, green belts all catchments and protected areas with drink one hundred hectares) in poorly wooded la
Commercial forests (Wirtschaftswaelder) :
These are managed intensively wit from unrestricted commercial forests, this stands not falling in group II but importan would be reforested within next 10 years an tive measures.
OBJECTIVES O)
This could be briefly stated as follov
- Analysis of present state - Short-termed regulation - long-termed economic ta' - forecasting of long-terme
These objectives are realized by following ting and periodical efficiency tests on forest
FOREST
Two types of forest inventories were
Permanent large area inventory (Permanent
This continuous forest inventory has resources to the SKF and to other planni much to the country's overall economic pl between forestry and the national economy
A large number of sample plots are l annually 4,200 of such plots will be measu plots are grouped according to years. T methods and estimates the standing timbe of 2%.

Woodland area)
protective functions. Management deviates from This groups includes forests such as research plots, Zed valuable seed stands, stocked fire breaks, stocked Ines, areas with medicinal herbs, forests surrounding nd recreational areas near towns or industrial centres ing water establishments and small forests (less than undscapes.
(87.3% of woodland area)
the aim of higher output of raw material. Apart also includes areas under landscape protection, seed t for Seed production, presently the stocked sites that di large areas that should be rehabilitated by ameliora
F FOREST MANAGEMENT
WS ----
of forests including changes.
of the natural growth process of forests to meet
rgets
di forest development.
systems of measures. Inventory, planning, forecas
development.
INVENTORIES
: in practice during my stay in the GDR.
Grossrauminventur)
the task of supplying up to date data on forest ng organizations. Forest management contributes anning and the large area inventory forms a bridge
aid through out the country using a grid pattern and red (1 sample plot for each 635 hectares). Sample his inventory is based on mathematical-statistical r volume for the whole country with an accuracy

Page 36
Working Plan Survey (Teilflaecheninventur)
This is the basis for management plan compartment (Teilflaeche). In every ten yea obtain information on stocking, site, area ; volume estimation for the sub-compartment,
5% and 1.8% respectively.
Operational research, Cybernetics and tant place in the forest management. A mc production regulation on basis of the existing year plan 1976-1980.
STE AS A BASE
During the past decade the importanc more recognition within scientific circles. Th ders site as an important factor. Special tean forest service. The whole woodland area is m climatic zone, geological formation, relief forI availability of nutrients and humus form are ir tion of sub-compartments is done on base of: are two important criteria for silvicultural plan
This article is very much incomplete v place for forestry education in the GDR. Fo has a great tradition in forestry education and of the old Royal Forest Academy of Saxony J. F. Judeich, M. R. Pressler, R. Huggerscho in a beautiful valley near Dresden, this academ Technical University. I was a member of th the small German town a more colourful appe
4-A 596.86

29
ing. The smallest unit of assessment is the sub's each sub-compartment will be inventorized to nd technological parametres. The accuracy of whole forest enterprise and the country is 25%,
lectoronic data processing have gained an impordel system NAREWA was in use for yield and data bank, for all forest enterprises and for the 5
FOR MANAGEMENT
: of site factor in forest management has gained e present day forest management of GDR consiis schooled in site diagnosis are employed by the apped detailed according to site factors. Mesoh, parent rock, soil class and type, soil moisture, nportant aspects in site classification. Demarcasite. Site group and future timber requirements mling.
without few lines on Tharandt, the well known unded by Heinrich von Cotta in 1811, Tharandt research. Among the famous forestry scientists (Koenigliche Saechsische Forstakademie) were ff Stoeckhardt, F. Nobbe and Huber. Located y today functions as a department of the Dresden e large foreign student community, which gave
aCC.

Page 37


Page 38
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4 J
Forest Cover Mapping
Satellite (The Approach of a Sri
U. GEISER &
(Sri Lanka/Swiss Project, Center
Survey Departm
A. N. S. B
(Assistant Conservator of Forests,
INTROD
The last islandwide forest inventory in Sri ago based on aerial photographs taken in 1956. for selected areas and therefore no reliable up to rests are available at present. A similar situation example concerning the land under paddy cultiva essential for various levels of planning and decis of a new technology using satellite images were 1
The Sri Lanka Government requested the investigate the possibility of using satellite imag on landuse. The Swiss authorities through the accepted and delegated the Remote Sensing Sect sity of Zurich, Switzerland, with the task of f Survey Department.
The scope of the project is to do research the application of satellite images for land use Major emphasis is given to paddyland and forest into three phases, a pilot project, a test phase an
The pilot project, which commenced in 19 and techniques required to reach these aims. It conducted in Sri Lanka ; it is not possible to jus tries, because they were developed under differ area to be mapped, personnel available etc.,)
The test phase was executed in 1980. Th entire district of Polonnaruwa were selected as taken in order to test the methods postulated in applied. The results of this test phase in respec paper.
3

nuary - December 1980
and Monitoring Lising Images Lanka - Swiss Project)
M. SOMMER
or Remote Sensing, P. O. Box 506, nt, Colombo 5)
AMINWVATTTE3
Working Plans and Forest Inventory)
JCTION
Lanka had been carried out some twenty years Since then new mappings have been done only date information on the remaining extent offois found in the field of general landuse data, for tion. The lack of such important informations ion making and the awareness of the existence he resons for the present project.
Swiss Government for assistance in a study to es to obtain the urgently required information ir Directorate for Development Co-operation ion of the Dpeartment of Geography, Univerbrmulating a joint project with the Sri Lanka
and development, and the implementation of mapping and monitoring of land use changes cover. The activities of the project are divided i the phase of implementation.
78, was carried out to develop the methods was found that these investigations had to be transfer techniques established in other counnt conditions (types of vegetation, size of the
southern part of Trincomalee district and the est areas. Various investigations were underhe pilot project and to optimize the techniques
of the forestry sector will be discussed in this

Page 39

·exueri yıs go ɔsɛjɔAoɔ SSW qesueT QUIL—Z•$ų
• SSW &q əəejuns sųụba jo susuueos--1 $13
32

Page 40
Based on the findings of the test phase, will commence in 1981.
THE CENTRE FO)
The Sri Lanka-Swiss project is based Sri Lanka Survey Department. The CRS ac activities in Sri Lanka which includes the inte satellite images and other remotely sensed dat
The purpose of the CRS is to develop te tn the island as Well as to carry out its own ir advise and support other Government instit sensing related investigations. Inter-departm the technical knowledge developed at the CR at the responsible agencies, e.g. in the fields of
The CRS at the Survey Department has It is equipped with instruments to support the system) as well as to carry out specific studies
SATELLT
Various satellites of different countrie exploring the outer space, but for earth obser taken by the American satellite system called launched in July, 1972, the Second one followed 3, in March, 1978. All these satellites are ex is planned to establish a fully operational satel
LANDSAT circles the earth in a neal Every 18 days, it flies over the same area and i a receiving station on the earth. This statio community either in photographic form or as
For the acquisition of data, the satelli camera loaded with photographic film as it is d to make use of a special electronic device. L. Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) and the Return
The MSS scans the earth surface line reflected by the earth surface in a digital way, the range of the registered electromagnitec sp that for the same area and the same time, fou green part of the spectrum, one the red part, a which cannot be seen by the human eye. Eac covers an area of approximately 185 km.x 18 The ground resolution which refers to the s LANDSAT MSS coverage of Sri Lanka is sho he entire island, two of them covering more t

33
the implementation phase of the project activities
REMOTE SENSING
at the Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS) of the Es as a central agency for remote sensing related pretation and the analysis of aerial photographs, .
chniques in the field of Remote Sensing applicable vestigations. The main objective, however, is to utions in the carrying out of their own remote ental work shall be strengthened by combining S with the specific thematic experience available
forestry, agriculture, geology etc.
ts own staff trained in Remote Sensing techniques. visual interpretation (e.g. analogue image analyser in the digital field (microprocessor system).
TE IMAGES
is are already in orbit not for the purpose of ration. The Sri Lanka/Swiss project uses images LANDSAT. The first satellite of this series was in January, 1975 and the third one, LANDSATperimental and the series shall be continued. It lite system towards the latter part of the eighties.
ly polar orbit at an altitude of about 920 km. frequested, data are acquired and telemetered to n prepares the data to be delivered to the user computer compatible tapes.
te cannot use a ćonventional system based on a lone in the case of airborne photography. It has ANDSAT-3, has even two system, the so-called Beam Vidicon (RBV).
by line and registers in this process the light (See fig. 1). With the help of the MSS system ectrum is divided into four bands. This means r images are produced, one of them showing the nd two showing parts of the near infra-red range ch image, called scene, taken by the MSS system 5 km. which is about 34,000 square kilometers. mallest elements visible, is around 80 m. The wn in Fig. 2. Seven scenes are required to cover han half of it.

Page 41
34
In the case of the RBW system, th registered in one broad band similar to the device, more emphasis is given to the grou area covered by one RBV scene is less than : to cover the area of one MSS scene.
The LANDSAT images of Sri Lank agency NASA until mid-1980. In the mean Secunderabad. Since the latter part of 198 this Indian LANDSAT station. All the L. as well as from India are centrally stored at
To summarize the difference betweer be said that an aerial photograph has a very details, but it covers only a small area. The but covers a very large area. In addition, s which condition is very difficult to achieve v
METHOD
In general tWo approaches are av: interlinked and can be distinguished. On other on the digital tapes.
The interpretation of the photograph interpretation of aerial photographs but has aerial photographs is mainly based on pa stereoscopic effect, and others. In the LAN the greytone. This is mainly because of th generalized reproduction of the earths sur additional parameter to support the interp phenomenon that the various elements of the in the four bands the greytones appear diff aid to the interpretation.
s For the analysis of the digital tapes, can be worked for using the digital approach quality image by digitally preprocessing the ; photographic image using a special device.
photo-interpreter for analysis. The secon but also analysing and interpreting the sc
The major objective of the pilot pro the methods and techniques to be applied in Right at the beginning it was decided to use gation. These products are available at experienced air photo-interpreters in Sri La on satellite images as well. The application with its specialists, involving much higher ci

spectrum is not divided into single bands, but conventional panchromatic aerial film. With this ind resolution ; in this case it is about 40 m. The , MSS scene; in fact four RBW images are required
a had to be purchased from the American space time, India has constructed a receiving station near 0, the Sri Lanka. CRS obtains satellite images from ANDSAT images available up to now from NASA the CRS.
an aerial photograph and a satellite image it can good ground resolution and therefore shows much satellite image has a rather poor ground resolution atellite images are available at various times a year lith aerial photography.
CAL APPROACH
ailable to analyse LANDSAT images which are 2 is based on the photographic products and the
ic LANDSAT products resembles the conventional some important differences. The interpretation of rameters like greytone or color, texture, shadow, NDSAT MSS images only one of them is available, e coarse ground resolution which produces a more face. But LANDSAT MSS images have now an retation, the multispectral approach. Due to the earth surface have different reflective characteristics erent in each band. This represents an additional
a computer is a pre-requisite. Generally two aims l. The first aims towards the production of a better scene (e.g. for better contrast) and then producing a The better quality image can then be given to the i approach aims towards not only preprocessing, ene fully by the computer.
ject in 1978 was to carefully evaluate and develop Sri Lanka in order to fulfil the scope of the project. the photographic products as a base for the investireasonable rates and there are already various nka who can, after an introductory training, work of the digital tapes would have required a computer OStS.

Page 42
During these preliminary investigation mapped within small test areas to be compar image. Such mappings were carried out at v. these ground data with the satellite images sh surface could be identified in the satellite image
During the pilot project it was found th forests could be directly identified and localizi the various phenological stages of paddy lanc mapping had first to be carried out using all photographs and field work (so called multi stag the proper location of the land use categories compared with new satellite images and by doin paddy land, the part under cultivation could could be localized. The bench-mark map col use map.
The methods and techniques postulated i test areas. The procedure and the findings con aIe described belows.
MAPPNG FO Data
The so called multi-stage approach allow: mainly preprocessed LANDSAT images and aeri The large scale interpretation and delineation bodies and forested areas is to be carried out types, however, call for an additional and more 1 : 20,000 scale aerial photography of 1979 have interpretation and to assist the differentiation magnetic reflection of open Woodland (describec to that of a Teak plantation on the LANDSAT i. similar greytone. So how to distinguish A greytone and a rough texture of the natural fore and the brighter greytone of a Teak plantation. doing specific field checks, or by collecting othe data. we
As the orientation on a satellite image is c maps or as a basis for field studies, a transpare mation was creattd. It could be superimposec dams and even administrative boundaries becom Classification
Satellite images contain a vast amount of a cartographic product in different ways. The fi enhancement facilitate the visual demarcation o paddy, sugar cane, tea etc.
It was decided by the project to cover arc area through a generalized classification, if the planning purposes.
Thus the following interpretation-key was

35
, the situation on the ground was carefully d with the corresponding area in the satellite rious times of the year. The comparisons of wed for example which elements of the earth
at certain elements like water bodies or partly d in the satellite images. Other elements like
were difficult to identify. Therefore a basic the available data like satellite images, aerial e approach). This bench-mark map then show of interest. The map can now periodically be g so, changes can be monitored. In the case of be mapped in forestry, areas of deforestation ild also be called a monitoring oriented land
n the pilot project were then tested within large cerning the mapping and monitoring of forests
REST COVER
to compile information from different sources, al photography, for the bench-mark mapping. of major landuse components such as water on the satellite image itself. Other vegetation detailed source of information. The available : rendered good service to facilitate an accurate of different types of land use. The electrol in Table I), as an example, resembles closely Image. Therefore the two categories appear in a recent aerial photography shows that the dark st clearly stands out against the smooth texture
Other interpretation problems are solved by information like existing maps and statistical
ifficult, especially for comparison with existing nt overlay with generalized topographic inforon the satellite image so that roads, peaks, 2 apparent to the reader.
area information which can be transformed to lse color-processing as well as black and white if the principal land use categories like forest,
und 80 percent of the land use in a particular map shall serve as a data source for regional
stablished for Polonnaruwa and Trincomalee.

Page 43
36
TABLE 1 : LAND USE CLASSIFICATIO
Class Color, Pattern Waterbodies ... blue, dark blue, black
Woodland : dense ... dark red, brown, roug
texture
Open ... red ..
Forest Plantation ... red, with grid-pattern
pink, with grid-patter
Mangroves ... brown, red
Paddy ... blue
red .. white Sugar Cane ... pink, greenish blue.
Smooth texture
Settlements and Others
In other parts of the country this classifica like tea, coconut, rubber etc. The genetal find detailed tree information within the forest area. lity to provide information on the area of ther
Mapping
The satellite images have been enlarged they were divided into sections according to the mately 1,200 km). On these images, drawn c forests was delineated and shown in a first rol paddy were interpreted on aerial photographs followingfield checkserved to complete thema check the data mapped from the satellite imag additional sources were taken into account to o of the 1980 activities has shown that the geom

N KEY FOR COLOR SATELLTE IMAGE
Particulars
Tanks, large rivers, Sea, bays, lagoons, marsh
and swamp High growing, two or more storied vegetation with more than 60% canopy cover (density to be sampled on aerial photographs)
Dense undergrowth with up to 60% canopy
COVer
High growing Teak and Eucalyptus plantations on rectangular shaped clearings within natural forests
Young or elephant damaged plantations on rectangular clearings within natural forests
One storied low-growing vegetation with a
smooth texture on aerial photographs
Homogenous cultivated areas divided into lots. Fully to be mapped on aerial photographs
Ploughed fields under water
Paddy in advanced growth-stage
Ripe paddy; harvested fields
Homogenous areas; ridges and channels to be checked in aerial photos. Colours are subject to changes according to different growth stages
Not mapped
ion has to be completed with local categories ings were that satellite images cannot provide
The major use of the satellite data is in capabi2maining woodland.
to a 1 : 100,000 scale. For an easier handling size of the one inch series (28x44 km or approxin a transparent folio, the extent of the existing gh map. Other major land use categories like and transferred onto the satellite image. The oping in problematic areas as well as to carefully ; along pre-selected profiles. At the same time ptimize the degree of accuracy. The experience tric deformation of the pre-proceessed satellite

Page 44
image in comparison to the 1 inch series is less stage-approach', a high accuracy in mapping w pattern was generalized as required by the ma i.e. forest area coverage had to be at least 5 mm minimum side of 1 mm (= 80 m or 87 yds) to be plots were cross-checked with aerial photograp
Results
As a primary outcome, the results of the scale black and white ozalid printed map afte covering map. Figure 4 shows the Kantalai-C measurement for each category was done with meter. Statistical evaluations were carried out district the figures are summarized in Table 2.
TABLE 2 : FOREST COVER 19
Dhnse A. G. A. Division Woodland M (hectares) (
Medirigiriya 0 48,090 Sinhala Pattawa . . a 12,480 Lankapura a 520 Elahara a s 8 15,640 .. Tamankaduwa . . « o 58,370 .. 2
Total District: . . O 135,100 .. 4
Note: It has to be mentioned that the Polonnaru is not representative for a country wide average forest co
Out of the general map the following addi
(a) Thematic maps showing the extent o example as a benchmark to monitor c
(b) Forest plantation ground plans to fa
field staff.
(c) Together with additional field work
and illegal clearing activities including
Such products can be of great value for different particularly when combined with the permanent

37
an 1 percent, and by using the so called "multis reached. All the information on the land use imum ground resolution of the satellite image, (=4.75 ha or 12 acres), and strips had to have a
onsidered in the mapping. Usually the smallest S.
and use mapping were compiled to a 1 : 100,000 having fitted the relevant sections to a district hundankadu area forest cover 1979. The area traditional methods using dot-grid and planion a sub-district level. For the Polonnaruwa
79 POLONNARUWA DSTRCT
Total Foresť
Open Plantations éX{êWገ{ as % of Voodland (hectares) Woodland Total lectares) (hectares) ፴ሆed
4,120 .. 6,640 .. 58,850 .. 63.5 4,760 . . . 2,250 .. 19,490 .. 48.7 5,300 .. 5,820 .. 23.2 3,410 .. 19,050 .. 51.9 13,680 .. umana 82,050 .. 54.3
1,270 .. 8,890 .. 185,260 . . 53.6
a district is extraordinarily rich in forests and therefore V6r.
ional results can be worked out if required :-
forest cover and its distribution, serving for langes (de or reafforestation)
ilitate the duties of the Forest Department's
thematic maps showing the extent of official natural damage (fire, cyclone, elephants).
pheres of forestry planning and management, pdating of the maps.

Page 45
Chundan kaldu El Teat ; L:
ali
Karl
Fig 3 :
forested irca
ırk :
d
Balai— Chunda Lukaldu airea
Kill
*
: 2 ||
sitation carly 1979, Scale 1
 
 

Page 46
萱
Fig. 5: Kantalai-Chundankadu area ;
5 scalc 1 : 250'000 ; Dark : foi
Fig. 6 : Kantalai — ChnndankadLL area : Comp; I : 25O'000 : White : forcsted areä 1979 si 1973 MSS band 5 (black : Surplus fores
 
 

Land Salillage of March 14, 1973, MSS band
estelli Tä
irison of 1979 and 1973 forest situation, scale Tom benchmark Inap satelite image March I4, t in 1973, T= rank)

Page 47
40
MONITORNG FOR Data
The possibility of receiving satellite adjustment of the existing maps to the actu.
was developed based on the bench mark map film.
Techniques
Afolio is prepared whereby only one 1 are covered. A hand cut masking film is us imposed on new satellite images so that onl in order to avoid misinterpretation or confusi areas can now be identified.
Technically, the mapping of the fore ways
The new satellite images are photo
100,000. The masks at the same scal
The new satellite image which has 1 be projected through an overhead pro or the masks are fixed. By carefully on the map, the two can be compared
Results
The satellite image in figure 5 shows th Chundankadu area on March 14, 1973. T. forest situation of early 1979 as it is shown in the 1973 satellite image (figure 6). The da existed in 1973 are outstanding (compare als
The years between 1973 and early 19 percent for the southern part of the Trincom given in Table 3.
TABLE 3 : FOREST COVER CHANGE
SOUTHERN PART
(Annural deforestation rate
Woodland a Mangrove
(ha)
Extent 1973 . . 8 69,160 Extent 1979 & s ) 59,160 Deforestation . . 8 & 10,010
Reforestation . . d Net Decrease . . . .

REST COVER CHANGES
images several times a year allows the periodical al situation. For this purpose a masking method oping, new satellite images and a hand cut masking
and use category remains visible and all the others ed for this purpose. These masks are then supery the specific category of land use remains visible ion with other categories. Changes in the forested
st cover changes was carried out in two different
graphically enlarged to the reference scale of 1 : a can be overlayed and changes can be mapped.
been preproceessed to a positive transparency can jector on to a screen where the bench mark map adjusting the satellite image to its proper location and changes monitored.
he situation of forest distribution in the Kantalaihe forested areas appear in dark greytone. The figure 4, was masked and then superimposed on to ark areas showing the forested areas which still o with Figure 7).
79 have resulted in a yearly deforestation rate of alee District (see Figure 7). The area figures are
ES 1973-1979 TRONCOMALEE DISTRICT
of 2.5% taking 1973 figures as 100)
nd Plantations Total Woodland in
S Woodland % of total
(ha) (ha) dred
. . mws-seá 8 69,160 . . 51.2
. . 340 59,500 .. 44.0
. . ത്ത 10,010 .. 7.4
340 340 . . 0.2
mൽ 8 9,670 .. 7.2

Page 48

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Page 49
42.
The area covers the following A. G. A. Tambalagamuwa.
The elaborated methods have been r in 1981. Figure 8 summarizes the activitic
Fig. 8: FOREST RELATED PROJECT
D
fa
D
Preprocessing of 汉 f( Landsat Images ー> Landuse mapping
Other data: aerial phot, X
fieldwork, maps Mask
CONTRIBUTION OF SATELLT
FORESTRY SE
Situation
In contrast to most industrialized co ment are practised, most developing coun woodland area. This is mostly due to the which could not be monitored very effectiv Lanka amounted to 2,899,558.1 ha, covering Forest reserves and proposed forest reserves The present extent of forest area is estimat the total land area (Nanayakkara, 1980). countries, where extensive land use patter The eastern Thailand woodland area was de estimated by using satellite imagery (Klanka
Deforestation in Sri Lanka is caused Frequent fires during drought, elephants an the past of which reliable figures in extent ment projects, chena cultivation, illicit felli of woodland area inthe past and an equilibr. is not to be expected in the near future.

Divisions : Muttur, Kinniya, Kantalai, Seruwila,
fined during the test phase and will be implemented s in respect of forestry mapping and monitoring.
ACTIVITES
termination of rest extent
atternination of rest plantation extent ΣΔ
Ecological Considerations
and reafforestations
ned Monitoring deforestations 又
4A
New Landsat Images
E IMAGE INTERPRETATION TO THE
CTOR IN SRI LANKA
untries where intensive systems of forest managetries lack sufficient and accurate information on i rapid changes of forest cover in these countries, ely. In the year 1956 the total forest area of Sri ; 44 percent of the total land area (Andrews, 1961). made 42 percent of the forest area (1,210,795.6 ha). 2d as 1.6 million hectares covering 24.7 percent of This could be the situation in most third world ns and forest management systems are practised. creasing at a rate of 5.3 percent a year and this was msorn, 1979).
lither naturally or by the activity of human beings. | cyclones have destructed large forest areas during
are not available. Release of land for developngs and encroachments have caused retrogression um between woodland area and other land use types

Page 50
Even there are changes caused by esse forest reserves. This includes afforestation o mation of natural forests to man-made fores existing forest reserves.
All this means that no reliable data o Lanka are available. Such data however ar. the forest resources. The main tasks of such
(a) Inventory
(b) Planning
(c) Monitoring of plan implementation The contribution of satellite images shall ther
Contribution to Inventory
Forest inventory supplies necessary dat ing of timber industries. An inventory gener
(a) Area information.-The collection o of the woodland is a basic input t forest on a reconnaissance level and ing at country and district level with
(b) Tree information.--Data on the type area are required for Silvicultural, et
It was found that area information can large parts of the country in one image and th graphs. The mapping can be done in a shor information however the ground resolution of
aerial photographs supported by field investiga data.
Coatribution to Planning
Planning includes all levels of forest m and protection. The area information obtair input to these activities.
Contribution to Monitoring of Plan simplemental
The monitoring of woodland dynamic forest management implementation. Periodica to be carried out with field work. Country every some years.
The present investigations have shown 1 year can be a valuable aid to carry out an effici support the on-going planning activities and images could be used to monitor and update ar inventory.
The present paper shows that satellite in work could support the forest management a for the carrying out of an efficient mapping an administrative set up.

43
al forestry operations in and outside of existing fast areas of barren land, clear fellings, transforand establishment of plantation forests outside
the todays situation of the forest sector in Sri the pre-requisite for an efficient management of a present day forest management are :-
fore be discussed in this context.
for management planning of forests and plannlly consists of two levels of data collection :
f information concerning the location and exte ut ) the inventory. It shows the total area under it is also an important input for land use plannforestry as an integral part.
s and sizes of trees available within the woodland xonomic and utilizational planning.
be obtained from satellite images. They show erefore can better be handled than aerial photoer period and with a good accuracy. For tree the satellite image is not sufficient and therefore tions have to be used for the collection of these
anagement like economic aspects, conservation ed with the help of satellite images is a basic
O is an important pre-requisite for a successful checks on the whole woodland area are difficult ide aerial photography is available only once
at satellite images, available at various times a nt monitoring of the woodland area in order to support forest protection activities, Satellite information during and after a national forest
ges together with aerial photographs and field vities in Sri Lanka. A pre-requisite however iata collection is a suitable organisational and

Page 51
44
REFE
ANDREws, J. R. T (1961) -A Forest 1
KLANKAMSORN, B. (1978) -Use of S; Eastern T Remote Se
NANAYAKKARA, W. R. (1980) -Annual Re

ERENCES
nventory of Ceylon, Colombo Sri Lanka
atellite Images to assess Forest Deterioration in hailand; Proc. Twelfeth International Symposium on nsing of Environment, Ann Arbor, Michigan
port, Forest Department, Colombo

Page 52
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4, Jan
Plants used in the Treatme in the Indigenous System c
D. T. EKANA
(Royal Botanic Gara
INTRODUC
Knowledge of the power of healing is as The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hindus and mos primarily for food and for their medicinal proper
The Vedic Aryans in India had a knowledg works of Charaka (1000 B.C.) and Sushruta (8 acquainted with a large number of drug plants, uses and properties of 700 plants. Some of the from Asia Minor and Central Asia. The works the Buddhist period in India. Buddhism gave a medicine. Buddhist missionarics travelled far in Central Asia. The Hindu system of medicine spic and in return these missionaries brought back wil practised in these countries to enrich the Hindu m
The Hindu practice of medicine was also i number of medicinal plants of Asia Minor found the healing art of the Hindus. The rise of Moh in the medicinal practices of the Hindus. The Ar. and Sushruta into Arabic and they also brought t Hippocrates and Democritus to India. The Mc well versed with the healing art of the Greeks. ) medica, or Nighantu such as Bhava Praksha were of the medicinal plants used by the Hindus. To 2000 drugs the majority of which are plant produ
In Sri Lanka, the use of medicines of vegeta rial. It is believed that an advanced system of he Ravana period. However, it is clear from histor of the island who migrated from India brought mainland at that time. These practices were fi the introduction of Buddhism into the island in 1 medicine was modified to suit local conditions, Since the indigenous system is a modification of plants used in the island are the same as those l the ancient days, practioners were in the sophistic royalty. The Mahavamsa gives several referen
45
386}{59 A سس5

uary - December, 1980
int of Skeletal Fractures
of Medicine in Sri Lanka
AYAKE ens, Peradeniya)
XTION
old as the Great Civilizations of the world, t other early civilizations culviated plants ties.
e of a large number of medicinal plants. The )0 B.C.) confirm that the Indo-Aryans were so much so that Sushruta alone recorded the plants were not indigenous to India but were of Charaka and Sushruta were written before n impetus to the study of the Hindu form of to the Far East, South East Asia, Siberia and ad to the countries which embraced Buddhism th them medicinal plants and medical systems hateria medica.
influenced by the Greek invasions and a large their way to India. The Greeks also studied amedan power in India turned a new chapter abs translated the medicinal works of Charaka he medicinal knowledge of the Greeks such as hamedan physicians known as Hakims were It was during this period that famous materia written. This work contains a clear account day, the Indian materia medica contains over
tS.
ble origin has developed from times immemoaling existed in the island during the legendary cal records that the early Indo-Aryan settlers with them the art of healing practised in the rmly rooted in the culture of the people after he third century B.C. The Indian system of resulting in a system peculiar to the island. the Indian system, the majority of the drug sed in the mainland at the present time. In ited hierarchy respected and patronised by the ces to the construction of hospitals by the

Page 53
46
ancient kings and the art of healing which exist was an outstanding physician as well as a surg Sangrahaya written in Sanskrit is attributed t Period, the traditional system of medicine rea (1153—1186 A.D.). The knowledge of medi during this period. During the Dambadeni Pe in the hands of Buddhist monks, since Buddh wounded as a virtue. Several literary works
Although several books were attributed system of medicine in Sri Lanka commenced d the Kandy Period as a result of foreign dom system of medicine, the indigenous system suff of pulse examination and the various metho and surgery went into oblivion. However, spe of skeletal fractures, diseases of the eye, boils remained the preserve of a few dedicated med generation to generation. This fraternity of their pristine glory amongst numerous obstacle The efficacy of the traditional system of medic of the Portuguese army, in his book The H (Sinhalese) are great herbalists and in case o effect a cure in a few days with great case.” Robert Knox, who was held as a captive by th in his book called Historical Relations of Ceyl the system of medicine practised by the Sinha
In the traditional Sinhala society, when is a sheaf of betel leaves sometimes with a sm and honour and not governed by mercenary family line as a legacy.
ri Lanka has a very efficacious traditio This system in the true form covers the treatm the muscles, muscular pains and contusions in ment lies not only in the medicinal herbs used these physicians have no basic training in a dislocated bones is remarkable. While the w the indigenous physician keeps the fracture b Various therapeiitical practices are used in the sprains. Application of medicinal herbs as p (Melluma) are some of the common practices massage with medicated oils (Thaila) are also system. Families of physicians have prescrip in ola-leaf. These prescriptions are often rega the family have access to them. The various m Before the advent of motorised transportation, to 'walk several kilometres carrying with them under their care.

2d in the past. King Buddhadasa (398-426A.D.) eon. The medical treatise known as the Saratha O this physician king. During the Polonnaruwa chcd new heights under King Parakramabahu I cine advanced with the greater use of Sanskrit riod, the traditional system prospered particularly ism recognises the treatment of the sick and the on medicine were written during this period.
to the Kotte Period, the decline of the indigenous uring this time. This decline continued through ination. With the introduction of the western ared and declined to its lowest ebb. The method is of treatment such as moxibustion (Pillusum) cialist systems of treatment such as the treatment and carbuncles, snake bitcs and mental diseases ical men who handed down these practices from physicians preserved the traditional systems in s, disregarding pecuniary benefits to themselves. ine is well described by Joao Ribero, a Captain 'istoric Tragedy of Ceilao (1640 — 1685) : “ They f Wounds, tumours, broken arms and legs, they The same views is expressed by an English sailor, e then Sinhalese King in the outskirts of Kandy, on (1681). This writer specifically mentions that lese for healing of fractures was very efficacious.
one consults a physician, what is offered to him all present since his profession is one of prestige interests. The profession is passed down the
nal system for the treatment of skeletal fractures. ent of fractures, dislocation of bones, sprains in the limbs of the body. The efficacy of this treatbut also in the skill of the physician. Although natomy, their skill in 'setting fractured and estern surgeon puts a fractured limb in plaster, oncs in position with strips of wood or bamboo. treatment of skeletal fractures, dislocations and asters (Pattuwa) and herbs in semi-roasted form
Foymentation with warm medicinal packs and essential therapeutic practices in the indigenous ions of vegetable remedies (Wattoruwa) written rded as secret remedies and only the members of 2dicaments are prepared by the physician himself. t was not uncommon for some of these physicians prepared medicaments to attend on patients put

Page 54
PLANT'S USED IN THE TREATM)
The flora of Sri Lanka contains about 30 is reported that about 515 species are used as drug of exotics which have been introduced into the these exotics are naturalised while others are fou list of drug plants used in the treatment of skele local literature on this subject as well as from indigenous physicians. It should be noted that sc of other diseases as well. The author does not most of the principal plants used by physicians. to 67 diverse families of flowering plants and 2 sp of species used in the treatment of fractures are (11), Euphorbiaceae (10), Moraceae (7) and Ascle are exotics some of which are naturalised, others are imported.
in the list, the Sinhala names are arranged by the botanical name and the family to which t an asterisk. The habit of the various species is d
A-annual C-climber CS-cl H-herb S-shrub T—tre
ACKNOWLED
I wish to thank Professor M. D. Dassa Peradeniya, Sri Lanka for his valuable advice a indebted to the various indigenous physicians whic to Mr. A. H. M. Jayasuriya of the National He dating botanical nomenclature.
REFERE
ABEYWICKRAMA, B. A. (1959)-A check list of th
(Bio. Sci.) 2: 119.
BANDARANAYAKE, W. M., SULTANBAWA, M. U. S. S. (1974)-A Glossary of Sinhala and Tam Lanka Forester 11 (3&4) : 67-149.
FoNSEKA, R. N. De and VINASITHAMBY, S. (1971)- Flowering Plants of Ceylon (Mimeographed
GEIGER, W. (1934)-The Mahavamsa or Great Ch
JAYASURIYA, A. H. M. (1976)-New Records of S
Sri Lanka, Ceylon J. Sci. (Bio. Sci.) 12 (1)
KIRTIKAR, K. R. and BASU, B. D. (1933)-India
Aliahabad, India.

47
NT OF SIKELETAL FRACTURES
0 indigenous flowering plants and of these, it plants. Besides these there are a large number sland, which are used in medicine. Some of d only under cultivation. The accompanying al fractures has been compiled from available lists prepared after discussions with several me of the plants listed are used in the treatment laim that it is a complete list but it contains he list consists of about 161 species belonging cies of the Pteriodphyta. The largest number rom the families Leguminosae (17), Rutaceae piadaceae (6). Of the 161 species, 40 species are found only in cultivation ; a few species
according to the alphabetical order followed he species belongs. Exotics are marked with enoted as follows :
imbing shrub E-epiphyte
WP-Water plant.
“GEMENTS
nayake, Professor of Botany, University of ld correction of the manuscript. I am also assisted me to compile the list of plants and barium, Peradeniya for his assistance in up
NCES
Flowering Plants of Ceylon, Ceylon J. Sci.
WEERASEKERA, S.C. and BALASUBRAMANIUM, tl Names of the Plants of Sri Lanka, The Sri
A Provisional Index to the Local Names of the
onicle of Ceylon, Pali Text Society, London.
»me Native and Naturalised Plant Species in
15-22.
Medicinal Plants, Vol. I, ( Second Edition),

Page 55
48
KNOX, R. (1679)-Historical Relations of Ceyl
RIBERIo, J. (1640-1685)-The Historic Trag Pieris, P.E. Colombo Apothecaries Co. L
SOMASIRI, G. (1963)—SMvadeshiya Bhisajya Vish TRIMEN, H.(1893-1900)-A Handbook of the
A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon, V.
Project, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 1973.
A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon, V
Project, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 1977.
Local name
Adhatoda
Ahu
Amu kaha
Andara Anguna Ankenda
Aralu
Aswenna
Attikka
Bakmi
Bebila
Bela thana Beli patta Benduru
Bin tamburu
BO
Bodi
Bombu
Bombi
Bu kenda,
Exotic.
LIST OF
Latin
*Adhatoda vasica Nees (
* Morinda citrifolia L. (R Morinda tinctoria Roxb.
*Curcuma domestica Val Dichrostachys cinerea (L Wattakaka volubilis (L. f Acronychia pedunculata ( Terminalia chebula Retz. Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) Ficus racenosa L. (More Nauclea orientalis (L.) L
Sida veronicifolia Lam. ( Sida acuta Burm. f. (Ma
Eleusine indica (L.) Gael Hibiscus tilliaceus L. (Ma Drynaria quercifolia (L.) *Ipomoea asarifolia (De *Ficus religiosa L. (Mor Psoralea corylifolia L. (l Symplocos loha Buch-H. Litsea glutinosa (Lour.)
Mallotus albus (Roxb.)
t C=Climber, E=ephiphyte, S= shrnb, WP=

n. London.
edy of Ceilao-Translation from Portuguese by td. (1925), Colombo.
a Koshya, M.D. Gunasena & Co. Ltd., Colombo.
lora of Ceylon, Vols, 1-5,Dulau & Co., London.
ol. 1, Part 1, Published by the Flora of Ceylon
ol. 1 Part 2, Publishe by the Flora of Ceylon
PLANTS
name and family Habiti
Acanthaceae)
ubiaceae) (Rubiaceae)
et. (Zingiberaceae) .) Wight & Arn. (Leguminosae) .) Staf. (Asclepiadaceae) L.) Miq. (Rutaceae) ..
(Combretaceae) | DC. (Leguminosae) . .
ceae)
, (Rubiaceae)
Malvaceae) vaceae)
tn. (Gramineae)
lvaceae) J. Sm. (Pteridophyta) e r.) Roem. & Schult. (Convolvulaceae). . ceae)
egumimosae) m. ex D. Don (Symplocaceae) C. B. Rob. (Lauraceae) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
rater plant, CS=climbing shrubs, T= tree.

Page 56
Local name
Daluk
Damina
Dehi
Diwul
Diya labu Dummala
Dunu keya Ehela
Ehetu
Elabedda
Embul dodan
Endaru Eraminiya Eramudu
Et adi
Etambura
Eta mura
Et demata
Gam miris
Gedumba
Girithilla
Goda para Gonuke
Goraka Goyi wel Gurulla Hatawariya
Heenati hal Heen bowitiya Heen thambala
Heen Undupiyali ..
Hekarilla
Hik -
Hinguru Hiressa
* Exotix
Latin name Euphorbia antiquorum L. Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. (T *Citrus aurantifolia (Chr Feronia limonia (L.) Swi “Lagenaria siceraria (Mc Shorea spp. (Dipterocar Pandanus thwaitesi Mar Cassia fistula L. (Legum Ficus spp. (Moraceae) Meliosma simplicifolia (IF *Citrus aurantium L. (Ru "Ricinus communis L. (E Zizyphus napeca (L.) Wil * Erythrina variegata L. ( Elephantopus scaber L. ( Fagraea ceilanica Thunb, Cansjera rheedii Gmelin Gimelina arborea Roxb. ( * Piper nigrum L. (Pipera *Trena orientalis (L...) Bil. Argyreia populifolia Choi Dillenia retusa Thunb. (I Hoya spp. (Asclepiadace Garcinia cannbogia (Gaer1 Flagelaria indica L. (Fla Leea indica (Burm. f. ) M
Asparagus racemosus Wil Asparagus falcatus L. (Li
*Oryza sativa L. var. (G1 Osbeckia octandra (L.) D Carmona microphylla (La Desmodium triflorum DC *Solanum verbascifolium Lannea coramandelica (H Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Cissus quadrangularis L.
if c = climber, E= Ephiahste, s=Shrint, wp=Wate

and family
(Euphorbiaceae)
iliaceae) A istm.) Swingle (Rutaceae) Ingle (Rutaceae) * * »lina) Standl. (Cucurbitaceae) paceae)
telli (Pandanaceae)
inosae)
Roxb.) Walp. (Sabiaceae) utaceae)
uphorbiaceae) ld. (Rhamnaceae) Leguminosae) Compositae) , (Loganiaceae) (Opiliaceae) Verbanaceae)
ceae)
(Ulmaceae) sy (Convolvulaceae) . . Dilleniaceae)
ae) . in.) Desr. (Guttiferae) gellariaceae) (rr. (Leeaceae)
ld. (Liliaceae) liaceae)
'amineae) C. (Melastomaceae) .. m.) G. Don (Boraginaceae) . (Leguminosae) L. (Solanaceae) outt.) Merr. (Anacardiaceae) (Leguminosae)
Vitaceae)
r plant, cs=climbing shrubs. T=tree.
49
Habit
S

Page 57
50
Local Name
Hondala
Honda para Hulan hik
Imbul
Indi
Inguru Iramusu.
tta
Kahata
Kalanduru
Kamaranga KapparaWalliya Kapu kinissa Karapincha Katu pila Kehi pittan
Keliya Keppetiya Keta kala
Ketala Kikirindiya Kirindi wel
Kobbe
Kohomba
Kon
Kos Kota dimbula
Kothala himbutu .
Kowakka
Kudu miris
Kukuruman
Kumbuk
Kumburu
Kunurmella Kuppameniya,
* Exotic
Latin name and famil Adenia palmata (Lam. Dillenia indica L. (Dil Chukrasia tabularis A. Salmalia malabarica () Phoenix zeylanica TriI *Zingiber officinalis R Hemidesmus indicus (I Schefflera stellata (Ga. Careya arborea Roxb. Cyperus rotundus L. (C * Averrhoa carambola )
Coleus amboinicus Lot
* Hibiscus abelmoschus Murraya koenigii (L.) Gymnosporia emargina
Cyclea burnanni (DC.
maceae) Grewia microcos L. (T
Croton laccifer L. (Eu) Bridelia retusa (L.) Sp Lagenandra ovata (L.) Eclipta prostrata (L.) I Rourea minor (Gaertn. Allophyllus cobbe (L.)
“Azadirachta indica A, Schleichera oleosa (Lo
*Artocarpus heterophy, Ficus hispida L. f. (Mc Salacia reticulata Wig
Coccinia grandis (L.) J Toddalia asiatica (L.) ] Randia dunetorum La Terminalia arjuna (Ro. Caesalpinia bonduc (L. Diospyros ovalifolia W "Acalypha indica L. (E
f c=climber, E=Ephiahyte, S=Shrub, wp=W

у
) Engl. (Passifloraceae) . .
leniaceae)
, Juss. (Meliaceae) DC.) Schott. & Endl. (Bombacaceae) m. (Palmae)
oscoe (Zingiberaceae)
.) R. Br. (Periplocaceae) ertn.) Baill. (Araliaceae)
(Lecythidaceae)
Cyperaceae)
L. (Oxalidaceae)
rr. (Labiatae)
L. (Malvaceae)
Spreng. (Rutaceae) w ta (Willd.) Hook. f. ex Thw. (Celastraceae) ) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thoms. (Menisper
iliaceae)
phorbiaceae) reng. (Euphorbiaceae) . . thw. (Araceae) L. (Compositae) ) Alston (Connaraceae). . . B.l. (Sapindaceae)
L. Juss. (Meliaceae) ur.) Oken. (Sapindaceae)
Illus Lam. (Moraceae) Praceae). . nt (Hippocrateaceae)
. O. Voigt. (Cucurbitaceae) Lam. (Rutaceae)
m. (Rubiaceae) kb.) Wight & Arn. (Combretaceae) ) Roxb. (Leguminosae) ight (Ebenaceae)
uphorbiaceae)
Vater plant, cs=climbing srhUbs, T= tree

Page 58
Local name
Kurundu Lunu mandala Lunu warana. Madan Madatiya Magul karanda Maha bowitiya Mala miris Manel Masbedda
Mece
Milla
Mora
Mung Muna mall Muruwa Muruwa dul
Na
Na piritta
Nas naran
Nawa
Nawa handi
Nedun
Nika,
Nitul Olinda
Palu
Pambur Panam pethi Peni dodan Perun kayam Pila
Pol
Pota wel Pupula
* Exotic
Latin name and family Cinnamomum verum Pr Streospermum personati Crataeva religiosa Fors Syzygium cumini (L.) S)
. . * Adenanthera pavonina L
Pongamia pinnata (L.) P
. * Melastona malabathrict
Piper sylvestre Lam. (Pi) Nymphaea stellata Willd Gymnema sylvestre (Retz Madhuca longifolia (L.) . Vitex pinnata L. (Verben Euphoria longana Lam. (
. * Phaseolus aureus Roxb. (
Minusops elengi L. (Sapo Marsdenia tenecissinna (R Marsdenia tenecissima (R Mesua nagassarium (Burn Hibiscus furcatus Willd. (
. . * Citrus japonica Thunb. (R
Sterculia balainghas L. (St
... "Euphorbia tirucalli L. (Eu
Rhipsalis baccifera (J. S. M Pericopsis mooniana (Thw
Vitex negundo L. (Verben Streblus asper (Retz.) Lou Abi 45 precatorius L. (Leg Manilkara hexandra (Rox Atalantia missionis (Wight Drymoglossun heterophyll
... “Citrus sinensis (L.) Osb. ( . Ferula asa-foetida L. (Um
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pe
. *Cocos nucifera L. (Palmae
Pothos scandens L. (Arace Vernonia zeylanica (L.) Lc
it c-climber, E=Ephiahyte, S=Shrub, wp=Wate

. (Lauraceae)
(Hassk.) Chatterjee (Bignoniaceae)
f. (Capparidaceae) els (Myrtaceae) (Leguminosae) Erre (Leguminosae)
L. (Mclatomaceae) raceae) (Nymphaeaceae) ) R. Br. ex Schult. (Asclepiadaceae)
F. Macbr. (Sapotaceae) ceae) apindaceae) eguminosae) taceae) oxb.) Moon (Asclepiadaceae) oxb.) Moon (Asclepiacaceae) h. f.) Kost. (Guttiferae) Malvaceae) utaceae) »rculiaceae) phorbiaceae) o Mill.) Stearn. (Cactaceae) ) Thw. (Leguminosae) .Ꮯeac) ". (Moraceae) minosae) .) Dubard (Sapotaceae) Oliv. (Rutaceae) m Trim. (Pteridophyta) utaceae) lliferae) s. (Leguminosae) . .
) . .
. (Compositae)
plant cs=climbing shurb. T=tree
5
Habit
P
Ο
S

Page 59
52
Local name
Puwak Radaliya Rath sandun
Ruk
Ruk aththana
Seenuk
Sewandara Siviya wel Siyambala Sudu lunu
Thana hal Tharana
Thimbiri
Thiththa wel
Thollabo
Thotila
Tumpat kurundu . .
Uguressa Ulu hal
Wall alba
Wal amba Wal bowitiya Wall waraka
Wara
Wela Wel keppetiya Wellangiriya Wel penela Wel rukkattana Weni wel geta Weralu
Werella
Weta erandu
* ExcOtic
Lat
. °4reca catechu L. (l
Connarus monocar
. "Pterocarpus santali
Horsfieldia iryaghe 4lstonia scholaris ( Euphorbia tortilis F Vetiiveria zizanioide
. "Piper chaba Hunte . “Tamarindus indica . *Allium sativum L. i
Setaria italica (L.) Tarenna malabarica
Diospyros malabari Anamirta cocculus ( Crinum zeylanicun Oroxylon indicum ( Pleiospermum indicu Flacourtia rannontch
. *Trigonella foenun-g . “Cleone viscosa L. (
Mangifera zeylanica
. *Clidemia hirta (L.)
Caesaria zeylanica (
. *Calotropis gigantea *Gynandropsis gynan
Croton aromaticus
. Paranignya monopi . *Cardiospermun hal
Cryptolepis buchana Coscinium fenestrat Elaeocarpus serratu
Dodonaea viscosa J
. Jatropha curcas L.
t c= climber, E=Eqhiayte, S-shrub, up=

n name and family
allmae) . .
us L. (Connaraceae) us L. f. (Leguminosae) li (Gaertn.) Warb... (Myristicaceae) | L.) R. Br. (Apocynaceae) ottl. ex Wight (Euphorbiaceae)
s (L.) Nash (Gramineae)
(Piperaceae)
... (Leguminosae)
Amaryllidaceae)
Beauv. (Gramineae)
(L.) Alston (Rubiaceae)
ca (Lam.) Kostel. (Ebenaceae) L.) Wight & Arn. (Menispermaceae) L. (Amaryllidaceae) L.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae) um (Wight & Arn.) Swingle (Rutaceae) i var. sapida Roxb. (Flacourtiaceae) raeceum L. (Leguminosae).. Capparidaceae)
(Bl.) Hk. f. (Anacardiaceae) D. Don (Melastomaceae) . . Gaertn) Thw. (FlacourtiaCeae) (L.) R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) dra (L.) Briq. (Capparidaceae) L. (Euphorbiaceae) s ylla Wight (Rutaceae) cacabum L. (Sapindaceae) ܫ - 'ni Roem. & Schult. (Asclepiadaceae) un (Gaertn.) Colebr. (Menispermaceae) s L. (Elaeocarpaceae) acq, (Sapindaceae)
Euphorbiaceae)
Water plant, = climcing shrub, T= tree
Habit
Ο
S

Page 60
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4, J.
A Phytosociological Analysis in the Vicinity of Pera
ANDREW M. GRELLER1 (Fulbrigh C. V. S. GUNATILLEKE (Lecturer), I.
S. BALASUB RAMANIAM (Associat
ABST
Three forested sites were sampled for ar 518 m.), South Ridge of Gannoruwa Mountain Gannoruwa Mountain (> 2300 ft., 700 m). TI dominated by Alstonia macrophylla and a few , forested but had been disturbed by fuelwood ga dominant, with Syzygium gardneri an import The Summit area of Gannoruwa Mountain had be the least disturbed of the sites. The dominant Neolitsea cassia, Pometia tomentosa, and Termin of exotics could be used to indicate the degree single dipterocarp among the 834 sampled tre dipterocarp domination, argued against Mue Doona-Dipterocarpus-Mesua forest Zone. Ins nobilis and Mangifera zeylanica in the oldest, lea and vicinity should be classified in the Filic (Lowland Evergreen Mixed Forest).
INTROD
The forests in the vicinity of Kandy h Mueller-Dombois (1968) following the map of 1,000,000) interpreted the climate diagram of the “ Doona-Dipterocarpus-Mesua series.' Th should be dipterocarp forest if Mueller-Domb reconnaissance of naturally-developed vegetatio dipterocarp in the flora. Instead, in areas such natural parts of Udawattakelle and the unders suggested the "Filicium-Euphoria-Artocarpus-M (1964). This type of forest was described in sor pical Wet Evergreen Forest (Dry Facies).' I Evergreen Forest' by de Rosayro (1956) and (1957). -
In order to determine the present status o also to gain insight into the future would-be co we undertook to study three stands differing in :
Permanent Address : Biology Department, Queen
5

tnuary - December, 1980
of Three Stands of Forest deniya, Kandy District
t Lecturer, University of Peradeniya), A. U. N. GUNATILLEKE (Lecturer) and 2 Professor, University of Peradeniya)
RACT
boreal composition: Lower Hantane (1,700 ft., 1,700-2,200ft., 518-670 m.), and the Summit of he first site had the youngest forest, which was other species. The South Ridge site was fully thering; the exotic, Michelia champaca was the ant constituent, and forty other taxa present. the tallest, most massive trees and appeared to is were : Artocarpus nobilis, Mangifera zeylanica, alia bellirica. We concluded that the percentage of disturbance. The failure to record even a es, and the lack of any historical evidence of ller-Dombois' classification of Kandy in the tead, we took the dominance of Artocarpus st disturbed sample site, as evidence that Kandy ium-Euphoria-Artocarpus-Myristica forest Zone
UCTION
ave never received phytosociological analysis. Gaussen, Legris, Viart and Labroue (1964 ; 1 : Kandy as supporting “lowland rain forest' in us, the potential natural vegetation of Kandy ois” (1968) assessment is correct. Preliminary n in the vicinity of Kandy revealed not a single as the lower Hantane, Gannoruwa Mountain, tory of Walkerwatte, a flora was present that tyristica transitional sellies' of Gaussen et all me detail by Holmes (1956), who called it “ Trot was also called "Ecotone-Intermediate Wet “Wet Semi-Evergreen Forest' by Koelmeyer
f the floristic composition of Kandy Forests and imposition of areas left to regenerate naturally, age and degree of disturbance.
College, Flushing, New York, 11367, U.S. A.
3

Page 61
54
STIE D,
All three sites are located in the vi approximately four miles WSW of Kandy in cal co-ordinates are approximately 7° 15’ N a Sheet, 1979). The lower Hantane site is on The other sitcs are on Gannoruwa Mountai north of the campus on the north side of a sl forms a ridge approximately 3.5 miles (5.6 ki summit, 2,477 ft. elev. (755 m.), is located om Gannoruwa South Ridge (1,700 to 2,200 f south-east of the summit; the other site, Gan on the west face of the summit at 2,300 ft. ( north ridge at the same elevation. All site: metamorphics of middle Pre-Cambrian age latosols (Moorman and Panabokke, 1961), G Bailey system (Bailey 1958, 1960) as Hot, Hun is 24.1°C; mean temperature of the coldestm warmest month (April) is 26.0°C; annual ri Temperature (ET) is 21.5°C; Equability (M) precipitation is 76.9 inches (2,131 mm.); Effec fall is received from both NE and SW monso
The lower Hantane stand is surround fourth (lower) side it merges imperceptibly (Mangifera indica, Pterocarpus indica, Jacaran ation (Hevea brasiliensis). The land was te retention and may in part account for the rela scattered throughout the adjacent grasslard. ment of closed-canopy forest. This area was a rubber and tea plantation until around, 19 site. The plantings of ornamental trees we began to develop soon after that. The height
The Gannoruwa South Ridge area give tall (100 ft., 30 m.) forest. Bare rock is coc usually less than 25 m. wide. Differences in e summit, appear to have little if any effect on produced in 1956 by the Hunting Survey C forested. A small village is situated on the gathering appears to be a continuous activity well.
The Gannoruwa Summit site appears to Although numerous dwellings are located all the summit area (2,300 ft.) Seems not to be however, with shallow soil and rapid runoff ditions for tree growth. Recent fires at the ridge, appear to be reducing the vegetative c.

SCRIPTION
:inity of the University of Peradeniya campus, he Central Province, Kandy District. Geographid 80° 36' E (Sri Lanka. Survey Department, Kandy the campus, at an elevation of 1,700 ft. (518 m). n, located approximately one and one half miles arp bend in the Mahaweli River. The mountain h) long, striking from 320° NW to 140 SE. The the south-eastern third of the mountain. One site, ; 518 to 670 m.) occupies the entire ridge top, loruwa Summit, consists of two sub-divisions, one '00 m.) elev. and another near the summit on the are underlain by rocks of the Highland Series, Oliver, 1957). Soils on sites are reddish brown limate at Kandy may be characterised using the hid and Sub.temperate. Mean annual temperature onth (January) is 23.1°C, mean temperature of the ange of monthly temperatures is 2.9°C; Effective is rated 48 (of a maximum of 100); mean annual :tive Precipitation (EP) rating is 12.4 inches. Rainons and is evenly distributed throughout the year.
2d on three sides by grassland (patana). On the witl an extensive planting of ornamental tees da sp.) and some relicts of a former rubber plantrraced, which appears to ha Ye improved watertively rapid growth of the forest. Small trees are Fires during dry periods may retard the developcleared of natural vegetation and maintained as 46, when the land was acquired for a University e initiated around 1952 and the forest probably
of the stand is about 60 ft.
S the general appearance of a slightly open, rather asionally encountercd, the flat portion is narrow, evation from the south-east end to the base of the the arboreal composition. An aerial photograph )mpany shows this site and the next to be fully xtreme south-eastern end of the ridge ; fuelwood on the slopes and probably occurs on the ridge, as
be the least disturbed area on the entire mountain. long the West side of the mountain, near the base, heavily foraged for fuelwood. It is very rocky, ofrain-water. Thus it presents suboptimal coneriphery of the sample sub-division on the north ver and floristic richness of the understory there.

Page 62
The tallest and most massive trees encountered sample. Some specimens of Mangifera zeylanic dbh.
MET
At the lower Hantane site, ten contiguou: so that the sample was oriented parallel to the over 25 cm in circumeference were recorded fo tagged by a fixing a numbered metal plate. In a of a single, medial line transect.
At the Gannoruwa South Ridge site twen constructed. Quadrat number one was located 1,700 ft., quadrat twenty was near the summit that the centre of the ridge formed a line of bis each quadrat all trees over 25 cm in circumfere measured plant was tagged as described above. quadrat. One quadrat was entirely planted wit in the results. In other quadrats Theobronna ca and probably cultivated.
At the Gannoruwa Summit the irregularity of quadrats impractical. Instead the largest tre were sampled for diameter (dbh) and recorded by plants was made. These trees were not tagged.
RESU
The composition of the arboreal constitue We consider relative basal area to be the most in of a taxon to the vegetation. That the three star. is suggested by an analysis of stand similarity different from the two Gannoruwa stands. The where 80 is considered identity by Bray and Cur If we consider as major dominants those species nants of Lower Hantane are 4lstonia rìacrophyl obscura (8.9%) is also an important constituent « major dominant is Michelia chanpaca (37.7%) sidered important, in addition. This stand was it encompasses 23, 750m, which includes a wide It is likely that the large number of trees contri bility of the sample area. In the Gannoruw. Neolitsea cassia (11.8%) Pometia tomentosa (l considered major dominants; Terminalia beleric
Figure 1 is a graph of the relative basal area or more stands and are important and usually figure is arranged so that the most disturbed ar least disturbed at the right. Viewed in this way

55
| anywhere near Kandy were included in this exceeded 130 ft. (36 m.) in height and 120 cm.
THODS
s quadrats, each 50 m X 20 m, were constructed contour of the land. In each quadrat all trees r girth and species ; each measured plant was ddition, the understory was sampled by means
ty contiguous quadrats, each 50 m X 25 m were at the extreme south eastern end of the ridge at 2,200 ft. The quadrats were constructed so 2ction along the 50 m axis of each quadrat. In nce were recorded for girth and species ; each A list of understory species was made for each h. Si vietenia nnacrophylla and was not included Icao and Coffea were present in the understory
and rockiness of the terrain made construction es (> 25cm circum.) along the accessible trails species. An extensive collection of understory
LTS
ints of the three sample sites is given in Table 1. mportant statistic for indicating the contribution is should be considered as distinct communities, (Table 2). The Lower Hantane stand is very latter stand show a rather low similarity (26.71, tis, 1957), despite their geographical proximity. with over 10% basal area then the major domila (51.3%) and Ficus sp. (11.1 %) ; Senecarpus pf the stand. On Gannoruwa South Ridge the ; only Syzygium gardneri (8.3%) can be conthe most heavily sampled ; (555 individuals), variety of habitats and degrees of disturbance. buting to the canopy reflect the size and variaa Summit area Mangifera zeylanica (19.2%), 1.5%) and Artocarpus nobilis (10.1 %) may be a (8.9%) may also be considered important.
is of arboreal constituents that are present in two major dominants, in at least one stand. The ld youngest stand is at the left and the oldest, , the youngest stand has the largest basal area

Page 63
156
contributed by a single constituent ; the old major dominants. The intermediate stand is : one major dominant.
With regard to the origin of the arbore striking differences are noticeable. The Low indigenous taxa), whereas Gannoruwa South F When the contributions of exotics to the veg dramatic : Lower Hantane has 63.2% of tota South has 47.8% and Gannoruwa Summit ol
The list of most frequently encountered The Lower Hantane has : Cymbopogon nard Osbeckia octandra and Eupatorium odoratun habitats and suggest a young forest, which do
The most frequently encountered plants quadrats are : Pavetta sp., Clausena dentata, 1 Again, some openness and disturbance is ind forbs are absent. The common understory p encountered in open habitats : Goniothalamu nd Ophiorrhiza mungos.
DISCU
Gannoruwa Summit appears to be the k of Kandy. It contains the largest, most massi dominants of the site are all native trees : A cassia, Ponetia tomantosa ahd Terminalia bell are listed as climax constituents in the Filici reflects a climate drier than that in which dipt the Gannoruwa Summit dominants play the s area occupied by the Doona-DipterocarpusThere is no evidence that dipterocarps were there any place names that would suggest this ( Kandy vicinity. Therefore, until new eviden Kandy region should be assigned to the Filicun et al 1964, and not, as Mueller-Dombois (196 series. Greller and Balasubramaniam (Sri La logical classification designate the Kandy fores Zone, which is equivalent to the Filicium-Arto,
The three stands of well-drained forest differences in age and the degree of disturban developed after the early 1950's, has one majo for 51.3% of total basal area. Exotics such Spathodea campanulata contribute 40% of the area. Gannoruwa South Ridge stand is olde) be in a state of continuous disturbance due to contributes a major share of the total basal area

est least disturbed stand has the most varied also intermediate in the contribution made by any
:al floristic constituents of the three stands, some er Hantane stand consists of 40 % exotics (nonRidge has 15% and Gannoruwa Summit only 6%. etation is considered, the situation is even more Il basal area contributed by exotics ; Gannoruwa
nly 8.6%.
understory plants also differs for the three stands, us, Thenneda tremula, Stachytarpheta urticifolia. 2. All clearly reflect grassland or other open es not yet produce deep, continuous shade.
in the understory of the Gannoruwa South Ridge Micromelum ceylanicum, and Cipadessa baccifera licated, but tall grasses and ecologically related lants of Gannoruwa Summit are rarely, if ever, 's gardneri, Pavetta blanda, Dracaena thwaitesii
JSSION
ast disturbed tract of native forest in the vicinity lve and apparently oldest trees in the area. The rtocarpus nobilis, Mangifera zeylanica, Neolitsea irica. Two of tbese, Artocarpus and Mangifera un-Euphoria-Artocarpus-Myristica series, which erocarps are dominants. Furthermore, none of ame role in similar habitats in the geographica. Mesua series (the lowland dipterocarp forest) aver dominant in the Kandy vicinity. Nor are e.g. Horakelle, Horagolla, Dumalasooriya) in the ce is presented to the contrary, we believe the 1-Artocarpus-Ponetia-Myristica series of Gaussen 8) suggests, to the Doona-Dipterocarpus-Mesua nka Forester, in Press) in a new floristic-climatots as representing the Lowland Evergreen Mixed carpus-Ponetia-Myristica series.
that we sampled, may be viewed as reflecting xe. The youngest stand, Lower Hantane, which r dominant, Alstonia nnacrophylla, that accounts as A. macrophylla, Pittosporum timoriense and total flora of the stand and 63.2% of the basal than the first forest mentioned, but appears to fuelwood gathering. Here again, a single taxon of the stand. It is the exotic, Michelia champaca

Page 64
and it accounts for 37.7% of the basal area. contribute 47.8% of total basal area. The or (8.3% basal area). In all there are 42 taxa rep on average only one out of every thirteen tree Gannoruwa Summit stand represents an old, rocky, over-drained site with relatively thin soils nobilis, Mangifera zeylanica, Neolitsea cassia, contribute about epually (12% on arerage) to th 86% of basal area is contriputed by native trees the percentage of exotics in the flora and vegeta The exotic, 4lstonia macrophylla is a pioneer Michelia chanpaca dominates on older, more Alstonia macrophylla in succession on the Low stands have the greatest number of major domiha These are mainly native taxa and natives compr brief reconnaissance of a staod, ealculation of liklyg give an indication of the degree of distu and Michelia chanpaca be used in afforestation rapid growth and their allowing native species and Artocarpus nobilis to become estab ished in
TABLE
RELATVE BASAL AREA OF ARBOREA
OF FOREST IN THE VIC
Тахот
Adenanthera pavonina Aglaia roxburghiana R 4lstonia macrophylla * an 4lstonia scholaris Antidesma lindleyana . Artocarpus integra ar Artocarpus nobilis Bhesa zeylanica Bombax malabariens Cananga odorata *
Canthium dicoccum
Caralia brachiata
Celtiscinnamonoides
Celtis disoxylon/C. wightii 0 Chrysophyllum roxburghi Chukrasia tabularis
Citrus grandis

57
Other exotics combine with M. chanpaca to ly important native tree is Syzygium gardneri resented in the 555 individuals sampled so that represent a different species. In contrast the "elatively undisturbed community, albeit on a In the latter stand the native taxa. Artocarpus onetia tomentosa and Terminalia bellirica, all e total basal area. All but 6% of the flora and We may tentatively conclude, therefore, that tion is an indication of youth and disturbance. dominant on well-drained sites. The exotic, shaded, disturbed sites. It may well replace rer Hantane site. The least disturbed, oldest int (over 10% basal area), arboreal constituents. ise nearly all of the flora and basal area. In a the nereentage of exotics in the check-list, will rbance. We suggest that 4lstonia macrophylla in appropriate climatic regions, in view of their such as Filicium decipiens, Syzygium gardneri, their shade.
E
COMPONENTS OF THREE STANDS NITY OF PERADENYA
Hantaine GannoruMva GannoruWa
South Sunninnit
1.3 -
ar 0.1 سس 51.3 - 0.5 - 1.8
1.2 - 0.6
0.4 - 1.6 - 1.9 - 4.5 bb 3.5 - 10.1
0.6 - 1.6 . . 0.2 . . 0.5 1.9 0.0 . . 0.3 1.1 .. 0.7 0.5 . . 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.5
0.2

Page 65
58
Taxon
Cleidion jeyanicum Cryptocarya wightiana
Derris dalbergioides Dichapettalum? Diospyros sp. Elaeocarpus serratus Erythrina lithospermina * Euphoria longana Ficus hispida Fcius microcarpa Ficus nervosa Ficus religosa * Ficus sp. 1 Ficus Sp. 2 Filicium decipiens Garcinia morella * Garcinia quaesita Gironniera reticulata Gomphia serrata
Hevea brasiliensis Hydnocarpus venenata
Jacaranda sp. . . Litsea deccanenusis
Macaranga peltata Mallotus philippensis Mangifera indica * Mangifera zeylanica Mfelia dubia Meliosma simplicifolia Michelia chainpaca' Myristica dactyloides Neolitsea cassia Nothopegia beddomei
Pittosporunn timoriense * Ponetia tontentosa Psidium guajava * Pterocarpus indicus * Pterospernum canescens Pygeum zeylanicunn
Sapindus laurifolius Semecarpus obscura

Hantaine GannoruMva Gannoruv4ʼa
South Sunnit
1.1 0.7
2.6
0.8 1.1 .. 0.2
1.1 0.4 .. 1.2 . . 0.6
1.1 0.7
1.0
0.2 11.1
4.9 . . 1.9 . . 0.5
0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1
Χ
1.2 . . 0.7 Χ
w 0.1
5.5 . . 0.7
6. Χ 6.4
2.9 . . 19.2 6
1.2 0.1 .. 37.7 .. 6.8 2,6
0.3 .. 2.6 .. 11.8 3.6 . . 1.9
7.9 -
1.4 .. 1.5 0.5
Χ 0.9
1.7 0.9
0.1 .. O
8.9

Page 66
Taxon
Spathodea campanulata * 0. Strombosia sp. ..
Swietenia macrophylla *
Symplocos sp. Syzygium gardneri is O. P. Syzygium jambos
Syzygium sp.
Tabelbouia rosea *
Terminalia belerica
Theobronna cacao *
Turpinia malabarica
Wendlandia notoniana Others
Total Percentage Basal Area .. Total No. of Individuals Total No. of Naturalized Exotic sp. Total of All Species to e
TABLE 2
SURENSEN'S (1949) COEFFICIENT OF SIM II
FOREST IN THE VICINITY
Hantaine Gannoruwa South Cannoru Wa South

59
Hantaine Gannoruva Gannoruva
South Sunnit
2.9
0.6 0.2 . . Χ 0.1
8.3 0.2 0.0 0.1
1.6 . . 8.9
X 2,3 .. 0.
0.6 7.7
100.1 .. 99.7 .. 101.1 170 . . 555 . . 109 8 . . 7 . . 2 20 . . 42 . . 34
LARITY FOR THREE STANDS OF OF PERADENYA
Gannoruwa Gannoru Mva
Hantane South Sıtrminit
4.3 .. 4.2 • • س---- 4.2 . . --26.7 به ه س
4.3 .. 26.7 ..

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60
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Page 68
ACKNOWLED
We wish to thank the following student Mr. S. M. Bandara, Miss. A. Cumaraswamy, Miss. Mr. M. H. Goonatillake, Mr. A. Sathurusinghe
REFERE
BALEY, H. P. (1958).-A simple moisture index Geografiska Annaler 40 : 196 - 215.
BAILEY, H. P. (1960).-A method of determining
Geografiska Annalero 42 : 1 - 6.
BRAY, J. R. and J. T. CURTIS. (1957).-An ordi Southern Wisconsin. Ecol. Monographs 27
DE ROSAYRO, R. A. (1956).-Tropical ecologica
(4, N.S.): 168 - 175.
GAUSSEN, H., LEGRIS, P., VIART, M. and LABROU
tation : Ceylon (1 : 1,000,000). French I
GRELLER, A. M. and BA. ASUBRAMANIAM, S. (19 fication of the forests of Sri Lanka. The S
HoLMES, C. H. (1956).--The broad pattern of cli The Ceylon Forester. 2 (4, N.S.): 207-2
KoELMEYER, K. O. (1957).-Climatic classification The Ceylon Forester. 3 (2, N.S.): 144-16
MOROMAN, F. R. and C. R. PANABOKKE, (1961).-
117 : 5-66.
MUELLER-DOMBOIS, D. (1968).-Ecogeographic
particular reference to vegetation. The with map.
OLIVER, R. L. (1957).- The geological structure
SORENSEN, T. (1948).-A method of establishing
based on similarity of species content. (Copenhagen) 5(4): 1-34.
-6-A596.86

6
)GEMENTS
s for assistance in collecting the field data : N. K. N. D. de Silva, Miss. N. P. Dissanayake, Lnd Miss. J. Thurairajah.
NCES
based upon a primary law of evaporation.
g the warmth and temperateness of climate.
nation of the upland forest communities of
: 325 - 349.
il studies in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester 2
IE, L. (1964).-International Map of the Vega
stitute of Pondicherry, India.
981).-A preliminary, floristic-climatic classiSri Lanka Forester. In Press.
mate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon. 25.
and distribution of vegetation in Ceylon. 3.
-Soils of Ceylon. The Tropical Agriculturist.
anaysis of a climate map of Ceylon with Ceylon Forester. 8 (3-4, N.S.): 39–58;
of Ceylon. Ceylon Geographer. 11 : 9-16.
groups of equal amplitude in plant sociology Det Kong. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Biol. Skr.

Page 69


Page 70
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4, Ja
A Preliminary Floristic-Clim
Forests of S
ANDREW M. (Fulbright Lecturer, Department o
and
S. BALASUBR (Associate Professor, Department of
SUMMA
Recent, extensive field reconnaissance has a floristic basis. Three types compose an Evergr Dipterocarp ; Mid-elevation Evergreen Diptero forests. Three other types compose a group domi Evergreen; Mid-elevation Evergreen Mixed an other types may be said to compose a semi-ever many evergreen taxa : Semi-evergreen and thor floristically from the other two groups. Two foi and Montane Evergreen Dipterocarp are new to s
PAST ST
Perhaps no tropical region has received at as Sri Lanka (see de Rosayro 1950; Domros 1971 Holmes 1956; Koelmeyer, 1957, 1958; Muell parative analysis of the different systems and c published by Perera (1975). In the present study, to others. There is general agreement among w, zones of Wet (humid-perhumid) evergreen for “Highland-”, or “Midland-” and (3) “Montane” 1957, Perera, 1975). There is also general agreer types that occur in the drier geopraphic regions of (1977), which is also called Dry Mixed Evergree Andrews (1961) and (2) “Thorn Forest' (Andrew 1975), which is also called Coastal Forest near There is some disagreement in classifying forest cm/yr) parts of the island. de Rosayro (1950 forest' from typical “Wet evergreen forest'. Hol and Gaussen et al (1964), accepted the distinction in his “Tropical lowland rain forest.' The “Midl: only for the "Wet Zone' (Gaussen et al 1964). described as "Temperate” (de Rosayro 1956), “S (Perera, 1975), is recognised as a major vegetation
mar The authors express their thanks to Drs. M. D. Das manuscript and offering helpful suggestions.
6.

nuary-December, 1980
natic Classification of the Sri Lanka
GRELLER f Botany, University of Peradeniya)
AMANIAM Botany, University of Peradeniya)
ARY
enabled us to recognize eight forest types, on een Dipterocarp Group : Lowland Evergreen carp and Montane Evergreen Dipterocarp nated by Evergreen Mixed Families : Lowland di Montane Evergreen Mixed forests. Two green group, comprising some deciduous and n-scrub. The latter group is also distinct rest types: Mid-elevational Evergreen Mixed cience.
UDIES
tention from so many vegetation geographers ; Gaussen, Legris, Viart and Labroue 1964 ; er-Dombois 1968 ; Perera 1975). A comategories of classification of the forests was Table 1 includes our classification in addition orkers on the recognition of three altitudinal est: (1) “Lowland-', (2) "Sub-montane-' (of Andrew, 1961, Holmes, 1956, Koelmeyer ment on the recognition of two lowland forest Sri Lanka : (1) "Semi-evergreen” sensu Dittus n by de Rosayro (1950), Holmes (1956) and s 1961, Holmes 1956, Koelmeyer 1957, Perera Hambantota (Merritt and Ranatunga, 1959). s of the lowland (0-3,000 ft.), wetter (ppt 165 ) distinguished "Intermediate wet evergreen mes (1956), Koelmeyer (1957), Andrews (1961) L. Perera (1975), alone, merged the two types and” (3,000-4,500 ft. elev.) forest is recognised “Montane” forest (4500-8000 ft)., variously sub-tropical' (Holmes, 1956) and “Tropical'
type by all authors.
sanayake and I. A. U. N. Gunatilleke for reading the
3

Page 71
64
!səJoy uqeuSƏŋƏS ƏUOZəuequouqnsuumgő szÁS Į ĮSƏJOJ UəəIỄ19A9(pueIpĮVN)ĮsəJOJ uumgő szÁSIɛɔỊdo IL-uumposi/doppɔqəAA puesų3ĮH | nsəIOJ UọɔJoJoao | nsəJOJ UọɔJāJoAəUəəIĜIɔAə uniqÁųđopo-puooq og-puoOOTəueņuoUuqnS[80] do I, 13AAIɛɔỊdou) uJəļsəAA
UọouổJƏAə səŋƏS pɔņspuÁJW || ~-ļuuəs įssowəūOZ-sn.d.apɔo1.myĮsƏJOJ(sƏŋɔɛH KIGI)əuojoɔə ŋsƏJOJ1səJOJ uum!2!!!!!-pņuoựdmȚuəəIỆIæAɔ-quosuəəJĀŋɔAə | \səuog uoɔu3J9AɔUIQ 3.1519Aɔ ŋƏAAuəəJoJəAə-suuos oppouo) osndupo */usy oz!səuoy usei-uumpɔŋ1) |pueỊAoI. Iepidou L-suuƏS ļ3AAIɛɔỊdOJļ ļɔAAəļespəUIọļuIIeo!do IĮ įsỊow! pueỊAoI.-
ƏUOZIeɔỊdou LSƏțJəS pmsəWpmsəJAŢ-sndawo | nsəJoy u.39.18ườAə | ļsəJOJ U231313A3 | \sərog uøəußJoaoxeuuỊo įsəJOJĮsƏJOJ smďupoo.mardiq ‘puooq - I-0.124dţGT-buooq,gọAA pueỊAAOTqəAA Iťoydou Lseo!douļ ļoAAuəəuo 19Aɔ ŋɔAAđIɛɔOJəydįCI
(8961)(#96I)(1961)(LÇ6I)(9Ç6I)(OS61)(Lț61) ÁpnțS QU9səJABJƏlƏ&IIe sə uəssnesoSAAəupuVJƏKəUusə0XsƏUuĮOHou Keso?H ɔpueuudeųO
VXINVTI IRIS HO NOILVOIHISSVIO JESTRIO H-"I CHTOEHTVL

SəȚIọS
əuoZ SÁųop/sou1s3-IOJuoqsxouost/2ļSƏIOJ1səIOJļSƏJOJ
qoțGT-pipups-pup:1pupW ‘8 |usoq) seɔỊdo IL-pup;#1țupJÄIuJolų Teosdou Luqoq; sɛɔţdo ILuJOų) UJəųạnos
〜、ĮsəJOJ
ņsəJOJsnonpỊoop !s!oui
ƏUOZ\səJoy use IsəŋɔSSnonpỊoop !ssow[eosdouy q\noS sətəd{uq papx/1pups',seuoseəspuəųɔŋɔŋŋɔS-qsƏuoj(seosdÂL) įsəJoJxeuussɔ ŋsƏJOJ |————
‘uos (xouoựɔ ɔmɔŋɔpueỊAos-posadəg-xəŋA | uɔɔJầuɔAə pəxỊUI!sɔJOHUɔɔJ3J9A9UɔɔrouəAə | \səJoy uəəŋãIɔAə
-sajųɔS ‘‘posuuəg oxɔŋA ‘LIeo!do IL-uoso(xouotųOKup seoỊdoj. LuəəuổJQAə KIGIpeoidou, KIGIpəxsuu KIGIKup Iɛɔŋdo IL
səĻIɔSxeuussə
įsəJoy uqeupțuopmoo-1sƏJOJqS9JOJQS3JOJĮsɔIOJ
əUOZəueņuouu | tumųốszÁS'-sn.dupɔįsəuoj əuequouəņēJədu 194əueņuouUIQ3,339A9əyɛɲɔdu 194
tum114(\dopo '9IɛɔIdol L | -ooppa-pliououwseo!dol LƏueņūOW || 8ɔịdous-qnS Q3AAəuequoy\!əuequoy,
əuoz smuođououəIS ‘ç
əUOZ pəsųT ‘opposy pțuaisnɔ otɔɔŋspuÁJA, †

Page 72
Floristic analyses of the forests have (1956, 1957, 1958) and Koelmeyer (1957) ; a ma work on floristics was summarized for purpose Wet Evergreen Forest they recognised a Do mediate Evergreen Forest, a Filicium-Euphoric Zone,' a Chloroxylon-Berrya-Vitex-Schleichera Chloroxylon series. It should be noted at this Zone" are relative terms which are unsupport (1958) are adopted (see Table 2, column 2).
PRESENT
Perera's (1975) recent attempt to classif basis, results in a loss of discrimination between sion afforded by the use of flora (Gaussen et al, present study is an attempt to use floristic data 1 and precipitation) in Sri Lanka. The data fo field reconnaissance of the eight forest region trees each, recording the taxon and its diametc made species lists and assigned subjective esti observations of many other stands were made.
Recent field work has produced data (S. lished) that indicate a major floristic distinction permit us to divide evergreen forests into two gro (Table 2, Forest Types 1, 3 and 5) and those Anacardiaceae, Moraceae, and Sapindaceae, ex 4 and 6). The distinctions can be recognized f classification is given in Table 2. In the wet (hum forest Doona-Mesua— Dipterocarpus of Koelme should be distinguished from the “ Intermed Filicium, Mangifera, Neolitsea, Turpinia). Clim, (S= 13.0-16.2) and drier (S=10.2-13.0) port the midelevational regions (approx. 3,000-4,500 gardneri-Calophyllum-Cullenia type ; the major carpaceae. We have recently discovered, in undescribed, mid-elevational forest communities dominants are, instead ; Aglaia congylos, Bhe, glandulifer, Myristica dactyloides, Pseudocarapa c These occur in local combinations related to si Greller, unpublished data). We believe that thi combination with published precipitation data dichotomy in effective precipitation (Bailey's sta The lower (4,500-6,000 ft.) portion of the Monte forest types, again involving dipterocarp dominati (S. Balasubramaniam, Savitri Gunatilleke, I. . enabled us to redescover Stemonoporus rig original description in 1854. This taxon appe
See LORIS Vol. XV (In Press).

65
cogressed little since the work of de Rosayro jor exception is the work of Dittus (1977). The of mapping by Gaussen et al (1964). For the na-Dipterocarpus-Mesua series ; for the InterArtocarpus-Myristica series; for their "Dry series; for their "Arid Zone,' a Manilkaraoint that “Wet Zone,' Dry Zone,' and “Arid ble when universal standards, such as Bailey’s
STUDY
y the forests of Sri Lanka on a physiognomic types of “lowland rain forest,' lacks the preci1964), and is not supported by field data. The o classify forests controlled by climate (warmth r classification were gathered during extensive s. At thirteen sites we sampled one hundred 'r (dbh). At approximately ten other sites we mates of dominance to the taxa. Additional
Balasubramaniam and A. M. Greller, unpubin the types of evergreen forest. These data ups ; those dominated by the Dipterocarpaceae dominated by a mixture of families, including luding dipterocarps (Table 2, Forest Types 2, rom sea level to nearly 6,000 ft. asl. The new lid) lowlands (0-3,000ft.), the "Wet Evergreen' yer (1957), dominated by Dipterocarpaceae, iate ” Evergreen forest (Artocarpus, Pometia, atically the two occupy, respectively, the wetter ions of the 'Humid' moisture province. In ) ft. asl), Koelmeyer (1957) recognized a Doona dominant, Doona, is a member of the Dipterothe Knuckles Range, a complex of hitherto that are not dominated by dipterocarps. The sa montana, Cullenia rosayroana, Elaeocarpus hampionii, Pygeum (Prunus) and Syzygium spp. te conditions (S. Balasubramaniam and A. M. 2 gathering of additional temperature data, in , will reveal for the mid-elevational types a tistic, S) similar to that seen for lowland types. line Zone also contains two floristically distinct ion. A recent excursion to the Peak Wilderness A. U. N. Gunatilleke, and A. M. Greller,) idus, hitherto known only from Thwaites” ars to occupy a zone of elevation 1,000 ft.

Page 73
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166
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Page 74
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(LÇ6 I 19Áəuusoo XI ‘9ç61 orkesors op) sţa -opnổup, pupmb smssio odds smųđÁzsz ouumupuţds psstapo ‘unuoyɔump oppuox odds pņquoqđna odds pįsspɔ
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67

Page 75
68
wide, betwcen 5,000 and 6,000 ft., on the sout Other species of Stenonoporus are local do (Plate 1) above Moray Estate and S. gardneri 1980). We propose that a new montane fore by one or more species of the genus Stemono
The montane Stenmonoporus forests ar the "Montane Zone.' In the Knuckles Ran Gordenia spp., and Garcinia echinocarpa are Greller, unpublished data). At 6,000 ft. an similarly dominated by Calophyllum walkeri nosun as a lesser dominant (S. Balasubraman and A. M. Greller, unpublished data). Field (1959), which we have confirmed, indicate th carpus spp., Michelia nilagirica, and Syzygii especially in the Nuwara Eliya-Hakgala-Hort
In summary, eight forest types are rec Evergreen Dipterocarp group : Lowland Ev elevational Evcrgreen Dipterocarp, and Mor compose a group dominated by Evergreel (“Intermediate' forest), Mid-elevational Ev (“ Montane ” forest). Two types may be saic some deciduous and many evergreen taxa : distinct floristically from the other two groups
The forest types dealt with in this pape The paper does not consider edaphically, or this study include successional stages of forc explore the macroclimatic and floristic relation
REFE
ANDREWS, J. R. T. (1961)-A Forest Inventory
116 p.
ASHTON, P. S. (1980)—Dipterocarpaceae, p. 36 A Rivised Handbook to the Flora of Ceyle India.
BAILEY, H. P. (1958)-A simple moisture in Geografiska Annaler 40 : 196-215.
BAILEY, H. P. (1960)-A method of determi Geografiska Annalero 42 : 1-616.
Colombo Observatory (1970)-Report on the (
De ROSAYRO, R. A. (1950)-Ecological concept to Ceylon. The Tropical Agriculturist í

side of the western part of the Central Highlands. ninants in the Peak Wilderness, S. oblongifolius long the Southern slopes of Adam's Peak(Ashton t type be recognized, tentatively; one dominated orus (Diptcrocarpaceae).
likely to be present only in the wettest parts of e, at 5,000-6,000 ft. clevation, Calophyllum spp., the dominants (S. Balasubramaniam and A. M. , above in the Central Highlands the forests are and Garcinia echinocarpa, with Palaquiun rubigiam, Savitri Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N. Gunatilleke, observations by Holmes (1956) and Worthington .t stands of Montane forest dominated by Elaeoin spp., are found at elevations above 5,000 ft., 'n Plains area.
ognized for Sri Lanka. Three types compose an ergreen Dipterocarp (“ Wet evergreen ”), Midtane Evergreen Dipterocarp. Three other types Mixcd Families : Lowland Evergreen Mixed ergreen Mixed, and Montane Evergreen Mixed to compose a Semi-evergreen group, comprising Semi-evergreen and Thorn. This group is also
r are those of well-drained soils and are mature. microclimatically controlled vegetation ; nor does sts. It will be worthwhile for future work, to ships of edaphic and microclimatic vegetation.
RENCES
of Ceylon. Ceylon Government Press, Colombo
4-423, In M. D. Dassanayake and F. R. Fosberg n, Volumc I, Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi
lex based upon a primary law of evaporation.
ling the warmth and temperateness of climate.
olombo Observatory for 1965.
ons and vegetational types with special reference 5 (3) : 108-121.

Page 76
De RosAYRO, R. A. (1956)-Tropical ecologic
(4.) : 168-175.
De RosAYRO, R. A. (1957)-Afforestation for
patanas. The Ceylon Forester 3 (1) 50-6
De ROSAYRO, R. A. (1958)-The climate and
The Ceylon Forester 3 (3-4): 201-260.
DITTUS, W. (1977)-The ecology of a semi-evergr
9 (4): 268-286.
DOMROS, M. (1976)-An agroclimatological lan rubber and coconut palms. Plant Rese by Instit. for Scient. Cooper, Tubingen, H
GAUSSEN, H., P. LEGRIS, M. WIART, and L. LAE tation : Ceylon (1 : 1,000,000). French I
HoLMES, C. H. (1956)- The broad pattern of cl. The Ceylon Forester 2 (4): 207-225.
KOELMEYER, K. O. (1957)-Climatic classificati The Ceylon Forester 3 (2): 144-163.
KOELMEYER, K. O. (1958)-Climatic classificatio) (contd.). The Ceylon Forester 3 (3-4.) : 2
MERRITT, V. G. and M. S. RANATUNGA (1959 reconnaissance report. The Ceylon Fores
MULLER-DOMBOIS, D. (1968)-Ecogeographic ana reference to vegetation. The Ceylon Fores
PERERA, N. P. (1975)—A physignomic vegetat
Biogeogr. 2 : 185-203.
THWAITES, G. K. (1854)-Kew. J. Bot. 6: 69.
WORTHINGTON, T. B. (1959)–Ceylon Trees. C
429 p--Index (11p).

69
studies in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester 2
otection and conservation in the up-country
getation of the Knuckles Region of Ceylon.
enforest community in Sri Lanka. Biotropica
classification of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) for tea, Irch and Development 4: 87-113. Published RG.
ROUE. (1964)-International Map of the Vegenstitute of Pondicherry, India.
mate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon.
on and distribution of vegetation in Ceylon.
1 and the distribution of vegetation in Ceylon 65-288.
)-The forests of the Kirindi Oya Basin-A ter 4 (1,): 7-35.
lysis of a climate map of Ceylon with particular ter 8 (2-4): 39-58.
on map of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Journ. of
lombo Apothecaries & Co., Ltd., Colombo.

Page 77


Page 78
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4, J.
The Floristic Composition o in Sri Lanka with Specia
C. V. S. GUNATILLEKE AND (Department of Botany, Unive
INTROD
The Sinharaja forest (11,000 hectares) 2. the south-west lowland wet Zone of Sri Lanka, longitudes 80°21' - 80°34' east, is the only relat island. Its boundaries are, on the north Napol Ganga (Ganga, meaning river), on the south and west Kalukandawa. Ela (Ela meaning streamlet) footpath near Beverley Estate and Denuwakand steep slopes and rocky outcrops, ranging betwe level. Common rock types are khondalites, g recent gravels, sands and clays (Wijepala, 1958), and Panabokke, 1961). The mean annual rainf mainly from the south-west monsoons during November — January. There is no dry spell di of the area ranges between 18°C and 27°C (de RC
About 1,400 hectares on the western side period 1972 - 1977 by the State Timber Corp manufacture. In 1977 logging operations were Man and Biosphere Reserve. However, conside the extent of virgin forest remaining at present c
OBJECTIV
This Project aims at justifying the cons presented here are a part of a long-term project
SITE DESCRIPTION A
Sixty plots, each 0.25 hectares in three (WAR), Sinhagala (SIN) and Waturawa (WA Both Warukandeniya and Waturawa areas have streamlets while Sinhagala is a small hill reachin its western side and a steep cliff on its eastern si
In each area, 20 plots (mostly 100x2. heterogeneity at a minimum, were demarcated were located adjacent to each other so that pl
*Part of a paper presented at he Second Round' on Dipterocarpaceae held in Kepong, Malaysia, in June,

nuary - December, 1980
Sinharaja - A Rain Forest Reference to Endemics
I. A. U. N. GUNATILLEKE sity of Peradeniya, Peradeniya)
UCTION
km. in length and 7 km. in width, located in between the latitudes 6°21' - 6°26' north and ively large patch of rain forest remaining in the a. Dola (Dola meaning stream) and Koskulana south-west Maha Dola and Gin Ganga, on the and Kudawa Ganga and on the east an ancient a (Figure I). Its topography is very hilly with 2n the elevations of 300 - 1,150 m above sea arnetiferous charnokites and recent and suboverlain by red yellow podzolic soils (Moorman all recorded for the area is 3,750 - 5,000 mm., May - July and north-east monsoons during uring the year. The mean annual temperature sayro, 1959).
of the forest was selectviely logged during the oration mainly to supply timber for plywood suspended and the entire area was declared a ing selective logging and illicit encroachments, ould be estimated as 5,000 hectares only.
VES
}rvation of Sinharaja in its entirety. Results geared to achieve this end.
D FIELD SAMPLING
different parts of the forest-Warukandeniya T)-on the western side have been sampled. a much dissected terrain, crossed over by many g 710 m above sea level, with one streamlet on le (Figure 1).
m.), subjectively sited to keep topographic with red and white paint. Usually two plots it size could be doubled if required during
able Conference of The International Working Group 980, -
71

Page 79
172
analyses. Each plot was divided into four, each plot girth of trees and woody climb viduals were labelled with Aluminium numbe from each for ident fication.
RE Structure
A total of 10,807 individuals were enu individuals per hectare was found to be 6. 749.8 at Waturawa (Table I). The girth cla reverse "J' curve in all three areas (Figure 2 gbh. (merchantable timber class) including b 48 individuals per hectare.
Floristic Composition
Individuals enumerated were identif belonging to 107 genera and 42 families. Th kandeniya were 144, 86 and 39 respectively v 125, 75 and 35 and for Waturawa 114, 72 á Warukandeniya. It was also found that 33 Sinhagala and 9 to Waturawa (Table I). Al 6 had less than 10 individuals in the respectiv
Species area curves (Figure 3) using no of species and (2) that the Sinhagala and W close similarity but beyond 1.5 hectares the curve. Even though there is a greater rang compared with Warukandeniya and Watura number of species here. From these curve appears to be about 3.75 hectares.
In 15 hectares of the forest sampled representing each of them (Table 2) and these
The families with the largest represet Rubiaceae, 16 spp. ; Dipterocarpaceae and M 11 spp. The most predominant species, bas forest, in the areas sampled are given in Ta considered at Warukandeniya, Sinhagala and the forest, but at Waturawa dominance is Wight & Arn., Anisophyllea cinnamonoides Shorea worthingtoni Ashton and Shorea affi rosayroana Kosterm, and Chaetocarpus cas Warukandeniya and Waturawa areas, whiled Gaertn., Mesua thwaitesii Planch. & Triana In the understorey at Warukandeniya, Sinhag Kosterm. quite clearly dominates the forest, by Xylopia championii Hook.f. & Thoms. Tir and Gareinia hermoni Kosterm.

25x25m. sub-plots for easy sampling. Withinpers over 30 cm. gbh. was recorded and these indi r tags while a herbarium specimen was collected
SULTS
merated in the three areas. The mean density of 54.8 at Warukandeniya 766.8 at Sinhagala and ss distribution of individuals showed the typical ). The mean number of individuals over 150 cm. oth hardwoods and softwoods in these areas was
ted into 184 species (including 7 unidentified) e number of species, genera and families at Waruwhile the corresponding values for Sinhagala were and 38 indicating the highest floristic richness at species were confined to Warukandeniya, 13 to 1 these species (33+13+9) with the exception of e areas in which they were found.
on-contiguous plots indicate (1) a larger localisation arukandeniya curves to begin with, show a very Sinhagala curve runs, parallel with the Waturawa ge in elevation at Sinhagala (485 m.-710 m.) as Lwa there was no corresponding increase in the s the minimal area for Sri Lankan rain forests
48% of the species have less than 10 individuals
could be considered rare species at Sinharaja.
ntation of species were Euphorbiaceae, 22 spp.; yrtaceae, 15 spp. each and Clusiaceae (Guttiferae), ed on density only, in the different strata of the ble 3. This shows that, when canopy species are all three areas together, Mesua ferrea L. dominates almost equally shared by Syzygium rubicundum (Gardn. & Champ). Alston, Mesua ferrea L., nis (Thw.) Ashton. In the Sub-canopy Cullenia tanocarpus (Roxb.) Thw. tend to dominate the lominance is shared between Myristica dactyloides and Cullenia rosayroana Kosterm. at Sinhagala. ala and all three areas together, Garcinia hermonii whereas again at Waturawa dominance is shared monius jambosella (Gaertn.) Thw., Ouratea serrata

Page 80
END
The proportions of endemic individiual were found to be 77%, 77% and 71% respecti was 75%. Their girth size distribution giver all the size classes. If percentages of endemic there is a progressive increase from girth class at Warukandeniya and Sinhagala, the reverset to decrease in the higher girth classes. This la of Mesua ferrea L., a non-endemic, which pri three areas together, in the highest girth classe: individuals are endemic.
The number of endemic species at Wa 93 and 80 respectively while the corresponding together (Table I).
The endemic genera enumerated in plc (Dilleniaceae), Stemonoporus Thw. (Diptero Nargedia Bedd. (Rubiaceae) and Podladenia Thv Schizostigma Arn. (Rubiaceae), Hortonia Wigh & Drude (Palmae) were also found. All the Stenmonoporus and Hortonia are monotypic acc
In Sri Lanka there are 830 endemic spec and woody climbers, totalling 494, are found it 1975). Thus it appears that 125 of the 217 enc recorded at Sinharaja. According to Trimen rare (annexed).
DISCU,
Although in the three areas sampled, di are more or less similar, they show distinct fea injustifying these areas for conservation.
Warukandeniya area is the richest of the confined to it and shows a high localisation c the canopy, Shorea trapezifolia, S. megistop Cullenia rosayroana and Syzygium neesianum W. 99 endemic species and the endemic genera These two genera were not found at Sinhagala
At Sinhagala. 13 species were confined to species differed from those of the other two Vahl was more abundant here than elsewhere. three areas, it was only at Sinhagala that the r Wandl. & Drude ex Hook. f. was found. Th endemic species Atalantia rotundifolia (Thw.) T a panoramic view of the forest canopy is seen

173
EMICS
at Warukandeniya, Sinhagala and Waturawa 'ely; when all three areas were taken together it in Figure 2 shows that endemics are present in in the girth classes are considered, at Waturawa - 8, where it even reaches 100%. By contrast, end is seen, i.e. percentage of endemics are found ter could be explained by the density dominance dominates in these two areas. Considering the (150 cm. girth and over) as much as 68% of the
ukandeniya, Sinhagala and Waturawa were 99, figure was 125 when all three areas were taken
ts so far at Sinharaja were Schumacheria Wahl carpaceae), Glenniea Hook. f. (Sapindaceae), v. (Euphorbiaceae) while Leucocodon Gardn. and tex Arn. (Monimiaceae) and Loxococcus Wendl. se genera with the exception of Schumacheria, ording to Trimen (1893–1900).
ies of which, 148 herbs, 129 shrubs and 217 trees in the low-country wet zone of the island (Peeris, lemic trees and woody climbers have so far been (1893 - 1900) 16 of them are considered very
SSION
nsity and girth class distribution of individuals cures as given below which should be considered
: three areas sampled with as much as 33 species f species (Figure 3). Among the dominants in ylla and S. disticha, and in the sub-canopy, re relatively more abundanthere. Furthermore, tenonoporus and Glenniea were recorded here. and Waturawa.
the area and the association of dominant canopy reas. In the understorey Humboldtia laurifolia 93 endemic species were recorded here. Of the re monotypic genus Loxococcus rupicola (Thw.) only recorded habitat in the island of the rare an. is also the summit of Sinhagala from where poking down eastwards from it.

Page 81
174
At Waturawa 9 species were confined to th single species dominance (density dominant) of here the dominance was shared by six species. A petiolare (Thw.) Engl. and Syzygium rubicundum serrata were more abundant here. 80 endem distribution of their individuals showed an incr the highest class. This trend was not seen in th flora and S. trapezifolia were also recognisable h
Thus each area has its unique features anc forest. Every effort is therefore being made to small, the area being 21 X7 sq km. as a valuablk
ACKNOWLE
Work on this present project at Sinhar financial aid given by the International Foundal colleagues of the Department of Botany, Unive of Sri Lanka who have extended their facilit Sinharaja would not have got off the ground, Wi
REFER
ASHTON, P. S. (1980).--Dipterocarpaceae in the
Ceylon. Editors, M. D. Dassanayake New Delhi
DE ROSAYRO, R. A. (1959).-The application
Inventories on an Ecological basis in Ra 38 (2), No. 96 : 141 - 174.
MooRMAN F. R. AND PANABOKKE, C. R. (1961).-
PEERIs, C. V. S. (1975).–The Ecology of the Ei their conservation. Ph. D. Thesis. Unive
TRIMEN, H. (1893 - 1900).-A Handbook to the
WIJEPALA, W. A. L. (1958).-Certain aspects
Region of Ceylon. Bull of Ceylon Geog,
VERY RARE ENDEMC SPEC
(According to Trimen's (189
Shorea affinis (Thw.) Ashton — Dipteroca Diospyros acuminata (Thw.) Kosterm. — E Chaetocarpus pubescens (Thw.) Hook. f. - Pododenia thwaitesii (Baill.) Muel. Arg. -- Hydnocarpus octandra Thw. – Flacourtia Mennecylon elegantulum Thw. – Melaston

he area and unlike in the other two areas where Mesua ferrea was observed in the canopy layer, Among the dominant canopy species, Palaquium Wight & Arn. and in the understorey Ouratea ic species were recorded and the girth class lase from girth class 1 - 8 reaching 100% in e other two areas. Groves of Shorea congestiere from a distance.
l a single area is not representative of the entire conserve this forest, which is even now quite gene pool.
DGEMENTS
aja has been made possible by the generous cion for Science, Sweden. To them and to the rsity of Peradeniya and the Forest Department. ies and co-operation without which work at wish to extend them our grateful appreciation.
ENCES
Revised edition of the Handbook to the Flora of & F. R. Fosberg. Amarind Publishing Co.,
of Aerial Photography to Stock Mapping and in Forest in Ceylon. Empire Forestry Review.
—Soils of Ceylon. Trop. Agric. 117 : 4— 65.
demic Tree Species of Sri Lanka in relation to. sity of Aberdeen, U. K.
Flora of Ceylon. London, Dulav. Wols. 1 - 5.
of settlement and topography in the Rakwana
Soc., 10 (3 & 4) : 67 — 77.
IES FOUND AT SINHARAJA 3) classification of endemics)
rpaceae Ebenaceae - Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae
626
tataCeae

Page 82
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Memecylon ellipticum Thw. – Melastomatace Memecylon orbiculare Thw. — Melastomatace Byrsophyllum ellipticun (Thw.) Bedd. – Rubi Dichilanthe zeylanica Thw. — Rubiaceae Nargedia macrocarpa (Thw.) Bedd. -- Rubiace Palaquium canaliculatus (Thw.) Engl. – Sapot Palaquin thwaitesii Trim. - Sapotaceae Symplocos vesicolor C. B. Clarke - Symplocal Eugenia insignis Thw. - Myrtaceae Eugenia amoena Thw. - Myrtaceae Mapania innersa (Thw.) Benth. ex C. B. Clar. Atalantia rotundifolia (Thw.) Tan. — Rutaceae
TABLE
STATSTCS OF DISTRIBUTION OF
Warukand
Mean Density/Ha d. ... 664.8
Merchantable timber individuals over 150 45
cm gbh/ha.
Number of : Families .. 39
Genera X . a 86 Species .. ... 144
Species confined to each area 33
Number of endemic species s 99
Proportion of Endemic species as % of the
total species in each area. . . . 77
*includes 7 unidentified species.
TABLE PERCENTAGE OF SPECIES IN DENSITY
Density Number of Warukandeniya S.
Classes Individuals
1. 1 only .. 26 2 2 - 10 .. 37 3 11 - 20 . . 13 4. 21 - 30 . . 08 5 31 - 40 . . 03 6 4 - 50 . . 04 7 51 - 100 . . 05 8 101 - 200 . . 02 9 20l and over . . 02

75
„CCC
8ᎿᏮ
CocaC
Շ36
ce - Cyperaceae (waterplant) (Shrub species)
I
SPECIES IN STUDY AREAS
niya Sinhagala Waturaya Three areas
together 766.8 .. 749.8 . . 727.1 52 . . 47 . . 48
35 . . 38 . . 42 75 . . 72 ... 107 125 ... 114 ... 184* 13 .. 09 ... - 93 . . 80 ... 125
78 .. 73 . . T6
CLASSES IN THE STUDY AREA
nhagala Waturawa Three areas
together
19 e 1 # * 15 36 O 40 33 11 14 11 09 04 8 O 06 02 e 06 03 04 8 07 04 11 O. O. 07 12 04 P. O. 10 09
04 8 Ol 07

Page 83
76
T
DENSTES OF THE MOST CO
Wa Species
Canopy
Mesua ferrea. Shorea affinis Shorea worthingtoni Anisophyllea cinnamomoides Syzygium rubicundum Palaquium petiolare Shorea trapezifolia Shorea megistophylla . . Shorea disticha
Sub-Canopy
Cullenia rosayroana Chaetocarpus castanocarpus Mesua thwaitesii Myristica dactyloides . . Syzygium neesianum
Understorey
Garcinia hermonii Xylopia championii Timon ius jambosella Dillenia triquetra Ouratea Serrata Humboltia laurifolia ...
* Most Common i Second Most Col
Species assigned to strata based on 1 given include individuals over 30 cm.gbh. i.

ABLE 3
MMON SPECIES IN STUDY AREAS
rukandeniya Sinhagala Waturawa Three areas
together
(15 ha.)
52 .. 36Q: ... 137 . . Q 8 132廿 .,195廿 .,117 > QO 444 43 ... 208 ... 128 40 379 56 ... 10 .,151廿 .. 325 OO 48 ... 16 * . . 216.
12 k . 35 ... 101 - 48 93廿 .. 10 P 22 - 125 77 04 AO O6 a 87
68 - O AO B 4. 19
275 . . . 94廿 .. 68 0. 454 00 Ο Ο. 58 ... 257 . . . 315 164廿 .... 91廿 .... 46 302 91 , . 106 .. 168 .. 265 74 O2 08 di 84
301 * . . 377 t . . 129 A KO 809 140f .,260计 .,160* .. 560 07 8 92 ... 160 . . 259 04 ... 10 a w 97 s 202 02 4 O2 .,144廿 .... 148 OO ... 104 a 0. 38 142
O ii. Third Most Common
position of mature individuals in Forest. Number n 5 hectares in each area.

Page 84
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Page 87


Page 88
The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4, J
Understorey Vegetation S Tropical Wet Ever
R. J. MITCHELL & L (Department of Botany, Uniy
INTROD
No quantitative studies of the understore yet been conducted in Sri Lanka. This study into the understorey vegetation structure and s is intended to support extensive studies present I. U. A. N. Gunatilleke on the everstorey comp and the Biosphere Reserve.
STUDY AREA
The Sinharaja Man and the Biosphere ) and is located 30 miles southeast of Ratnapul Sabaragamuwa Province and the remaining thi This specific study is confined to the lower half plots established as a part of the everstorey stud is approximately 1,500 feet and the area is acces road three miles east of the Forest Department
Twelve locations were sampled, ten of everstorey plots. At each location 25 sub-plot meter apart. In each sub-plot the cover and i this technique (Daubermire, 1968) per cent. cov species as well as the total cover value for the ul the understorey was defined as all plant species
: RES
The number of understorey species at ea high of 30, (Table 1). In all, 79 species were rec composition. The total cover of all understo At 9 of the 12 Sample locations the total unders as 28.4%. This is due to the well-developed ( of vegetation above the understorey. This e. forest floor thus inhibiting an extensive develop
From Table 2 it can be seen that no spx occur at only one or two. Shorea trapezifolia any magnitude. With an overall cover value c
* Present Address : Biology Department, Colora

anuary–December, 1980
tructure of the Sinharaja green Forest Type
. K. D. TILAEKRATENE ersity of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka)
UOTION
y in the tropical wet evergreen forest type have is an attempt to make some initial observations pecies composition of this community. It also ly being conducted by C. W. S. Gunatilleke and osition of this forest type in the Sinharaja Man
AND METHODS
Reserve consists of approximately 22,000 acres a. Two-thirds of the forest reserve lie in the "d in the Southern Province (Gunatilleke, 1978). of the Waturawa section, a series of permanent y conducted by the Gunatillekes. The elevation sible by a well marked trail from a forest service Circuit Bungalow at Kudawa.
which were completely within the established s, 2 dim. by 5 dim. were placed along a line one dentity of all species were recorded. By using er and frequency values were determined for all hderstorey vegetation component. In this study of one meter or less in height.
ULTS
Lch sample location varies from a low of 8 to a orded showing a general inconsistancy of species rey species seemed markedly low. (Table 1). :orey cover is less than 50% and it ranges as low anopy which is complemented by several layers (treme layering allows little light to reach the ment of the ground cover.
cies occurs at all 12 sample locations and most is the only species that shows a distribution of f 10.53%, it far exceeds the second species with
do Women's College, Denver, Colorado, 80220, U.S.A.
3.

Page 89
82
respect to cover, Lindsaya trapazifornis wit exceeds the second species in this category, is found at 9 of the 12 locations. The ol trapazifornis and Lasianthus oliganthus whic
Forty-nine of the species have an av less of the sample locations. There are on and only 5 species show cover values of 5% figures support the thesis that Shorea trapez the understorey and that the general struct be a persistent or dominant set of species i
When comparing the understorey to in common. There are 65 species in the ove while 63 species found in the understorey a are grasses, ferns, climbers and shrubs which This great difference in understorey and ov investigation.
RE
DAUBENMIRE, R. (1968).-Plant communiti Row, New York, XI 300 pp.
GUNATILLEKE, C. W. S. (1978).-Sinharaja
1976.

ih 2.6%. Likewise, with a frequency of 37% it far Palaquium petiolare with 13 %. Shorea trapeqifolia nly other species to exceed this figure are Lindsaya hare found at 11 and 10 sample locations respectively.
erage frequency of lessthan 2% and 58 occur in 3 or ly 7 species that occur in 2/3 of the sample locations or more at more than one sample location. These ifolia is the only species of significant proportions in lure is one of g eat dive sity. The e appeas not to h the understorey.
) the evelstorey there are only 16 species thay have rstorey which are not represented in the understorey, re not present in the everstorey. Of the 63 only 15 would not be expected to be a part of the overstorey. erstorey species composition certainly merits further
FERENCES
es : A Text book of Plant Synecolygy. Harper &
Today. The Sri Lanka Forester, 14 (3 & 4) Jan-Dec.

Page 90
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