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Anclai Ch30íSilankai)
DR. P. Pushparatnam, M.A., P.G.Dip (Tem-Art), Ph.D
Senior Lecturer Dept of History University of Jaffna Sri Lanka
Bavani Patippakam 2002

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First Edition: July 2002
C) Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Title: Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers
Author: Paramu PushparatnaT
Senior Lecturer Department of History University of Jaffna Sri Lanka
Price: Rs. 200 (Indian)
Publishers: BAWAN PATIPPAKAM
PUTTUREAST PUTTUR JAFFNA SRI LANKA
Printed at THAMIZHI NILAM
33, Wenkatanarayaman Salai Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035 Tan Thil Nadu Phone 91-044-433 7368

This Book is Dedicate to My Revered Guru Professor Y.Subbaralayu Who is one of the Eminent South Asian Epigraphists to Mark the Commemoration of his 60 "Birth Day

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Message from the Vice- Chancellor
Professor P. Balasundarampillai Vice-Chancellor
University of Jaffna
Sri Lanka
The archaeological remains play a more significant role than literature in maintaining the ancient history of a race. In this respect, take pride in conveying a felicitation message to this volume on the ancient coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers, one of the prime sources of the field of archaeology. Dr.P. Pushparatnam who has authored this volume has had acquaintance with me for over twenty years since the time of his career as a student and a lecturer in this University. During his undergraduate program, he specialised in history and chose to offer subjects related to archaeology. He also took part with zeal and broad academic outlook in the archaeological excavations at Anaikkoddai and Mantai. Later he obtained M.A. degree in the area of SCulpture, a major course component in the field of archaeology. Subsequent to the completion of his research on "The Cultural relationship between Tamil Nadu and Northern Sri Lanka upto 5th century A.D. based on archaeological survey", under the guidance of eminent Prof. Y.Subbarayalu the most leading savant in the field of archaeology, during the period from 1997-2000, the Tamil University of Tanjavur in South India conferred a Ph.D. degree on him. During the same period he secured P.G. Diploma in Temple Art at the Alakappa University, also. He contributed substantially in conducting field studies at important archaeological sites in South India in Collaboration with the archaeological experts and submitted articles in more than 20 seminars during his Ph.D. programme in Tamil Nadu. It is greatly to his credit that he won the award from the Pondichchery University for the best research paper in archaeology written by him in the

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Conference held in 2000 by the All Indian University Teachers Association.
It's his conviction that the archaeological evidences would be the prime source to build up the history of Sri Lankan Tamils and in Order to assert his belief, he has produced more than 4 books and written over 40 articles. The research articles of his teachers Prof. K.Indrapala, Prof.V.Sivasamy, Prof.S.K.Sitrampalam, Prof. S.Pathmanathan, Prof. P. Ragupathy and Mr.S. Krishnaraja endorse that his findings have provoked the researchers to review the long held observations regarding the history of Sri Lankan Tamils. The book titled, Punakary-An Archaeological Survey authored by him deserves commendation as it has been the very first volume on archaeological aspects with regard to Sri Sri Lanka, published by this University. This esteemed volume and his subsequent one Sri Lankan Tamil Culture - An archaeological Perspective have achieved him covetous records of fame by earning the Sahitya Academy Award and the Provincial level Award for best publications. His recent publication Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamils in Tamil drew the attention of many scholars.
i
At this juncture of his academic embarkation, his present estimable volume in English would be undoubtedly appreciated by all. Many new contentions never expressed previously by historians have been put forward with ample evidences for the first time in this volume. . Some of these views presented in this volume should be treated with special attention as they claim to give new dimension and scope to the history of Sri Lankan Tamils. For example, Historians have maintained So far that Sri Lankan rulers released coins from the latter part of the 13th century A.D.. But the present author has proved in such an impressive manner as to win over the scholars the prevalence of the tradition of releasing coins from the 3" century B.C. The Historians have also opined earlier that all the Tamil rulers in Sri Lanka arrived from Tamil Nadu. But in this volume, the emergence of Tamil state formation in Sri Lanka in the period contemporary to the Sankam age

VII
and the Sri Lankan origin of the Tamil rulers have been well attested with the support of coins and inscriptions. The earlier view that the first Tamil kingdom was established in Northern Sri Lanka in the 13h century A.D. has also been refuted by the author and he argues that such kingdom came into being between 6"-7" century A.D.
Though this volume is primarily on the ancient coins of Sri Lankan Tamils, it has emphatically as well as impressively sought to illustrate the diverse Sri Lankan Tamil's ethnic features, such as the language, Scripts, settlements, state formation, religion, idol forms Worshipped, economy, foreign links etc, in a historical perspective.
This University has determined to grant as much financial assistance as possible to bring out this volume as it used, to assist him during his engagements in archaeological explorations before, also.
trust this University would take all possible steps to nurture this young archaeologist who is renowned among both Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu scholars, in his relentless academic pursuits and he may go ahead with his endeavor so as to bring the true history of our race to light. I congratulate him.
18.7.2002 Professor P. Balasundarampilai

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ForeWord
By
Vidivavaca spati, Kalaimamani, Silai meeta Semmal. Perumbana Nambi
Dr.R.Nagaswamy
Former Director of Archaeology, Tamilnadu and Former Vice Chancellor, Kanchipuram University
Dr. Pushparatnam is an enthusiastic scholar of Archaeology
and history of Sri Lanka who undertakes extensive fieldwork for his works. The result naturally is based on first hand knowledge of material, which he marshals for rewriting any history of Sri Lanka. Having been trained by Eminent historians like Dr. Indrapala, Dr. Sivasamy and Dr. Pathmanathan of Sri Lanka and by equally competent scholars in India like Dr. Y.Subbarayalu of the Tamil University, he works under rigid discipline and presents his view quite authoritatively which can not be easily brushed aside. Also he does not allow his imagination to fly high but confines his presentation to the factual material and where one has to resort to logical inferences he stops where his factual finds take him. The present book is an analysis of the numismatic evidences that call for a reappraisal and handles them quite fluently. The book is broadly divided into four major parts, the early, mediaeval and later periods of Coin finds and their readings and the last part, the new evaluation of the Social, Economic and Political history of the region, with special reference to the Tamils. He rightly emphasizes the importance of the study of coins for a

ΙΧ
reconstruction of history, at the same time pointing out its limitations. The first exercise is addressed towards the reading of Coins found with Brahmi or Tamil brahmi legends, He gives first the required Scientific data like a description, weight etc of the coin, the find spot and its publication details and evaluates the readings of earlier Scholars and comes to his analytical conclusions. This immediately shows the enormous amount of new material that have turned up in recent times and the emerging clarity in the early history of the Tamils. He mainly takes the readings of Mr Mahadevan and agrees with him if it is acceptable and where he differs, clearly sets out his differences in a dignified and persuasive manner. His reasons for reading the Suffix "an" in some coins and the argument that they were issued by local Tamils of Sri Lanka in the pre Common Era gains strength. As many as 13 coins have been discussed and finally the author argues that these coins ought to have been issued by the local Tamils and not brought from Tamilnadu as has been suggested by other Scholars. The reasons set out by the author are that these coins were issued by the merchant guilds and not rulers and secondly they are found in large numbers in Sri Lanka while are almost not to be found in Tamil nadu. He argues had they been issued in Tamilnadu and brought here they ought to be found in Tamilnadu as well. This seems to be strong suggestions and clearly prove that the Tamils were living in the region from Pre Common Era, which now seems to be well established and closely attest the tradition found in the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa. A point of interest in the work is that while disagreeing with other scholars Dr Pushpartnam does keep the dialogue within the academic level and does not couch his statements in nonacademic polemics. However I am of the opinion that we are yet to see any Convincing evidence regarding the existence of Brahmi inscriptions in pre Asokan

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X
times i.e. pre 3" cent BCE even India. I am convinced that Brahmi or Tamil Brahmi could not have reached Tamilnadu or Sri Lanka in 3" Cent BCE and they could be dated only from 2" Cent BCE. But it must be understood that the introduction of writing is different and the presence of Tamils in Sri Lanka is different. That they have been living there from the time prior to the introduction of writing is unquestionable, in as much as the early presence of Sri Lankans there is indisputable. Proximity to the Tamil shores and easy access are clearly in favour of early settlements as quite logical. The present numismatics finds give enough clues for a reappraisal. Discussing in detail the coins of the historical period particularly the coins with the bull, fish and Lakshmi symbols the author point out that it is not necessary that all need to be identified as brought from the Pandya, Pallava or the areas of Tamilnadu, but clearly some of them were issued in Sri Lanka itself and the author gives the differences in their pattern and the reasons for his conclusions. The discussion on the Lakshmi coins is thus of interest. He also argues, the Tamils of Sri Lanka also issued coins with the portrait heads of the Kings in imitation of Roman issues, following the Tamil kings. Though there have been studies in a broader sense on the mediaeval coins, the author points out how there is scope for revising the earlier views. There is an interesting chapter on the coins of Nallur kingdom. The author discusses the script and language of the early coins in a separate chapter and lists many words identifying them as Tamil words. While some of his identification like parumaka, kutumbikan and raca etc as Tamil words are sure to be challenged as Prakrits and will not be accepted, I am sure there will be general acceptance of such words as vels, vayal, matu, nadu, and kadu as undoubtedly Tamil words and this would make all the difference. Here is certainly a

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book on numismatics that will be welcomed by all the scholars as an important source for further enquiring into the history of Sri Lanka and the Tamil population there, as much of these are presented with factual material and argued on sound historical methodology that would stimulate serious attention. I am sure the author will bring out soon several editions of this work and wish all the best for this young enthusiastic scholar, who follows the footsteps of his masters like Dr. Indrapala.
R. Nagaswamy
27-7-2002

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w Contents
Message from the Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
Introduction
Indian Coins and Sri Lankan Tamils
Brahminscribed Coins of the Tamils
Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Kings
Coins of Northern Sri Lanka
Coins of Nallur Kingdom
History of the Tamils through Numismatics
Ya
Bibliography
13
20
33
70
95
127
143
160

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 13
Introduction
Sri Lanka is one of the countries where multi ethnic, religions, linguistic, cultural communities live, in Asia. Among them the Tamil speaking and the Sinhala speaking communities have had an ancient and long traditional history in Sri Lanka. Yet when compared to the history of Sinhala race, many facets of the history of Tamils before the European rule, particularly before the period of 13th century A.D. are, still vague. This vagueness can be attributed mainly to the fact that like the classical historical literatures favoring the interests of the Sinhala people emerged, either no such literatures in Tamil were found or the ther existing literatures were not identified. Though such shortcoming in tracing the history of the Tamils of Tamil Nadu upto 14th century, A.D. was suffered, the archaeological studies and discoveries made there were helpful in bringing their historical antiquity and glory into light. It's a pity that no similar studies based on the history of Sri Lankan Tamils have been Carried Out in Sri Lanka.
The tradition of producing history based on the evidences from literatures and archaeological artifacts was synonymous with the European rule in Sri Lanka. However most of the archaeological studies conducted upto 1960 tended to justify the historical information as gleaned from Sri Lankan Pali texts. Though these archaeological studies yielded some evidences pertaining to the history of Tamils, due to the influence of the Pali texts, these evidences were treated to refer to the Tamils as invaders or merchants of Tamil Nadu visiting and leaving Sri Lanka from time to time instead of considering them as of Sri Lankan origin. It has been proudly proclaimed that the Megalithic cultural evidences typical of the Dravidians of South India, widely discovered in Sri Lanka after 1960s, are a milestone in the studies of the history of Sri Lankan Tamils. There haven't been any supporting clues to prove that all those who descended from this culture had Tamil as their mother tongue in the later periods. But the Tamil Brahmi

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14 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
script and Tamil names found in Megalithic potsherds at places like Arikamedu, Alakankulam, Kodumanal, Vallam, Pompukar, Viluppuram had (Malikaimedu), supply good evidences that people adopting this culture had Tamil as their mother tongue in the later periods, in Tamil Nadu. Similarly Tamil Brahmi script and Tamil names in Megalithic potsherds discovered at Manniththalai, Veddukkadu, Paramankerai, Elavur and Verapandiyanmunai in the Punakary area, during the archaeological explorations conducted by me are evidences to established the fact that at least a group of the people practicing the Megalithic culture had Tamil as their mother tongue. Potsherds of this nature with Tamil Brahmi script carved on them were discovered recently in Anurathapura and by Mr.S. Krishnaraja, an academic of the Dept of History of the University of Jaffna at Kantarodai. These are evidence of the widespread existence of Tamil settlements of Megalithic culture at its highest stage of development. These presumptions are further confirmed by the Tamil Brahmi script and Tamil names found in cave inscriptions from 3" century B.C. to 3" century A.D. associated with Buddhism in the Megalithic cultural centers. However, the lasting history of Tamils with regard to their political, Social, economic and cultural aspects from grd century B.C. to 13th century A.D. seems obscured in Pali texts which speak of Sri Lankan history. At this juncture, archaeological studies are the only convincing sources to build up the ancient history of Sri Lankan Tamils which is in a state of deterioration.
in archaeological studies, among the evidences which Confirmed the language, script, settlement, state formation, royal dynasty, rulers, ruling territory, religion, deities worshipped, forms of deities, art, economy, trade, forging link etc of a race on chronological basis, inscriptions and coins are very significant. Of these though coins are not equal to inscriptions in providing extensive historical information, there is no doubt that the data obtainable from coins is reliable in the study of contemporary history. Coins regarded as mere artistic objects in the 12" century A.D. became to be treated as

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 5
important historical sources by Europeans in the 18"h century A.D. Though the importance of coins was felt in Asia in the 19th Century, much attention was focussed on coins only after 1950s in Sri Lanka. All those who studied the history, religion and culture of Sri Lankan Tamils have never failed to study coins to trace evidences. Since most of the researches held the view that there were no densely populated Tamil settlements in Sri Lanka before the 13" century A.D., they concluded that all Tamil coins of this period were from Tamil Nadu. The issue of coins by Sri Lankan Tamils during the period contemporary to the Sankam age in Tamil Nadu and the continuation of this tradition of issuing coins without interruption upto the European rule have been discussed chronologically with illustrations in this volume.
There are literary and archaeological evidences to prove that Royal dynasties and authorized men had had the privilege of issuing Coins since ancient times. As evidences have been obtained for the issue of coins by Sri Lankan Tamils from 3' century B.C., with the names of those who issued them, it has been stressed by producing appropriate, proofs that the views regarding the ancestry of Sri Lankan Tamils, their concentrated settlements, state formation, rulers of ancient time, the Socio economic and Cultural links between Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu etc should be reexamined. The last chapter of this volume provides a detailed account of Sri Lankan Tamils' history based on the evidences traced from Coins.
Though the discussions center round the data elicited from Coins issued by the Tamils of the ancient period which haven't been examined so far, the coins issued by the Ariyachchakkaravarthti kings who ruled Jaffna with Nallur as their capital in the latter part of the 13" century A.D. too have been included for study in the text. Most of the researchers who have studied these coins so far have reported that these kings had issued only copper coins with the sacred word "Setu" inscribed on them (Prof. S. Pathmanathan referring to the coin in the

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Boston Museum to justify his statement has stated that gold coins also could be issued by these kings). Some fresh information about these coins revealed never before has been put forward with sufficient proofs in this volume. Among them, the proofs to show that the Ariyachchakkaravarthti kings inscribed not only the name "Setu" but the names "Kanth" (Kanthan) and "Aa" (Arumukan) signifying their religious attachment also in their coins and that both copper coins and silver coins were issued by them, are important.
In contradiction to the stronghold of the notion that coins were issued by the Sri Lankan Tamils for the first time only after the 13th Century A.D., published articles and books in Tamil in Tamil Nadu to assert that the practice of issuing coins by them had begun in the very ancient times and my writings were recognized by Scholars of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka as undeniable facts. My teachers Professor of archaeology at the Tamil University of Thanjavur, Prof.Y Subbarayalu opined that theses coins are evidences of the origin of the state formation resembling that of the Sankam period among the Contemporary Sri Lankan Tamils. Prof. K. Rajan has pointed out that the asserted conclusion arrived at so far regarding the history of Sri Lankahas been made controversial by my findings. According to Prof. S. Pathmanathan, the studies on the ancient coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Coins have induced the scholars to revise the previous notion about the ancestry of Sri Lankan Tamils. My teacher Prof.S.K. Sitrampalam has mentioned in one of his works that my archaeological findings in mainland particularly in Vanni region have been a milestone in the study of the history of Sri Lankan Tamils. Another teacher of mine Prof .P. Ragupathy has expressed that these coins have been a good Source of evidence of the establishment of Tamil state in Northen Sri Lanka in the 6" century A.D.. I am pleased to declare that the frank comments of these scholars and their kind concern over me and heed on my work have persuaded me to bring out this extensive English version of my previous Tamil publication.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 17
This my foremost duty to remember with gratitude those who have been behind my success in bringing out this volume. When conducted archaeological explorations in Vanni region during 19891993 and in Thenmarachchi area in 1994, with the financial assistance from the University of Jaffna and Punakary MPCS, several archaeological remains including old coins could be Collected. In stated in the preface of the volume title "Punakary - An Archaeological Survey" written by me and published by the University of Jaffna in 1993 that all the archaeological remains discovered by me were not studied thoroughly in that volume and they would be examined and discussed in details when receiving proper facilities and Scope in futhure. I believe that I made the best use of the opportunities to engage myself in such studies during the period from 1997-2000 in Tamil Nadu. When I was a Ph.D. student in the Tamil University during this time, Prof. Y. Subbarayalu my research guide having examined, the photograhs of the coins collected by me advised me to include them in a chapter of my thesis. He also arranged to bring me a good rapport with archaeologists with remarkable abilities in South India. Scholars like Prof K.Rajan Professor of Archaeology of Tamil University and Dr.S.Rajagopal Epigraphist of State Archaeology Department, Tamil Nadu rendered further support in these pursuits. When Prof.S. Pathmanathan visited Tamil Nadu in 1997, he went through the photograhs of the coins and suggested me to write a book on the Sri Lankan coins. My attempt of bringing out books on Sri Lankan Tamils which are the very first publications of its nature, in Tamil and in English separately would never have materialized without the kind concern and encouragement from these scholars. I am greatly indebted to all of them at this hour of releasing this volume.
Many Tamil Nadu numismatists have supported me in proving that most of the Tamil coins of the period before 13" century A.D. found in Sri Lanka were issued by Sri Lankan Tamils, in Contradiction to the held long contention held that all those coins were brought to Sri Lanka from Tamil Nadu. My intimacy and exchange of views with Mr

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Alakkudi Seetharaman and his father the late Alakkudi Arumukam who had thousands ancient coins of Tamil Nadu in their possession and their assistance in my work are worth mentioning. A prominent numismatist is Tamil Nadu and the chief Editor of Thinamalar, a national Daily, Mr. R. Krishnamorthy, one of the leading epigraphists in Tamil Nadu, Iravatham Mahadevan and numismatist Sankar Raman gave me valuable suggestions and my sincere thanks are due to them.
I wrote this text with the assistance of my teacher colleagues and student friends, when I was engaged in research in Tamil Nadu. But its completion would never have been possible unless had had the valuable suggestions from Prof. V. Sivasamy and Prof. S.Suseendiraraja. These two Professors have been guiding me in my research pursuits since initial state and they channel my thoughts into the right direction. Further Prof.V.Sivasamy visiting the archaeological sites in Punakary encouraged me to involve in the work with more agility. I own a lot to both prodigies. I extend my deep thanks to Mr.V.Suntharation, my old student companies who has proofread this volume and a teacher of mine, Mr S. Krishnaraja and my wife Mrs. Nalini Pushparatnam who render me stalwart support in my work, always.
record my gratitudes to Professor P.Balasundarampillai, the vice-chancellor of the University who has offered all possible help to the book and written a message to the book, Dr. R. Nagaswamy formar Director of Archaeology, Government of Tamillnadu for writing a Foreword for the book, Professor P. Gopalakrishna lyar, Dean Faculty of Arts, Professor S.Saththiyaseelan one of my teacher for releasing me from duty to publish this book in Tamil Nadu and Mr.S.Sivaraja Registrar of Marriages in Canada, my uncle who has lavishly contributed to meet the most portion of the publication expenditure as he did so on the occasion of publishing my previous book and the administrators of the University who have borne part of the expenditure incurred in publishing this book,.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 19
I take pride in dedicating this volume to Professor Y. Subbarayalu, the most eminent archaeologist in South Asia, on the occasion of his 60" birth day. By conducting excavations at Kodumanal, Vallam and Periyapattinam etc in Tamil Nadu the professor illuminated the history of Tamil Nadu. He showed more keenness than others in studying the Tamil inscriptions, particularly Chola inscriptions. Next to Prof. Nilakanta Sastri in Tamil Nadu, he deserves great reputation for his active involvement in studying the history of Cholas in Tamil Nadu particularly on the basis of inscriptions as prime evidences. His books, "Political Geography of Chola Country" "A Concordance of the Names in the Chola Inscriptions", "Tamil Kalveddukalum Varalarum", Studies in Cholo History', 'Historical Glossery of Tamil Inscriptions' endorse his genius. The Professor who manifested his profundity in more than 11 countries, engaged in the study of inscriptions in Tamil Nadu and South East Asia together with the Sri Lankan, Indian and Japanese scholars. It's a pleasant sign that the he shows interest at present in studying the inscriptions discovered in Sri Lanka to reveal further truths regarding the clouded history of Sri Lankan Tamils. The Education received as a research student for three and a half years from him, guidance and experience gained are the stimuli behind my enthusiasm in publishing this volume which may throw a little light on the history of Sri Lankan Tamils supposed to be obscured before 13' century A.D.. Thus dedicate this, volume to my Guru who is addressed as Y.S affectionately by all, on the occasion of his 60" birthday.
Dept of History P. Pushparatanam University of Jaffna, Srilanka 27 July 2002

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Chapter One
Indian Coins and Sri Lankan Tamils
The origin of coins marks a turning point and a new era in the history of the world. Abundance in production results in increase of commercial enterprise and this said to be the cause for the emergence of coins. At the early stages barter system prevailed to exchange Commodities that one may possess and to procure goods he needed. All over the world the earliest system of exchange of commercial goods was through barter. During the megalithic period (800B.C. to 200A.D.) in Sri Lanka the prevalence of barter system is proved by the availability of South Indian potteries and stone gems. In exchange for the goods imported from India, pearls and precious gems were returned as attested by the notes in Kautily's Arthasastra. At a developed stage of barter the commodity which was available abundantly in a region was the chief item of exchange.
In South Asia cow was a denominator in commercial dealings. A price was fixed for the cow and the exchange of articles done on the basis of the cow price. The system worked well if the price of Commodities exchanged for cow-price was equal and problems arose when the cow-price went down or dwindled. So there arose a need to replace cow as the price denominator. Later cowries-shells and beads were in use to fix the price. These led to further development of coins in lead, copper, silver and gold.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 21
Coins in Inscriptions and Literature
The origin of coins in South Asia is a mystery as no tangible evidence is available to resolve questions such as of where, when and how the coins originated. Scholars give examples for the availability of coins with specific weight and size in the Indus Valley Civilization. No evidence of the later coins of the historic periods and their connection with the Indus culture is available. So it is not sure whether Coins existed during the hey-day of the Indus culture at all. Literary and epigraphical sources for the availability of coins since the 6th century B.C. are cited since Sanskrit, Tamil, Pali, and Sinhala. Depending on the language and the region several types of coins are known.
The Astadhyayi of Panini (c.500B.C.) gives the names of Several Coins as karsapana, niksa, Sadamana, pada, Vimsatika, darimsatika and kana (Gupta: 1969:6). karsapana was a coin made of gold, silver and copper. Patna (m) is a standard word to mean rupee in both Sanskrit and Tamil. Niksa was a coin with a figure carved on it. It was also known as rupa. Fractions of a standard unit of coin were known e.g. karsapatna ardhakarsapatna and padakarsapatna. If karsapana is one rupee, then ardha(half)- karsapana is half a rupee and pada (quarter) karsapana, quarter of a rupee. By the time of Panini minted coins were in circulation in India.
The origin of coins in Sri Lanka is linked with the Indian prototypes. The earliest coins were brought to the island from India. The later coins minted in in-land were imitations of the Indian coins. So the denomination of coins found in Sri Lankan sources is based on the Indian models, e.g. karsapana appears as kahavana in Pali literature (M.V.:XX: 3) kahapane in inscriptions (Paranavithana 1970: no.791) and kahavanu in Sinhala (Codrington 1924:13). The Tamil king Ellalan, is said to have donated 1500 kahavana to renovate a Buddhist monastery at Anuradhapura in the 2" century B.C (M.V.XXI:

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11-13). It is from then onward that coins figure prominently in Sri Lankan history.
Several words were used to denote coins e.g. kalakahapatna, sisakahapaņa, pada (pāda? quarter of a ropee), masaha and kakanika. These coins were minted by using metals such as agaha "silver" and japarupa "gold. Karisam and its weight denoted the colour of the coin by pada (Codrington 1924:13). Codrington has pointed out new Words in Sri Lankan Sources which denoted Coins.
In Tamil literature kaicu is the word that is on a par with pala. But kacu also means other articles e.g. ponceykaicu (Narrinai 274.4), polarikacu (Kuruntokai 67.4) and manikkacu (Nasrinai.66.9) which were ornaments. In a few contexts it stands for a metaphor or meant crime. Other words such as karnam, pon and manl and Karnam meaning money or coins came to usage very late. In medieval Tamil inscriptions the words meaning money or coin are akkam, accu, kācu, anrātamarkācu, lakkācu, akkarunikācu, kāņam, palaríkācu kusikai, cinnam, tiramam, pasmam, pon, ma fai and varäkan (Rajan 2000:Bhavani 2000:133).
Sri Lankan Coins in Histucal Research
The primary sources for rewriting South Asian history are literature, epigraphy, numismatics, archaeology, foreign notices and so on. The archaeological sources such as epigraphy and numismatics are of prime concern as far as ancient history is concerned. Numismatic sources may not offer extensive clues to write history but help to identify the names of kings, dynasties, chronology, religion, deities, iconographical forms of deities, art, official language (lingua franca), palaeography, script, economy, boundaries of kingdom and commerce both inland and foreign.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 23
The utility of coins for historical research was first realized by the historian of Kashmir, Kalhaņa (cf. his work Rājatarańgini), in the 12" century A.D. in modern times the realization came nearly 250 years ago. In Renaissance European coins were collected as antiquities and rarities. In India numismatics as a scientific discipline was cultivated by the British and other European historians in the later 19" century A.D. Today numismatics has reached the stage of a major academic discipline. No such maturity is seen in Sri Lanka.
Coins discovered in Sri Lanka since the mid-19" century A.D. are being subjected to investigation. The pioneers were the European civil servants of the English East Indian Company. It was Prensep's who began the study of Indian antiquities and Sri Lankan Coins. Simultaneously Rays Danids (1877), Bell, Geiger, Still and others extensively surveyed and studied coins and published several articles. Being Europeans, they evinced a keen interest in Greek and Roman
COS.
Parkar (1909, 1981) wrote about the coins which were collected in Mullattivu, followed by Peries (1919:45-60) who wrote about the coins of Kantarótai. Following these early attempts, research on northern Sri Lanka coins gained importance. The findings of these research were published in the Journal of Royal Asiatic Society Ceylon Branch, and Ceylon Antiquity and Literary Register in the 20" century. Codrington's The Ceylon Coins and Currency (1924) was the first book on Sri Lankan numismatics. Being the first of its kind, Several discrepancies are pointed out in it but it is the best-cited work which served as a model for later researches. The origin of coinage, its evolution, history, chronology, dynastic lineage, location of sites where the coins were found and such other aspects are outlined in this book. The book examines the coins issued by the Sri Lankan Tamil Kings after the 13" century A.D.

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24 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
In recent time a hoard of coins has been brought to light by field explorations and archaeological excavations. The new data provided the food for the researches of Professors Paranavithana, Srisoma, Amarasinghe, Welbury, Cribe, Gunasekara, Golathunghe and others (Bopearachchi 1999). A book written by Bopearachchi and Wikramasinghe in collaboration is considered to be of great value. The origin and evolution of Sri Lankan coinage and the availability of indigenous and foreign coins are surveyed in their work. A dating method for the recently discovered coins is suggested. In spite of all these merits this book is not as that of exhaustive as the pioneer Codrington.
Northern Sri Lankan Coins in Historical Research
Apart from the above broad-based approaches, local scholars, proficient in Tamil language and historical research, have done a lot of spadework on northern Sri Lankan coins. This may be due to the fact that the Tamils were living in the region from the immortal past and that the region was ruled by the Tamils from the 4ვth century A.D. Due to the untiring efforts of Prof. K. Indrapala, Prof.V.Sivasamy, Sri Sivanesasevan (Chief Editor of the daily, Tinakkural) and others the Jaffna Archaeological Society (Yappana Tolporuliya Kaakam) was founded in 1971. The society released a research journal, called Purvakala, and encouraged the discovery and research of Sri Lankan numismatics. Professor. V. Sivasamy published some valuable articles in the journal. The beginners' enthusiasm slowly dwindled in course of time.
in northern Sri Lanka coins of various periods from the punchmarked to European coins were discovered. The coins were spotted in various places; Vallipuram, Nakarkóvil, Puloli, Mattuvi, Manippai, Paņdattarippu, Tellippaļai, Kantarōtai, Tolpuram, Vattukkottai, Allaippittl, Maņkumpām, Nārantanai, Purkututīvu, Āņaikkōttai, Nalūr, Pūnakari, Mātōttam, Varaņi, Kaccāy, Udutturai, Mullaitīvu

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 25
and other places. Kantarótai, Punakari, Matóttam and Vallipuram yielded the maximum number of coins.
Mudaliyar Rasanayagam (1926), Swamy Gnanaprakasar (1930), Prof. K.Indrapala (1972) and Prof.S. Pathmanathan (1978, 1980) who examined the causes for the foundation of Tamil kingdoms in Northern Sri Lanka have taken the coins into Serious account. In their efforts, they had depended more on coins of the middle ages and not of the earlier periods. Among studies, which took into serious account the coins of ancient period, are those of Prof.V.Sivasamy (1974), Mr. S. Krishnarajah (1983) and Seyone (1998). These deal with the coinage of ancient period in Sri Lanka specially in Jaffna. These studies are mostly region-based. These treat the coins from the most ancient to the British period in respect of land, dynasty, rulers, and chronology. Dr. P. Ragupathy (1987) in his book Early Settlements in Jaffna which is on archaeology, talks of the coins discovered by him with reference to chronology and historical significance. Prof S.K. Sitrampalam's work, Ancient History of Jaffna written in Tamil, considers the numismatic sources for accounts of political, economic and cultural histories.
The present author published a number of articles in recent times i.e. in 1998, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c, 2000a, and 2000b. These articles and the books (Pushparatnam 2000, 2001) emphasize the fact that the Tamils of Sri Lanka like th, air ancestors in Tamil Nadu had issued coins of their own. His generalizations are based on scientific evidences, which are irrefutable. Following the footsteps a number of other scholars (e.g. Kalainani, Tiruvalluvar, Ponnampalam and others) : have collected a hoard of ancient coins in Northern Sri Lanka. All these coins still remain virgin and have not been thrown open to historical research. If an attempt is hmade to analyse the coins from the regional-sub-regional points of view more light could be thrown on the people who lived and live in Northern Sri Lanka.

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26 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Tamil Coins in Historical Research
Historical research in Sri Lanka has highlighted the Connections between the Tamils of the island with the Tamils of the mainland-Tamil Nadu. The ingredients for such an approach were the close links between the two groups on the basis of their heritage in race, language, script, religion, the arts and other aspects of civilization. The impact of the Tamil-mainland on Sri Lankan Tamils for more than 2000 years of history may be due to such a close semblance. Even though there are commonalties in the cultural tradition of Tamil Nadu and its people, during the historical stages of progression from period to period, based on dynasty (e.g. indigenous Pandya-Côa and the incoming Vijayanagara-Nayaka), region and sub-region, certain individual characteristics could be discerned (e.g. Malayalam influence in Kanniyakumari, Telugu influence in North Arcot and Kannada influence near Bangalore). Such an influence among Sri Lankan Tamils may be said to have occurred due to the presence of Buddhism and Pali literature. Scholars who studied the history of Sri Lankan Tamils have over-emphasised such impacts. But in fact the Tamils in course of their tryst with history making would have had their own regional traits and ancient historical traditions. This aspect will have to be emphasised and reemphasised to locate the place of Tamils in Sri Lankan history. The recent archaeological discoveries and the remains of historical monuments very well augment such an approach. Numismatics played a vital role in isolating the Tamil element in Sri Lankan historical tradition.
The numismatics of Sri Lanka may be broadly divided into two categories: indigenous and foreign. Foreign includes not only those from the Indian mainland but also those of the . Graeco-Roman, Arabian, Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch and British. Numerically superior among the alien coins are from India, particularly from Tamil Nadu. Among the indigenous coins those issued by the Sri Lankan Tamils, inscribed with the name 'Sétu' during the 13" century A.D. to. early 17

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 27
century A.D., are taken into account as of Tamil origin while others are Considered as Sinhalese. Such an antiquated thesis is being propagated from the British period to the contemporary time. It may be due to the fact that the coins bear names, family insignia and emblems, typical of the Sinhalese Buddhists. On this basis, Codrington is of opinion that the Sinhalese kings issued coins from 2nd century A.D. Bopearachchi (1999) has pushed back the origin of Sinhalese coins further beyond the date specified by Codrington.
On the basis of a few emblems and graffiti-marks, Parkar (1981) opined that 100 years ago that a ruler, named Ellal, an who came from Tamil Nadu was the issuing authority some of coins especially Luskmi coin. His opinion was taken into serious account. On the other hand, all Sri Lankan coins down to the 13" century A.D. were supposed to have been brought from Tamil Nadu. It has been recently asserted that long before the Sinhalese rulers released coins in Sinhala or Sanskrit, the Tamils had accomplished it (Pushparatnam 2000, 2001). Comparing the Sri Lankan coins with those in Tamil Nadu on the basis of the shape of coins, the emblem carved and the places where they were in circulation such a generalization was arrived at. To comprehend this problem it is essential to have a glimpse of the historical research methods employed in the study of Sri Lankan Tamil coins.
During the remote past when barter system prevailed it was thought that coins were not in usage in Tamil Nadu but at the same time another contrary opinion prevailed to the effect that the Muventar and minor chiefs issued coins. This idea was aired either boldly or hesitantly. To better state the problem, it is better to have an idea of the type of research on the subject.
The first attempt on the numismatics of Tamil Nadu was undertaken by Walter Elliot (1958:220-249, 74-79) who wrote two articles successively in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science,

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28 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
under the title "Numismatic Gleaning'. He had illustrated his finding with 149 facsimile of coins in Tamil belonging to various historical periods which find place in this pioneering study. Noted among them are coins of the Carikam period rulers; e.g. Pandya, Cola, Cera and Malayaman. The author did not call them Carikam coins but as the most ancient Buddhist coins. Elliot's book on South Indian Coins, published in 1886, is another landmark in the numismatic history of South India. It included flashes of insight on coins of the Pallava, later Cõla (i.e. Vijayālaya line) and later Pāņçdya (what Nilakanta Sastri calls First and Secound Empires to distinguish from Carikam Pandya). Photographic illustrations of the coins were presented in the book. During subsequent researches, the findings of Elliot were disputed but the fact that he was the founder of numismatic research stands Well justified.
Following Elliot, the most significant progress in numismatic research took place under the initiative of Tafnell a British scholar, He wrote two articles on "Hints to Coins Collectors in Southern India..' in 1886-87 in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science. The first article makes a note of coins available in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Important among them are coins of the Cashkam Pandyas from Madurai. Following Elliot, he remarked that these were very ancient Buddhist coins (Tufenel 1886-1887:33-137). Another article by James (i887-1888: 138-144) in the above Journal on Pandyan coins is of great value. Most of these coins were in circulation in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka during the 10"-12" century A.D. Those coins from the two countries are typologically different. Unable to find out the regional peculiarities, those of Lanka are called Ceylonese type of Pandyan
COS. ,
Two more books by Father Levandas (1888) and Desikacharya of Tiruchirappalli (1933) are further advancements in numismatic research. These books include illustrations of coins from the Carikam age to the medieval times, mostly by rulers of the Tamil

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 29
country. The most ancient coins of Cashkam period are called Pandyan coins in these works. Among the scholars who worked on Coins of dynastic lineage, the most distinguished was the British Scholar, Biddulph. His book on Panaya Coins published by the numismatic society of India in 1966, presents a connected account of Pāņdya contribution from the Carikam period to the 13" century A.D. He published the imprints of the coins also. The author isolated the coins from Northern Sri Lanka and specified their importance. But he did not Consider them as Coins of the island rulers but Subscribed to the already prevailing notion that these were either brought from Tamil Nadu or minted by the Pandyas in Sri Lanka. He has not noted any of the peculiar coins of the island that may be found in Tamil Nadu.
Chattopadyay's book on South Indian Coins (1977) provides rich data on Pallava, Pandya and Cola coins in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. R. Nagaswamy's work on Tamil Coins is an elaborate work which classifies the material chronologically from period to period. The Casikam coins were re-examined by the author, taking into account the recently discovered ones. Of the scholars who worked on Casikam coins, the most outstanding was the chief Editor of the Tamil daily, Tinamalar, R. Krishnamurthy (1984, 1986, and 1998). He began his work by writing in Tamil on coins of Muventar of Carikam period and Malayaman chiefs and later published a book on coins in English in 1997. His was the first book on coins of the Cashkam rulers of the Tamil country. He points out with authentic evidence the coins issued by minor chiefs in addition to those of Muventar. He was also the first scholar to identify several of the Carikam coins discovered in Northern Sri Lanka which remained unidentified for a pretty long time (Krishnamurthy 1997).
Nadanakasinathan's book on Tamilar Kacuiyal in Tamil (1995) is an attempt to analyse the finds in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Though the title of the book talks the Tmail's coins, it takes into

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30 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
aCCOunt all which were discovered in Tamil Nadu, both inland and foreign, and classifies them according to dynasty, country and chronology. Nadanakasinathan (1995) has discussed the coins which were discovered during his tenure as Director of the state Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu. These new additions add to Our existing knowledge on the subject.
Mitctohiner (1998) was a devoted scholar who spent his lifetime for studies of Sri Lankan and South Indian coins. His finding came out in book form under the title, Chronology and History of South Indian Coins. The specialty of the work is that it as a digest of all coins found in Northern Sri Lanka, classifies them on the basis of chronology and dynasty as Cera, Cóla, Pandya, Pallava coins and so on. The photocopies of the coins are also published. Though the coins from Northern Sri Lanka differ from their counterparts in Tamil Nadu in respect of shape, emblems and engravings, Mictohiner, falling in line with his predecessor Tufnel, connects them with Tamil Nadu to trace the origins. His hesitation is clear when he is unable to pinpoint the alien origin for Northern Sri Lankan coins with regard to chronological precision and present proper historical circumstances for migration. Yet his approach helps to identify the northern Sri Lankan coins and isolate them from those in Tamil Nadu.
Among the new entrants in the field of numismatics, the young Scholar Alakkudi Arumuka Seetharaman deserves to be noted. Engaged as a coin gatherer at the fag end of his teen-age, he Conducted fieldwork in various parts of Tamil Nadu and has a personal Collection of thousands of coins. Selecting the Tamil's coins for his investigation, the author has published a number of articles in dailies. His articles exceed 250 in number. His studentship with Iravatham Mahadevan enabled him to decipher the letter and scripts in coins. So today he is one among those gifted scholars who could study numismatics in the context of palaeography. The identification of place names, names of deities and sea vessels which appear in coins signify

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 31
the broad-based dimension of his study. He has linked the “Setu' coins of Tamil rulers of Northern Sri Lanka with the later Marava Coins of Tamil Nadu (Seetharaman 1989). His contributions to Archaeological Sources of Tamil Nadu, Vol.1 and the forthcoming Vol. 2 and his collaboration with Sankar Raman for a study of Pallava Coins are welcome contributions to numismatic studies. He is in possession of more number of coins which remain to be examined than those which were already studied and reported. If all such coins are investigated Tamil numismatics shall acquire a new perspective in the near future.
in the recent past a number of papers have been published on coinage of the Tamil country, based on data collected from excavations, explorations and those which were discovered in distant countries. The works by the following scholars are noteworthy. There are P.Shanmugam, K. Rajan, Tirunanasambanthan, K. Balasubramaniyam, Bavani and others. Some of the articles question the existing antiquated theories regarding the origin, migration and usage and show the way to new interpretations (Shanmugam 1994:95-100, Rajan 2000:114-118). Bavani (1998, 1999, 2000) gives a comparative approach by taking into account numismatic evidences vis-a-vis epigraphic sources. Such a formula approach helps to rewrite Sociocultural history from a new direction.
All the evidences produced so far prove beyond doubt that coins in Tamil Nadu were in usage since at least the Cashkam age. The Pallavas issued their coins, inscribed with the insignia of their royal family and this practice was followed by the successive generations of rulers. So it is easy to identify their coins without any difficulty. During the pre-Pallava period mostly emblems (e.g. bow, arrow, and tiger) Were inscribed on coins and so initial hurdles were faced in
identification. In recent times hoards of coins have been unearthed from various places: e.g. Karur, Kavirippumpattinam, Madurai, uraiyūr, Korkai, Arikkamēdu Tirukkōvalūr, Aļakankuļam and other places.

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32 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
The material evidences attest the prevalence of two types during the Cańkam age, viz., punch-marked and warped coins. Warped coins were issued not only by the Muventar but also by the minor chiefs such as Malayaman. The family emblems of the rulers are found on the reverse of coins; e.g. fish for Pandya, tiger for Cölla, arrow and bow for Céra, river for Malayaman. In a few instance the names of kings are recorded; e.g. Peruvaluti, Atinninetirancentain, Kollipurai, Kolirumpuraiy. A few coins include the portrait of the king also as in Roman types. Good examples are the coins of Mākkōtai and Kuttuvankõtai (Seetharaman 1994:1-15, Krishnamurthy (1997: 97-105). The coins on commercial missions were taken abroad as a few Cola coins have been reported from Thailand (Shanmugam 1994. 95-100) and those of Cölla, and Pandya in Sri Lanka (Pushparatnam 1998: 114- 119).
The foregoing study supplies evidences of the migration of coins from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka. But the question whether all coins found in the island were imported from Tamil Nadu is open for debate. No research has focussed on this crucial problem upon which the identity of the Tamil rulers in the island and their sovereign status depend. Efforts to assign the authorship of all Sri Lankan coins to Tamil Nadu are not fair. Therefore there is need to explain and explore the problem of Sri Lankan coins from the above point of view.

Chapter Two
Brahminscribed Coins of the Tamils
In South Asian numismatic research, numismatic sources are classified under three heading namely Punch-marked coins die Coins and inscribed coins. In Sri Lanka the earliest available are the punch-marked Coins, as is the case in India. The earliest of the punch-marked coins were found in India from the 6" century B.C. while these are dated since the 3" century B.C. in Sri Lanka (Pakar 1981:463-474, Codrington 1924:11-17, Bopearachchi 1999:21). The punch-marked coins were supposed to have come to South India and then to Sri Lanka from North India. But now-a- days scholars think that these originated in the Island-country itself (Codrington 1924:16 -17). Terracotta moulds used to warp the coins have been discovered in Sri Lanka at several places like. Anuradhapura, and Akorugoda (Deraniyagala 1972: 150, Bopearachchi 1999.pl.25). Such moulds have also been found at Amaravati in Andhradesa and Kaficipuram in Tamil Nadu (Raman & Shanmugam 1991:23-29). Besides the terracotta moulds, metallic moulds were discovered at Karur, which was a capital of the Cafikam Cērās (Seethuraman 1994:14). The punch-marked coins are said to have been issued by the Triarchy of the ancient Tamil country, called Muventar. Their dynastic emblems are found on them (e.g. fish of Pandya, tiger of Cóla and bow of Céra (Krishnamurthy 1997.pl. 1). These coins of Tamil Nadu bear figures of the Sun with twelve rays instead of sixteen rays as in the North Indian tradition (Gupta 1966:43). The Sri Lankan coins show traces of Tamil influence and so the punch-marked coins are likely

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34 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
to have been brought to the Island from Tamil Nadu. But no scholarly effort has been taken to consider this point seriously.
Recently four punch-marked silver coins were discovered at Kantarótai which are considered on the basis of the naga "snake' motifs found on them to have been issued by the Naga chiefs of Nagadipa (i.e.Jaffna in Sri Lanka). This is pointed out by S. Krishnaraja (1998:65-72). The punch-marked coins of Sri Lanka are considered to be of local origin, mainly on the basis of the inscribed emblems, which differ from the North and South Indians coins. In a few of the Sri Lankan punch-marked coins no emblem is found inscribed (Codrington 1924:17). The terracotta moulds of such coins have been recently discovered (Bopearachchi 1999: 31, pl.25). The coins moulded by these devices are mostly in copper. But Krishnaraja has noted silver coins. Such silver coins have been reported from various parts of Sri Lanka, including Jaffna, and from many parts of India. The naga motifs have been found in Sri Lanka and in the sixteen Mahajanapada period (preMauryan) coins in India (Parkar 1981:471-472, Codrington 1924: 16-17, Handa 1985:9-38, Gupta 1969:8, Sharma 19990:pl.52, nos. A-C, Pushparatnam 2000:172-182). While talking about the origin of Such type of coins vis-a-vis the Nagadipa dynasty of Sri Lanka, it is imperative to take into account other evidences both from the island and the Indian mainland.
Following the punch-marked coins in India, the island Country also issued die coins with or without inscriptions. It is held for a long time that these have been issued in Sri Lanka itself without any Indian influence. Recent archaeological excavations and field explorations have yielded evidences of Brahmi script on such coins since the 2" century B.C. (Bopearachchi 1999:15-64). Prakrit and North Brahmi (Asokan Brahmi) are found on seals so far discovered in Tamil Nadu but the coins use Tamil Brahmi (Krishnamurthy 1997. Seetharaman 1994). The present author's

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 35
research has taken into Consideration Coins with Tamil names and a few in Prakrit which were issued by the Sri Lankan Tamils. The ancient history of Sri Lanka is based on literary sources in Pali and Sri Lankan Brahmī inscriptions. It is through these sources that the historical sketches of ancient Tamil rulers in Sri Lanka, merchants, armed soldiers (the army) and the people at higher level of society are discerned (M.V.XXI:!-33, 1-106, Paranavithana 1970:nos. 94, 356-357, 480, Seneviratne 1985:49-54). Though these names are of the Tamils, most of them are in Prakrit or which had undergone a process of Prakritization. Few such names also denote people who are non Tamils. Such names are known from numismatic sources. The present author strives to prove with due reference to other sources that all these pertain to the Tamils of the ancient period.
The first discoveries of COinS with Brahmi letters Were from Kantarotai (Seyone 1998: 84) followed by those from Anuradhapura (Conningham 1999:73-97). In Southern Sri Lanka such coins were found at Akurugoda (Bopearachchi 1999:51-67). Seyone a numismatist who was the first to discover the Kantarótai coins questioned whether they were really inscribed with letters and suggested that these might have been issued by the Colas of the Cankam Age. Krishnaraja (1998:51-52) who conducted field work recently at Kantarotai claims to have discovered a coin with the Brahmi script Siva (Civa). An Anglo-German team of numismatists who worked in collaboration brought to light a few stone goldsmiths' mould, clay sealing, and coins and terracotta moulds with early Brahmī inscriptions. In one such clay cealing the word, Parumaka, is found (Coningham 1992:165). This is likely to be the Tamil title, Perumakan (man of the high society, great man or hero), which seems to have been Prakritisation. The feminine form of the word, Parumakal is found in eight inscriptions (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 148, 260, 331, 910, 1096). Such coins

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36 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
have been discovered in Akurugoda in large numbers and in different types.
Akurugoda is situated in the land of the ancient metropolis of Southern Sri Lanka in Ruhuna district. During the glorious period when Anuradhapura was the political Centre, Ruhuna was a province and an important commercial base. This is attested to by many sources in Pali literature, epigraphs, and travel accounts of foreign visitors. The petty chiefs of Ruhuna region later became rulers of the island kingdom itself, which is attested by indigenous Sources. During a recent house building activity at Akurugoda certain artifacts were unearthed. Among the finds are rare stonegems of the Megalithic period, earthen pots, terracotta figurines, Seals, Stone gems inscribed with ornate (human, animal and vegetation) motifs, foreign coins of different period and so on. When these artifacts were sold by the local people in the Common market, a numismatist Rajah Wickremesinhe bought the important materials which became the subject-matter of his research in Collaboration with the Sri Lankan Scholar, settled in France, Osmund Bopearachchi who later published a book on the subject in 1999. It is in this work that the Brahmī inscribed coins are published with photographs. Since most of these numerous Coins are in lead, the letters are much defaced. Nearly forty coins are legible enough for reading and research. All these are datable to the period from the 2" century B.C. and 2" century A.D and found at Akurugoda (Bopearachchi 1999:15). These are the earliest coins so far reported from Sri Lanka. They are said to be the earliest after the coins of the time of Panaya Peruvaluti (Mahadevan 2000). These coins are the repositories of data bearing on the early history of Sri Lanka in respect of Script, language, people and culture. In two of these coins, Tamil Brahmi. letters occur according to Bopearachchi. In fact there are several such coins with Tamil characters which Bopearachchi could not read because he was not conversant with the Tamil language.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 37
Dr. Rajan of the Tamil University in Tamil Nadu who attended a seminar on numismatics in Colombo procured a Copy of the book by Bopearachchi and pointed out its relevance in historical research and encouraged me to do further work on the Subject. I analysed the coins bearing Tamil inscriptions alone and in consultation with Prof.Y.Subbarayalu of the Tamil University conducted a seminar on this subject. Later Prof. K. Sivathamby published one of my articles in a research journal (Pushparatnam 1999:55-70). Later, I selected the important coins and published two articles one in Tamil and another in English in collaboration With the numismatic Alakkudi Arumugha Seetharaman (Pushparatnam 1999, 2000). These were further examined by an expert epigraphist Sriravatham Mahadevan (2000, 2000a) who published two articles in English and Tamil. But his ideas regarding the author of the coin and the inscriptional notes present contradictions. In the present work, these aspects are elaborated and new light is shed on them. In the present work, I have made use of the line drawings and other data from the pioneering publication of Bopearachchi.
Coin-1 (Code A-21)
The coin measures 2.03 grams and its diameter is 0.15 mm. The obverse of the coin is illustrated with a floral decoration While the reverse includes a Svastika emblem and four Brahmi letters. Bopearachchi (1999:56) has read the letters as Utirana. Utirana is likely to be a proper name of an individual. It ends with the termination 'an' which is characteristic of Tamil. Such 'an terminations are very common with the names of men in Tamil Brāhmī inscriptions and potsherds. In Tamil Brāhmī the uyirmey ( vowel Consonants), akara-akara characters are of the same cadre (Mahadevan 2000:117). So what Bopearachchi read as Utiana has to be read as Utiran (Figure-1).

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38 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
(Figure-1).
This name is supposed to have been derived from the Tamil lunar asterism Uttiram (Rajagopal 1991). It may be noted that there are three naksatras with the prefix, Uttara. They are Uttara-phalguni, Uttarasadha and Uttarabhadrapada (Basham 1971:492). In several Brahmī inscriptions from Sri Lanka the words Uta (ti) ra, Utiya and Uti occur (Paranavithana 1970:nos.202, 349, 538, 958) (Figure-2). The name Uttiran is found in a potsherd from Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu (Mahadevan 1996.315).
(Figure-2).
The 'an' suffix has so far been regarded as an exclusive usage in Tamil Nadu and not a usage in Sri Lankan Brahmi inscriptions. So, Mahadevan was of the opinion that such coins Could have been introduced to Sri Lanka by merchants who went
 
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 39
there from Tamil Nadu. But an insular origin of the 'an' termination
is possible if other evidences from Sri Lanka are taken into
account. But the 'an' termination has been found in potsherds at PÖnakary in Northern Sri Lanka (Pushparatnam 1993:40). Prof.S.
Paranavithana has brought to light a few inscriptions from
Sittulpava and Anuradhapura which read as Marumakana and
Marumakane. The suffix "na" and "ne' in these cases are likely to
be "na' and "ne'. So the inscriptional words are Marumakan and
Marumase which are typical Tamil words (Pushparatnam 2000: 1
10) meaning son-in-law (cf.Tiruppavai no. 18 uses the feminine
form, Marumakal). On this basis Utiran could be treated as a name Connected with the Sri Lankan Tamils of those timeS.
Coin-2 (Code A-37)
The coin measures 2.14 grams and its diameter is 0.14mm. The obverse depicts a Cakra (disc)-like object. The reverse has a circle in its center with a dot inside and five Brahmi letters are found along the brim-line. Bopearachchi (1999:59) reads the letters as (Ta) sapijana. It could be read better as Tasapijan if due stress is placed on the suffix, 'an. Iravatham Mahadevan presents a different interpretation of this name. He opines that the first uyirmey is illegible and that it may be “ti” and the fifth may be "ta'. So the word will have to be read as Tisapifan and in literary convention it is known as Tisa-pittan (Mahadevan 2000). In support of his interpretation, Mahadevan cites other evidences from the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions in Tamil Nadu, e.g. Tican in a potsherd of Alakankulam, Tiyan in Alakarmalai cave and Piffan (Pițana) in Końkarpuļiyankuļam cave. In Brāhmī inscriptions, the letters 'ha', 'ta' and ja' are of the same character or script. 'ta' is a half circle in form, ja' in square or in the centre a line inwardly bent and the half circle in a square form is 'ha', in Tamil Brahmi inscriptions "ha', and 'ta' alone appear. In Sri Lankan inscriptions all three appear, including ja'. On this tasis

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40 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
what appears in inscriptions of Sri Lanka as Pittan will have to be logically deciphered as 'Pijan. Mahadevan is of opinion that tasa should be tisa but in Sri Lankan Brahmi inscriptions tasa was also in usage (Paranavithana 1970:no.389). Tasa in Sanskrit gives the meaning "his". So TaSapijan of the coin might give the meaning "coin of Pijan (Figure-3).
(Figure-3)
Coin-3 (Code A-20)
The coin measures 2.56 grams and its diameter is 0.16mm. The obverse illustrates a flower and the reverse is Carved with a small circle with a dot inside. Along the brim-line of the reverse eight Brahmi letters appear. These letters read Kapatikaiapo (Bopearachchi 1999:54-55). The author has not given the meaning of the word. If the suffix "po' is read as "an", it could be treated as the name of a man. On this basis the present one could be treated as a Tamil proper name as in the previous two inscriptions. So the name is likely to be Kapati kajapan (Figure-4).
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 4.
(Figure-4)
Kapati might be a title or epithet and gives the meaning "leader of a house or family'. A record from Anuradhapura refers to the Tamil name kapati (Paranavithana 1970:no.94). It might be the equal of another title, known as Kutumpikan. The Tirupparasikunram inscription in Tamil Nadu has a reference to the Tam chief, Kutumpikan (Mahadevan 1966:no51). Kajapan is likely to be a variant of the title "Kapati. Kjapa (more specifically Gaja) means 'elephant' in Sanskrit. So Kajapa might denote the chief of an elephantry force of the caturariga "four armed divisions' of those times. One of the senior Indian epigraphists, Rajavelu, considering the ja' of the record as 'ta' reads 'he name as Katalan instead of "Kajapan'. To support his argument, he cites an example from the Marikulam inscription in Tamil Nadu which gives the name Katala(a)n Mahadevan (2000:) is also of the same opinion and treats it on a par with the name in Mankulam inscription.
In the history of Sri Lanka it is not unusual to find Kasapa as a proper name which is evidenced by epigraphs and Pali literature. The Kaśaba and Kaśapa of Sri Lankan Brāhmī inscriptions(Figure-5) (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 93, 671,376, 983)

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42 Dr. P. Pushparatnahm .
appear Tamilised in Tamil Brahmi inscriptions as Kasapan
(Kasapan) and Kácipan (Mahadevan 1966:7).
(Figure-5)
The same names appear in two forms in Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu. The letter ja' appears in the coins and the Sri Lankan Brahmi inscriptions, e.g. raja "king' and maharaja 'great king' (Paranavithana: nos. 4, 11, 20, and 1207). The form of the letter 'ja' in Sri Lanka gets closer to the form of 'ta' in Mafikulam inscriptions in which case the line on right side is recessed and the line on left side is elevated. This is common character of 'la' in Brahmī inscriptions. The same type of script is reported from the coins in which the right line is elevated and the left recessed. This type of representation is 'ha' both in the Indian and Sri Lankan tradition. The letter appears in Tamil Nadu in one of potsherd discovered in the Alakankulam excavation and not in other places (Mahadevan 1994a: 5, Rajagopal 1991). So the word found in coin 3(Code A20) is to be read as Kapati Kajapan.
Coin-4 (Code A-17)
The coin measures 2.19 grams and its diameter is 0.17mm. Its obverse illustrates a rooster in profile, turning to the
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 43
right. The reverse is represented with a Svastika in the centre and along the brim-line there are six Brahmi letters. (Figure-6) Bopearachchi (1999:54-55) reads the word as Makacitapo for which no meaning is given. As in the previous case if the terminal of the word could be treated as ending in "an", the correct reading
should be Mahacattan.
(Figure-6)
Cattan is a familiar proper name in Carikam literature and several Tamil Brahmī inscriptions. The word gives several meanings such as merchant, leader of a merchant guild and a personal name. Cattan (Sasta in Sanskrit is also the name of a god, better called Hariharaputra son of Hari-Visnu and HaraSiva). Kovalan's the hero of Cilappatikaram (1.1.33) whose
fathers name is Macattuvan or Macattu. He is noted as a god too in Cilappatikaram (1.9.15) and is called pacantac-Cattan (Sasta holding pasa "noose') (cf. Subrahmanian 1990:354-355).
In the Mahavamsa, the Sri Lankan chronicle, the Tamil king of Anuradhapura, called Ellāļan (Elāra in Pāli literature), is said to have defeated another Tamil chieftain, Cattan even before

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44 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
he was defeated by Duttakamini in the 2" century B.C. (M.V.XXV: 7). This is a clear proof of the prevalence f the name,
Cattan, among the Sri Lankan Tamils. The prefix, maha, is
honorary and this appears as "maha' or 'maka' in connection with names of kings or chieftains (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 117, 118) and also of gods and goddesses in India (e.g. Mahavishu, Mahalaksmi). Maha means great, greatness, high, immeasurable and so on (T.L.V. 7). In southern Sri Lanka a general called Mahakottan is said to have fought a war on behalf of Ellafan (M.V.XXV. 11). In this name Maha denotes a great warrior. It is an equal of the Carikam hero perumcattan (Kuruntokai .263) These are pointers to the fact that in ancient Sri Lanka names with the prefix maha and maka were popular. The name in coin 4, MahaCattan might denote a big merchant or trade guide or a mighty hero or warrior or it might be a proper name and denotes an individual.
Mahadevan is of opinion that the mould of the coin Could have been wrongly warped in the mirrored pattern (i.e. a letter as seen in a mirror) and so what should have been "ca' is shown as
"Ce'. He gives a corrected version of the word as Malacatana, which in literary expression becomes Mallacattan. In support of his argument he refers to Ma() lan appearing in the Alakarmalai and Cã(t)tan appearing in the Tirupparańkunram inscription (Mahadevan 2000).
A few of the ancient inscriptions and seals appear as if though a glass or mirror because the letters on the moulds were written by hand, a kind of chirography. Such systems prevailed not only in Tamil Nadu but also in Sri Lanka; e.g. the bilingual seal of Anaikkottai (Ragupathy 1987:118-119) and coins of Akurugoda (Bopearachchi 1999:59). In case of coins 4 certain errors are discernible whether looked through a mirror or with naked eyes.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 45
So in a particular case (as in coin 4)a few letters could not be treated as looked through a mirror and others with naked eyes. No Such evidence has so far been reported. The syllables or Words, maha and Catta, are very clear. These two repeatedly appear in Sri Lankan Brāhmī inscriptions (Paranavithana 1970:nos. /117, 896b)(Figure-7). The Sanskrit maha appears in Tamil language aS
makā, replacing “hā’ with “kā.
(Figure-7)
According to Mahadevan the 'ha' letter is to be read as appearing in a mirror. He has treated it is 'la'. This interpretation can not be accepted. In all inscriptions and coins found in Tamil Nadu "la" is a semi-circle with a curve below. If the Curve in 'la' is square then it will have to be read as 'ha'. On this basis the letter in Alakankulam potsherd is read as "ha' (Mahadevan 1994a: 5). This basic ear-mark is found not only in Sri Lanka but also in Tamil Nadu. The word "mala' appearing in the Alakarmalai inscriptions is cited as an example to treat 'maha' as "mala'. But in Sri Lanka "maha' and 'mala' appear in the same inscriptions and coins (see coin-5). The difference between 'la' and 'ha' in their forms is clear in such cases. So it is better to read the first two letters as 'maha' and not "malla'. It is also said that the 'an' termination will have to be read by direct observation and not as read through a mirror. In any case it is not wrong to read it as "an'. A few alternatives in the usage of 'an' are found in Sri Lankan Brahmi also. These may be

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46 : Dr. P. Pushparatnam
due to errors committed by scribes who could not follow the scientific guidelines at the early stage of the introduction of Brahmi. Rajagopal (1991) gives examples to support this.
In Tamil Brahmi inscriptions the presence of maha and maka is not noticed. So the name in coin 4 is of a typical Sri Lanka order and falls in tune with its language, script and literature, partly imbibing the Tamil tradition of Cattan. So it will have to be read as mahâCâttan and not MallaCâttan. Malla means heroism (Mallan "hero", cf. Mamalian or Mahamallan, Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty) and maha means "great. In case of the inscriptions the word Cattan (of coin 4) may better to be taken
mean a great merchant (cf. Macattn of Cilappatikaram, Supra) and not a heroic merchant.
Coin-5 (Code A-11)
The coin measures 2.14 grams and its diameter is 0.17mm. The obverse is carved with the figure of a human being, supposed to bear a javelin and an arrow in two of his arms. But in fact one of the hands holds a trisula "trident. It was added that if the coin could be viewed at 45 ' to the left, the figure could be identified with that of an animal (struck?) with a javelin. (Figure-8) The reverse of the coin illustrates a trident, encircled by six letters, read by Bopearachchi (1999:53). as Malakatisaha. It should be Malaka tisaha.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 47
(Figure-8)
In literary tradition double onru (consonants) is a Common pattern in Tamil Brāhmī and so what appears as “malaka' in the coin could be read as "malaka'. Bopearachchi treats the Word to mean a clan leader or hero of the Sanskritic tradition. ACCOrding to a famous a linguist, Burrow (1961:3871) Mallan is a pure Dravidian word meaning hero (supra). The weapons depicted in the coin Confirm the idea that the word should stand for a hero.
in Sri Lankan Prakrit inscriptions the words Mallaha, Mallasa and Mallan (Figure-9) appear (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 202, 1148, 1183) which in Tamil coins appear as Mallaka. This is an important deviation. The trisula appearing in the reverse of the coin is quite common in the Indianones, especially in the coins of Carikam period (Krishnamurthy 1997:80-90). Tisa is a Prakrit name but Tamils of those time also took this name. A good corroborative evidence is the word, "Tican found in a potsherd of Alakankulm in Tamil Nadu (Rajagopal 1991). A Sri Lankan inscription from Kutuvil in Amparai district gives the name, Tisa Calated around the 2" century B.C.) who was a native of Tisavavi (Paranavithana 1970: no. 480). An inscription from Anuradhapura refers to a mandapa "pavilion' built by a Tamil merchant guild

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48 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
where a Tamilian by name, Tisa, was present at a gathering (Paranavithana 1970:no.94). According to a Pãli literary source (M.V.XXXV: 48-50) a son of Ifanaka by the chief queen,
Tami/åtévi (Tamiltèvi, tevi = Skt. devi ), was ruling at Anuradhapura in the 2" century A.D. for eight months. His name was Tisa. All these evidences serve to confirm the notion that a non-Buddhist Tamil Malaka-tiSaha had issued the coin-5 (Code Α11).
(Figure-9) Coin-6 (Code A-25)
The coin measures 2.03 grams and its diameter is 0.17mm. The obverse shows a figure which resembles a tiger and
(Figure-10)
 
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 49
the reverse consists of five Brahmi letters. This could be read as Cuợaạakaśa.
in forty Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka, the words Cuga, Cufa and Cula, appear as names of clan or titles or personal names. The Tamil 'la' becomes 'ta'in Sanskrit according to the Buddhist Tamil lexicographic work, Viracoliyam. So some think that it stands for the Cola (Ragupathy 1991) a powerful ruling dynasty in Tamil Nadu. This is supported by the edicts of Asoka which refer to Cola as Coga (Huitzsch 1969:XXXXX). An inscription. from Ceruvil in Sri Lanka, dated the 2" century B.C. gives the Tamil name Cuda (Seneviratne 1985:52). Other inscriptions of the contemporaneous period place Coda on a par with other Tamil names such as ay and Mata (Paranawithana 1970:968). - *
Viewed against the above background, certain new facts appear. In most of the contemporary Brahmi inscriptions, Cuda, Cufa and Cula appear as dynastic names or titles. On the same plane the inscriptional version in the coin also denotes a dynasty or a title. In the Brahmī inscriptions Naga appear as Waka as in the Coin, replacing 'ga' with "ka'. Naga or NAaka appears as Naka in the coin. Such usages were known in Tamil Nadu also, e.g. Aakan in Alakarmalai Brāhmī record (Mahadevan 1966:no.33). Pāli literature also bears evidences of Naka (or Nakan) as Tamil names. The Mahavamsa gives the name of the husband of Tamijatevi as Ifanaka, meaning younger Snake, who was a king. These are evidences of Tamil kings who issued coins. Bopearachchi (1999:57) treats the image on the obverse of the coins as a lion. The bushy tail of the lion, which appears in other coins, is not found in the present case. Carikam Cola kings in their Coins had their family insignia, the tiger, imprinted in their coins (Krishnamurhty 1997: Seetharaman 1994:13). If the image could be treated as a tiger, then the Tamils of Sri Lanka borrowed the

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50 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Cola emblem for their coins. It may be of interest to note here that according to scholars like C. Rasanayagam and M.Srinivasa lyengar (Kalidos 1976:80). the progenitor of Pallava dynasty, Tonfaiman lantiriyan is supposed to be the son of a Cola king
and Sri Lankan Nāka princess, Pilivaļai.
Coin-7 (Code A-19)
The coin measures 2.21 grams and its diameter is 0.47mm. The obverse illustrates tortoise (T.åmai, Skt.kürma) within a circle. It is further surrounded by triangular design motifs. The reverse shows two U-shaped marks and the inscription, CugaŠamanaha (Bopearachchi 1999:5) (Figure-11)
(Figure-11)
Cuga as a dynastic name or title is noted in Coin 6. Samanaha is a Prakrit name. The Tamils took the same name for which other examples are available. An inscription from Anuradhapura reads as follows: ilabaratahi Tamiga samairahane karite Tamiçka kapatikana (n) paśa te (Paranavithana 1970:94) (Figure-12).
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 51
(Figure-12)
The short epigraph refers to the building of a mandapa built by Tamil Samana of Sri Lanka in collaboration with a Tamil householder. Kapatikana of the inscription could also be read as Kapatikan. Earliest Tamil Brahmi inscriptions accept 'n' in place of 'n' (Venkadasamy). An example is: the Jambai inscription, which reads as Atiyan which has been read as Atiyan (Venkadasami 1981: 145-148). On this basis, the Prakrit name Kapati is likely to have been Tamilised as Kapatikan. The inscription avers the fact that Tamil merchant guilds met in a mandapa to hold thei deliberations and that members were provided with seats according to their status. This is evidenced by the names inscribed on the chairs. Among them the captain of a ship, by name Karava (Naviha Karava), had a high chair. This gives clue to the fact that he was the leader of the guild. It may further be inferred that the Paratava community existed in those times and a member of that caste had the name, Camana. For more examples reference may be made to Paranavithana 1970 :nos 392, 321. That the Tamils took the householders title, Kapati, and that they were engaged as a group in foreign trade is further confirmed.
Camana as a personal name is associated with different classes of people in inscriptions and so it could not be identified with the Tamils in an exclusive sense. But the name, Cuga, is called Tamil- Cuda, in an inscription which appears on the same plane as Ay and Mara which are Tamil titles and dynastic names

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52 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
(Paranavithana 1970:968). Camana as linked with Cuda appears as a title or dynastic name (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 376, 203). The tortoise emblem found on the coin appears in the Carikam period coins in Tamil Nadu (Krishnamurthy 1997:32-33). These may be associated with people who were engaged in maritime trade. Cuga which refers to the Cda were engaged in overseas commerce and acted as masters of foreign trade This is attested to by the Sri Lankan Brāhmī inscriptions (Paranavithana 1970:no.1128). On these considerations Cuga - Camanaha might have been a prominent person from the Cola country who also issued the Coin.
Coin-8 (Code A-12)
The coin measures 1.93 grams and its diameter is 0.15 mm. The obverse illustrates a Svastika emblem with two Scratches of fishes below. The reverse along the brimi line contains six Brāhmī letters, read as Barata -tiśaha (Figure-13).
seKI>

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54 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
inscription, Barata TiSaha, may be treated as one issued by the Tamils Of Sri Lanka.
Coin-9 (Code A-5)
The coin measures 3.65 grams and its diameter is .0.19mm. The obverse illustrates an elephant facing the left side. The Centre of the reverse Consists of a dot and four Brahmi letters along the brim-line that are read as Majimaha (Bopearachchi 1999:52). Ten inscriptions from the area where the coin was discovered testify the regime of ten kings who came in the lineage of Majimaharaja in the 1 century B.C (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 556-569) (Figure-15).
(Figure-15)
According to Prof. Paranavithana (1970:117) the Maji was a ruling family of Sri Lanka. But Maji also gives the meaning "fish'. A few of the inscriptions are carved with fish emblems(Figure-16). The Pandyas of Madurai had fish as their royal emblem in their coins. In Sri Lanka the zoomorphic fish-emblem is replaced by graffiti. The zoomorphic tradition of the Pandyas is followed in respect of the elephant, which appears in the obverse. Venkatasamy (1983:610) cites a scholar, Mendis, who opined that
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 55
the fish marks denote the descendants of the Tamils who migrated to Sri Lanka from India and that they ruled independently and OWedno allegiance to Sri Lankan rulers.
(Figure-16)
Though a majority of the Tamil Brahmī inscriptions are reported from the Pandya country (Pandy Nadu) none of the coins show the fish emblem. Their presence in the Sri Lankan coins is reminiscent of their ancestral affiliation to the home country. This might be the reason why, the name Maji, meaning fish, was Sculpted on the Coin.
Coin-10 (Code A-3)
in Southern Sri Lanka numerically superior coins with the epigraph, Gutaha, have been obtained (Bopearachchi 1999:noS. 2, 3, 4). In the literary tradition the redoubled orrus (Consonants) are common in Brahmi inscription (Mahadevan 2000). So what Bopearachchi reads as Gutaha could be read as Guttaha. This name is noted in association with the Tamils in early Pali literature.


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56 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
The Mahavamsa (XXI: 10-11) refers to two kings of Anuradhapura who ruled righteously for twenty-two years. They were Sena and Kuttaha who were sons of a captain of a ship. They toppled the regime of Curatisa and established their rule. The date of their reign is from 177 to 155 B.C.
(Figure-17)
The name Kuttaka appears in several contemporary Brāhmī inscriptions (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 43, 143, 177, 617, 646, 828, 842) (Figure-18). Generally the names are those of family heads. So the popularity of the names in ancient Sri Lanka is quite obvious. Against this background the name appearing in Coin 10 could be reviewed.
(Figure-18)
 
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 57
The coin measures 3.85 grams and its diameter is 0.19 mm. The obverse illustrates an elephant facing the left side of the profile. On the reverse a Svastika and a Crescent are carved as identified by Bopearachchi (1999:51).The crescent is likely to be the hoof of a bull or the Brahmi letter "ma'. The reverse includes four Brahmi letters. These were read as Guttaha and the mark adjacent to 'ha' can be treated as a fish engraving. The speciality of this coin is the elephant on the obverse and fish-mark on reverse. These emblems mostly appear in the coins of the Pandyas of Carikam age. Bopearachchi (1999:51) to establish the Pandyan similarity in numismatic tradition cites R. Krishnamurthy's Work on the subject. The Pandyan affiliation is suggestive of the fact that those who issued the coins cherished their origin from the Pandya country, ر
Coin-11 (Code A-26)
The coin measures 1.93 grams and its diameter is .0.18mm. The obverse includes a cart-like carving and the reverse consists of ten Brahmi letters along the brim-line. Bopearachchi had read the letters as Tisa puta va nakara cana. The first two letters may be read as 'tisa and the ensuing two as "pura'. The next "va' is likely to be either 'ca' or 'ta' and the next may be read as 'ta' to yield the syllable 'cata' or "tata'. The following nakara cana should be read as snaka racan. Naka of the coin appears in the same format in Tamil Brahmi inscriptions (Mahadevan 1966:no.67). Racan could be treated as Racan. In early Brahmi inscriptions 'n' appears as 'n'. Racan of the record is the Tamilised form of Raja in Sanskrit. These arguments would enable the rereading of the inscription on the coin as Tisapuracafanaka-racan or Tisapuratafanaka-racan.(Figure-19). The new reading might give the meaning of coin of cafa or tafa snākarācan of tiśapura (cf. Civapuram or Sivapura appearing in the concluding part of


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58 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Civapuranam of Manikkavacakar), The name Cuda-naka appears in several Brāhmī inscriptions (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 108, 266, 307). (Figure-20)
(Figure-19)
Tatanaka might be a variant of Cudanaka. Since Tamil and Prakrit forms are found in this record, it is to be treated as a bilingual character. The word racan, appearing in Carikam literature (e.g. irãcacūyam in Puranānūru 16, 125, Ariyaaracan in Puranānūru 227 etc., racamā tēvi in Maņimēkalai XXI:76 etc.) fails to appear in Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. In a contemporary inscribed coin from Andhradesa, the Prakrit Rajo and Tamil Aracan occur in the same place (Panneerselvam 1969:266, Nagaswamy 1981).
So the coin could be treated as one issued by Ca (ta) fanāka-rācan of TiŠapura. The suffixes nakara and pura, appear along with personal or place names in several Brahmi inscriptions of the time (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 112, 115). The location of the place Tisapura is not known.
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 59
(Figure-20)
Coin 12
As in Southern Sri Lanka Some Brahmī inscribed coins Were discovered from northern Sri Lanka also but the Scholars who published the photographs of these coins did not say anything about the letters and their contents (Seyone 1998:84). The published photographs are illegible and the line drawings of the Brahmi characters are not rendered accurately. One of the coins, with clear letters, is taken up for investigation in the present study. It is a lead coin which measures 32 grams. On palaeographical grounds it could be dated in the 2" or 1 century B.C. Seyone (1998:3) is of the opinion that the obverse illustrates a Siva-Linga. But in fact it is Srivatsa. This emblem appears in the coins of the Carikam Pandyas. To the left of Srivatsa, a peacock facing the right side is found. (Figure-21). Seyone thought that a human figure is found on the right side. There are seven Brahmi letters of which three are illegible. The other letters may be read as Utihapan. Arumuka Setharaman read it as Utipan. In spite of the difference in opinion, it is important to note that the suffix is 'an' which is typical of Tamil names. Hence it is certainly a Tamil
are.


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60 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
(Figure-21)
Recent researches conducted by S. Krishnarajah (1998:5152) have yielded a coin with the name Civa (Siva or Siva?) in Brahmi script. The author has not published any photograph of it and no further informations is available on it. A few coins With the name Siva have been discovered in Southern Sri Lanka (Bopearachchi 1999:A13, 14). There are evidences in ancient Pāli: literature to show that Civa was a personal name of Tamilians in Sri Lanka (M.V.XXXV: 46-48). It is confirmed by a coin, which has the name Siva and the feet of bull, Nantipada, on the reverse and obverse respectively (Bopearachchi 1999:no. A13).
Coins and People
The numismatic sources surveyed so far prove the fact that coins bearing Tamil inscriptions have been available in Sri Lanka since the 2" century B.C., Regarding the authorship of these coins different opinions prevail as to whether they were issued by the Tamils of Sri Lanka or Tamils of Tamil Nadu. The intonation of the numismatic language and the Sri Lankan Brāhmī inscriptions would suggest a case in favour of the indigenous
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 61
origin assignable to the early Tamils of the island. Iravatham Mahadevan Subscribes to the view that these were issued in Tamil Nadu and exported to the island. He thereby takes into account the similarity between the Tamil Brāhmī and Sri Lankan Brāhmī characters and the evidences available in Cankam literature which corroborate the numismatic evidences. The methodological question here is whether the name should be read with weightage to letter characters or with due emphasis on the already available names in the island.
The thesis of Mahadevan could be reconsidered with special reference to the four coins unearthed at Akurugoda. "Since all names end with the 'an' suffix, they are sure to be Tamil names. The "na-kara', exclusive to Tamil Brahmi, appears in these coins. Two such coins of the Pandya Peruvaluti, dated the 2" century B.C., are of similar character. The migrant Tamil merchant guilds traded in the gem (navaratna) within the island and exported the commodities abroad and they had obtained the right to issue Tamil Coins under their own jurisdiction" (Mahadevan).
Certain clarifications are needed when the Coins are said to have been issued by the migrant Tamil merchant guilds. Of the coins so far discovered in Tamil Nadu, most of them bear the stamp of the Tamil triarchy (Muventar, i.e., Pandya, Cola and Cera) and the Malayaman chiefs. The coins with letter imprints are said to have been issued by the Pandya, Cera and minor chiefs like Malayaman (Krishnamurthy 1997). The coins in Tamil Nadu were not issued by merchant guilds and no evidence has been indicated So far to Contradict the idea. But in Sri Lanka the Coins were issued by merchant guilds. If the merchant guilds in the island issued coins by virtue of any right obtained from the Tamil rulers, the impact of the latter should be found on the coins. But no such intelligible influence is found either in the technigue of minting coins or the characters. The Tamil coins and Prakrit coins


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62 , Dr. P. Pushparatnam
of Sri Lanka share common shadows theoretically. For example, carving the Svastika emblem is a pan-Indian and Sri Lankan tradition. A Svastika mounted on a pitha "pedestal' is found only in Sri Lanka. It is characteristic of the island coinage. its roots may be traced back to the Megalithic age and the old Brahmi inscriptions of the island (Seneviratne, Paranavithana 1970:XXVI). Contemporary potteries of the Megalithic age and inscriptions in India and Tamil Nadu and other areas in India have not yielded any Such evidence. So these are sure to be of Sri Lankan origin.
Early overseas trade in Sri Lanka was linked with Tamil Nadu. This is evidenced by Pali literature and Brahmi inscriptions. Ptolemy refers to the Sri Lankan merchants who obtained Roman commodities in South Indian trading centres and also to the fact that the Romans got Sri Lankan commodities in South Indian ports (Warmington 1928:63). In such an international exchange of goods merchants from Rome, Andhradesa, Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka Collaborated as proved by contemporary literary and archaeological evidences. This may be the reason why a greater number of coins of the Casikam period are found in Sri Lanka (Krishnamurthy 1997, Seyone 1998, Pushparatnam 1998, 1999) next to Tamil Nadu. The close link between Tamil Nadu and Rome resulted in the minting of Roman coins in Tamil Nadu. The Roman Coins obtained in Sri Lanka were mostly minted in Tamil Nadu, likely to have been exported by the Tamils from the Tamil country (Codrington 1924: 32-33, Bopearachchi 1999:24-26, Sivasamy 1974:1-12, Puahparatnam 1993:51-52). So the island's trade with Rome was only through Tamil Nadu. If coins minted in Tamil Nadu that were transported by merchant guilds are found in Sri Lanka the same Coins should be found in the land of their area also. But not even a single coin of this type is discovered in Tamil Nadu. Therefore how could these coins be associated with Tamil merchant guilds. So these are to be considered as of Sri Lankan origin and it has to be ascertained why they were circulated within

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 63
Sri Lanka. At this place, it is important to look into the background as to why they appeared as products of Tamil Nadu.
Regarding Sri Lankan Brahmi and its language divergent views prevail among scholars in Tamil Nadu. Recent archaeological excavations in Tamil Nadu have yielded potsherds, bearing Prakrit and Tamil names and phrases. The Prakrit names and phrases called Sinhala Brahmi are compared with Sri Lankan Brahmi inscriptions (Mahadevan 1994:1-19, 1996:291, 2000:116120, Rajavelu 1996: 154). But Tamil names found in potsherds of the same period are not compared with Sinhala Brahmi and are treated as Tamil names of Sri Lankan origin. On the contrary, these are treated as names used in Tamil Nadu. The potsherds from Arikkamedu are good examples in this connection (Mahadevan 1996:287-315). The Prakrit names and phrases found in Tamil Brahmi inscriptions are not treated as Sinhala- Brahmi or Tamilised variants of Sinhala Brahmi. They are simply treated as Tamilised Prakrit. To give an example: the name, Kasapa in Sri Lankan tradition appears as Kacapan and Kacipan in Tamil Brahmi (Mahadevan 1966:7). So is it possible to treat a few of the Prakrit names of Sri Lankan origin, found in the potsherds of Tamil Nadu, as references to the Tamils of the island? or do they refer to the natives of Tamil Nadu?. There is no discussion Or Solution regarding this. At the same time if idioms typical of Tamil Nadu appear in Sri Lanka, an origin in Tamil Nadu could be claimed. Such are seded view in scholarship does not help one to Solve the problems relating to the early history of the Tamils in the island. So at this juncture, it is indispensable to present facts and figures regarding the indigenous origin of coins in Sri Lanka which might shed of new light on the early history of the Tamils in the island.
The Sinhalese in Sri Lanka are Said to be the descendents of the migrants from North India who are supposed to have arrived and settled here in the 6" century B.C. The Tamils are said to be


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64 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
minorities who arrived as merchants and invaders in later times. This is an outdated thesis which most of the Sinhalese ScholarS themselves have given up in the light of , reviewing the latest archaeological and historical researches. Recent Mesolithic and Megalithic evidences push back the antiquity of migrations from South India, particularly from Tamil Nadu, to Sri Lanka around 28,000 B.C. (Alchin 1956:4-20, Goonetilleke 1980: 22-29, Sitrampalam 1980, Deraniyagala 1984, Ragupathy 1987: 179-183). When Buddhism was introduced in the island in the 3" century B.C. (cf. the legend of Asokan emissaries) most of the people embraced Buddhism. This historical facts have been confirmed by more than 2000 Brahmi inscriptions, discovered in the recent past (Paranavithana 1970, 1983, Karunaratne 1984). Along with the Buddhist religion. Pali literature and Brahmi script crept into the island. The aboriginal dialects and Tamil mixed with Prakrit gave rise to the new Sinhalese language.
There are evidences of the prevalence of Tamil Brahmi in Sri Lanka even before the introduction of Northern Brahmi and Buddhism (Karunaratne 1960, Abayasinghe 1965). The importance of Tamil Brahmi decreased in course of time but it did not disappear altogether. The Northern Brahmi was used for inscribing on rocks and pillars (e.g. ASoka's pillars and rocks) etc in most part of used Asoka vast empire (e.g. north-west frontier in Aramaic). In Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka the same script was followed and brief inscriptions alone are traceable and not lengthy ones as in North India. These are found mostly on rock-shelters meant for monks, mostly Jains in Pandynadu (e.g. Tirupparafikunram, Kokarpuļiyankuļam, Ānaimalai, Nāgamalai and other places). In Northern Brahmi compound letters were in Currency but in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka these were alien to them. Both in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka the following letters are of the same typology: a, , ka, ma, Rae, pa, la, va, and so on (Fernando 1969: 282-301). Alphabets peculiar to Tamil (e.g. la,

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 65
la, [a, and na) were used in Sri Lanka too (Karunaratne 1984, Pushparatnam 2000, 2000a: 1-11). These do not appear in Northern Brahmi which is close to Prakrit and Sanskrit phonetically.
In all places where Buddhism spread in Sri Lanka the inscriptional language was Prakrit. It was mixed with Tamil in three different ways: 1) Tamil words verbatim repeated, e.g. Kufa, Kuți. Vél, Ay, Parata, Maka/, Maramakan, Marumakan Maruman Maruka, 2) Tamil names are Prakritised e.g. Parumaka (T. Perumakan), Parumaka/ (T.Perumaka), Utiya (Utiyan), Cuta, Cua (Cola). 3) Prakrit and Sanskrit words are Tamilised, eg. Nakar (Nagara), Naka (Naga, or Naha), Vikara (Vihara), Puciya (Pujita). In Tamil Nadu few Northern Brahmi letters appear but not in Sri Lanka. These are Tamilised. For example in Tamil Nadu, the word, asiriya (Skt. as riya "teacher, uses the Northern Brahmi'Sa' (Mahadevan 1966:no.1) but in Sri Lanka its Tamilised 'ca' is employed (Paranavithana 1970:no.925).
The earliest inscriptions in Tamil Nadu are those of the Tamil Brahmi, dated 3" century B.C. Spoken and written form of language could not have evolved simultaneously at a particular point of time in the history of any language. To begin with it is spoken and at this point it is called a dialect. Writing in particular or different scripts comes later in several stages of evolution. Above all the speakers, the people, should have been there. They speak and write and inscribe at a still later time. The same process would apply to the Sri Lankan Tamils who first spoke the dialect and then cultivated writing in Tamil Brahmi which further led to the development of a language. That is to say even before the origin of coins and inscriptions, people were living in the island.
It is pertinent at this point to examine the veracity of Sinhalese and Indian Scholars who called the Brahmi in Sri Lanka


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66 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
as Sinhala Brahmi. As already dated wherever Buddhism spread, the inscriptional language was Prakrit. In Andhradesa and Karnataka in spite of the presence of a regional language (old Telugu and Kannada) the epigraphical language was Prakrit. Rarely few regional words appear (Ragupathy 1991). in case of Sri Lanka though Prakrit was the inscriptional language more than 50% of the names and words are in Tamil. Inscriptions in the Sinhala language and literature appear Only after the 8 and 12 centuries A.D. respectively. That is to say Sinhala as a full-fledged language appears later than the 8-12 century A.D. How then, could the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, dating from the 3" century B.C., be called Sinhala Brahmiat which point of time it is a matter for speculation as to whether the language called Sinhala existed at all.
The Brahmi inscriptions and literature in Pali and Prakrit are the basic sources from which Sinhala originated as a language with a script. Tamil also had its own influence. The following placename suffixes are traceable: in the Sinhala language today Kama, Kamuva, Nlakara and Pura. The Tamilised forms of these words are Kamam (e.g. Chuņņakam, Mallākam). Kāmam (e.g Panan kamam, Kotikamam) Nakar (e.g, Chinkainakar, Kurunakar), Puram (e.g. Arasapuram, Vallipuram) These examples are also cited by scholars who consider Tamils as migrants and infiltrators (Veluppillai 1918, Gnanaprakasar 1952:27-35, Perera 1953: 244, Kannangara 1984:32-33). In a historical retrospect these suffixes (e. g. Kama, Pura, Nakara,) claim hoary antiquity as appearing in the ancient Sri Lankan Brahmi inscriptions: e.g. Senikama in Periyapuliyankum, Purakama fta in Anuradhapura, Nakanakar in Hañdagala (Paranavithana 1970:nos. 357, 4, 1129). These names were evidently popular in Andhradesa and Karnataka also. The use of different suffixes such as Pura (e.g. Sripuraти, Vikramaśinhapuram), Kama (e.g. Tālagāma) , gamam gāma (e.g

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 67
Pi ffugamam), Nakra or nagara (e.g. Vēlanagara) etc, prevailed in later times down to the 10"-12" century A.D.(Ramachandramurthy 1985: 224-245, 324, 284).
It is evident from the foregoing study that the ancient coins in Sri Lanka were minted and issued by the indigenous Tamil population living in the island. In course of time, with the coming of Buddhism, Tamil- Brahmi and Prakrit characters were also adopted. The questions why did they issue Tamil- Brahmi and Prakrit coins found only in Sri Lanka, and why did they fail to appear in Tamil Nadu, are riddles.
There are evidences for Sri Lankan Commerce with India, Western and Far Eastern countries. The foreign coins collected in Sri Lanka bear evidences to this effect (Codrington 1924, Bopearchchi 1998, 1999). The local people also issued their own coins (Bopearchchi 1999:26-29). But these coins were not used in foreign trade. A coin with the figure of Laksmi and another with a lion, dated earlier than the 10" century A.D., were discovered in Tamil Nadu (Elliot 1970: 153c, Nagaswamy 1995:37-39). These are rare samples.
In Pali literature and inscriptions the usage of Coins from the 3“ century onwards is attested but nothing is said above commerce. Mostly religious transactions such as the building of a Vihara, its renovation, donations to Buddhist monks by the rich and so on are recorded. The Mahavamsa (XXXVI: 39, XX: 26, Codrington 1924:191-193) registers the donation of 15,000 coins for renovating a Vihara by the Tamil king, Ellalan and speaks of another chief, Called Śrīnaka, who offered 300,00 coins for Buddhist bhiksus both in the 2" century B.C. The coins of the age differ in their minting technology when compared with the Indian ones and are tinged with a religious content. But the structure, weight and fashion of the coins, including ornamentation, are akin


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68 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
to the Indian prototypes (Codrington 1924: 20, 22-23). All these similarities and dissimilarities are found in the Coins studied herewith. The Brahmī inscriptions of the period are normally religious records, recording the donations of people at various levels to the Buddhist order. The names appearing in these religious records are 90% repetitions from the coins. So the coins might have been used mainly for religious and commercial ρυΓροses.
It may be relevant to consider look into why the Tamils issued coins in Tamil and Prakrit and for what purpose. Now-a- days most Sinhalese are Buddhists and the Tamils are Hindus in Sri Lanka. But in those times it need not have been the case. Even though Buddhism had its origin in the North India, its spread to the island was mainly through the South, particularly Tamil Nadu. So the South Indian heritage of Buddhism is likely to have had its impact on Sri Lanka, especially in case of Mahayana. So a Considerable section of the Tamil population might have followed the Buddhist Creed. The Tamils appearing in Brahmi inscriptions are called Buddhists who patronized the religion. Pali literary sources (Mahavamhmsa XXI: 1-34) refer to the Tamils who did not give up their religion but extended their patronage to Buddhism. The rulers of Anuradhapura in the 5" century AD, were Paņçdu (A.D.436-441), his son Parinta (441-444), his brother Kuțițaparinta (444-460), Tridharan, Tātikan (460-463) and Pittiyan (463) who ruled for twenty-seven years. Some of them were Buddhists and others extended their patronage to Buddhism. This is supported by the inscriptions of Parinta at Aragama and Tatikan at Kadirkamam in Sourthern Sri Lanka. Kuttaparintan's Anuradhapura inscription calls him Parideva and Buddhadasa and records his and his wife's services to Buddhism (E.Z.: 111116).

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 69
The Tamil kings issuing Prakrit language prove the fact that language had a closer link with religions. Even though Tamil was the official language for inscriptions, Prakrit was employed whenever affairs relating to Jainism were recorded. The Pallavas to begin with issued inscriptions in Prakrit, followed by Sanskrit and Tamil (Mahalingam 1988). In Andhradesa Tamil and Prakrit were deployed even though there was a regional language, the archaic Telugu (Nagswamy 1981, Ragupathy 1991). Later a king in the Tamil Nadu is known to have registered his name in coins in three different languages (Seetharaman1996: 89-97). These are evidences of the broad-based circulation of Coins and the close affinity between language and religion. In a small country like Sri Lanka when Tamils were converted to Buddhism they offered rich donations to the religious establishments and issued coins in a language patronised by that sect. In certain cases, all those issued coins issued in Prakrit could refer to not be treated as those of the Buddhists. Even if non-Buddhists issued coins they better followed the language, intelligible to the donees. Among the non-Buddhists atleast twenty one Brāhmī inscriptions note Brāhmaņas dees (Paranavithana 1970:LLXVIIl-LXIX). The Tamils who were nonBuddhists and who granted endowments to Buddhists could be identified on the basis of their names and other symbols found in the Coins.
NOTES
1) Bopearachchi treats it as a rooster but with reference to the headgear and plumage it could be identified with a peacock.
2) deal aired in the seminar on numismatics in the Tamil
University at Thanjavur on 24.3.2000.


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Chapter Three
Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Kings
The most ancient coins discovered in Sri Lanka were brought by merchants from India. Excavations and explorations have revealed Coins of various Indian dynasties such as the Maurya, Kusana, Gupta, Satavahana and those of the Carikam age. These coins were gathered from places like Anuradhapura. Matöttam. Kantarótai, Vallipuram, Punakary and Akurugoda which were ancient metropolitan cities and commercial centres (Codrington 1924, Bopearachchi 1998, 1999, Sivasamy 1974, Seyone 1998, Pushparatnam 2001). These coins provided the models for the coins minted in the island later. Among these the warped coins with symbols are important. These were produced in the models of Satavahana and Carikam coins. The earliest of such coins were the Tisa, elephant-Svastika, horseSvastika, lion-Svastika, fenced tree with Svastika and so on (Codrington 1924:22). Mitchiner (1998: 629) considers them as the outcome of Cashkam Pandyas inspiration. In fact, the impact of both Casikam and Satavahana sources are found on these coins.
Sri Lankan coins with figures of an elephant, a tree on a hillock of three summits and mattalam (drum, a musical instrument) are repetitions of the Pandya Peruvaluti (Krishnamurthy 1997:47) type of coins. The Tisa type of coins includes a circle with a Crescent upon it. These are considered to be representations of Nandipada or the head of a humped bull. These emblems appear in the warped and punch-marked coins of the Pandyas and Satavahana (Gupta

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 7
1965:15). The fenced tree is a common feature in Indian coins. The boughs and leaves of the tree are of varying patterns. In the punchmarked coins of Andhradesa there are three slender leaves. in Satavahana coins the leaves are bushy (Sarma 1980: Fig. VI). The punch-marked tradition had a greater impact on the Sri Lankan tradition. The lion figures in Sri Lanka mostly agree with those of Andhradesa. But the Svastika mounted on a pitha is typical of the island. This type of coins does not seem to have appeared in any part of India. So even though the Indian coins inspired the genesis of Coinage in Sri Lanka, the latter developed its own format in Course of time.
Indian coins, particularly those from Tamil Nadu, adhered to the practice of imprinting the insignia of the king or his dynasty. These hints help to identify the name of the king, his dynasty and fix the date. in Sri Lanka no such insignia is found on coins issued before the 10th century. Names are inscribed on coins but these could not be identified with kings definitely and no corroborative evidence to this effect is available. So on the basis of the figures and other markings the names of kings or their dynasty and date could not be accurately determined. These coins agree with the typology of contemporaneous Indian models but were circulated only in Sri Lanka. This might Suggest a local origin. Codrigton (1924; 24-25) and others are of the opinion that the emblems are representative of Sinhalese Buddhism and so they were issued by the Sinhala kings. At the same time coins bearing Tamil inscriptions are supposed to have been brought from Tamil Nadu due to political, commercial and cultural interactions.
There was a strong and centralised government at Anuradhapura while in the north and south there were a number of minor chieftains potentites as evidenced by Pali literature and epigraphs. A few of the minor chiefs later became rulers of Anuradhapura. The Pali literature was mainly patronized by the Outcome of kings who ruled from Anuradhapura and so they treat the


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history of the city itself as the history of Sri Lanka. The Pali literary Sources are found recorded in Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Culavamsa, tracing the history since the 3"century B.C. and take note of Sinhalese and Tamil kings. But most historians treat all rulers as Sinhalese. For 250 years prior to the 1 century B.C. ten were Tamil kings out of the twenty-two rulers of Anuradhapura. During the days of Sinhalese Supremacy, few rulers who lost their power are said to have gone to Tamil Nadu and came back with a Tamil contingent of army to re-establish their hegemony. The Tamils are called merchants, invaders etc and said to have come from abroad to capture the throne in the island. The Pali sources do not talk about the details of the nature of their government and the part played by them in the early history of Sri Lanka. Historians who wrote on the basis of the pali Sources could not properly evaluate the place of the Tamils. Contemporary archaeological and numismatic sources lay neglected under such circumstances. So the early history of the island still remains a field for fresh look.
Coins of the Tamils have been discovered in various parts of Sri Lanka, especially in the north. Scholars have identified these as Carikam, Pallava, Cola, Pandya, Vijayanagara and Nayakka coins. These were considered to have been brought from South India. Many scholars held the view that there was no Tamil kingdom in Sri Lanka prior to the 4ვth century A.D. and the Tamil rulers of the ancient times were migrants from their home country who like their counterparts, the Sinhalese, did not issue any coin of their own. But in fact both the coins from Tamilnadu and those issued by the Tamils in Sri Lanka are available. There are some similarities among the groups. An indepth study of the two types of coins is essential to identify the coins of the Tamils of the island.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 73
Coins with Fish emblem
Most striking among the ancient Tamil coins of Sri Lanka are those, bearing the fish emblem (Codrington 1924, Seyone 1998: 4041, Bopearachchi 1998: 156, 1999). The coins are square in form with the line-mark of a fish on the reverse. It is well known that the fish is a Pandyan emblem which appears in the coins of Pandya Peruvaluti. R. Krishnamurthy (1997:36) who wrote about the Pandyan coins took for study some coins from Sri Lanka, discovered by Peries in 1917, and said that a few of them belong to Pandya Peruvaluti. The same type of coins in three varieties have been discovered at Punakari in recent times (Pushparatnam 1999). These are evidences of the long-standing interactions in various spheres of activity. In North Lanka two more types of coins were found with line drawings which were not found in Tamil Nadu.
The coins were found in North Lanka at places like Pallikkuda, Mannittalai, and Virapandyanmunai in the Punakari circle and Kandarodai in Jaffna. All are copper coins in square form. In three of the coins from Punakari area the obverse illustrates a hut-shaped temple with the roof of an inverted crescent (such temples may be found in west Bengal today:e.g. Kalighat and Daksinesvar, Kolkatta) and in two the Srivatsa emblem is carved. These types of coins have not been reported from any other part of Sri Lanka other than the northern part of the island. The sha,he and fish marks are suggestive of a Pandyan connection. But the markings on the obverse are different from those of the Carikam Pandya coins(Pushparatnam 1998: 114-19). The details may be summarised as follows:
1. Place: Pallikkuda.
Metal: Copper
Measurements: 1.5 X 1.3 Cms.
Weight: 2.3. Grams.


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74 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Obverse: A hut-shaped temple with the roof in inverted Crescent form, supported by five pillars.
Reverse Fish emblem.(Figure-1)
(Figure-1)
2. Place: Virapāņdyanmunai
Metal: Copper Measurements: 1.6 X1.4 CMS. Weight: 2 grams. Obverse: Srivatsa emblem. Reverse Fish emblem(Figure-2).
On the basis of the fish emblem, these coins could be treated as those of the Carikam Pandyas. But the carvings on the obverse are different from those of the Pandya. The crescent shaped hut-temple and Srivatsa appear in coins of the Carikam but not with other emblems. No specimen of Sri Lankan type has been reported typical of the island tradition. It is better to treat these coins as products of the Sri Lankan Tamils who basing the format on Pandyan prototypes had fashioned their own models.
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 75
(Figure-2)
The line drawings in coins may be the survivals of the early contact between the Tamils of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka and their affinity with the Pandyas. Acording to the available sources there the Sri Lankan Tamils had closer connections with the Pandya kingdom than with other states of South India. Pali literary sources (M.V Vill) refer to the close link with the Pandyas since the 5" century B.C. The early migrations, establishment of kingdoms in Sri Lanka and the early kings were mainly from Pandynadu. Inscriptions of the 3'-2" century B.C. in Sri Lanka largely note the Pandyavamsa and Pandyagramas. A few inscriptions note the Pandyan titles like palaiya and Mara (I.C. 1970: Nos. 58,159,610,968,1087). At about the same time Tamil kings, named Palaiyamaran and Pilaiyamaran, are said to have reigned in Lanka as attested to by Pali sources (MVV : 61).
Sixteen inscriptions from south Lanka, dated in the 3'-2" century B.C. refer to a fish-king (majimaharaja) and his ten brothers. (I.C. 1970: 556-68). In Päli majimaharaja means fish-king (Skt. Matsyaraja). The coins with fish marks further confirm the proposition (Bopearachchi 1999). These early Tamil rulers are said to have


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migrated to the island from Tamil Nadu and ruled independently Without being Subjugated by the Sinhalese kings (Venkatasamy 1983:610). To begin with they were minor chiefs, and later became rulers of the island as noted in Pali literature. So the fish-marked Coins in Sri Lanka are likely to have been issued by local Tamil rulers who established Tamil kingdoms in the island. The hut-shaped temples and Srivatsa emblem might be reflections of their religious practices. Pali literaty sources specifically refer to the religious toleration of Tamil rulers who patronised Buddhism even if they were non-Budhist(Hindus).
Bull-marked coins
Among the ancient coins of the Sri Lankan Tamils, these bearing the bull-emblem are interesting. Such coins were found at Kantarötai, Jafna, Mätöttam (Seyone 1998: 26-30), Vallipuram , Anuradhapura (Codrington 1924:24), Pūnakari (Pushparatnam 1998:114-19) and Akrukoda in south Sri Lanka (Bopea-rachchi 1999: 90-91). The places of their distribution would prove the wide- spread circulation of the coins. The numerically superior quantum was collected mainly in north Lanka in the Punakari circle at places like Paļikkuqā, Vīrapāņdyanmunai andĪļaūr.
All are copper or lead coins in square form. The shape of the coins differs in respect of length and breadth and the emblems carved. Small ones among them show coins in the obverse a bull facing the right or left and purpakumbha-like object is found below the head of the bull. Besides, one or two small square lines are found near the bull. The reverse illustrates two squares or four dots and a square formed by four straight lines. In a few coins a triangle with a dot inside is found instead of the circle in the reverse, in bigger varieties the obverse illustrates a bull turning to the left and two square lines. Around the lines small dots are found. A balipita is carved near the bull's leg while a swastika is marked above the beast. On the

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 77
reverse three or four dots within a circle and two squares outside are found. On the basis of the marking in the reverse two types of coins may be identified. The details are as follows:
1. Place : Virapandyanmunai
Metal: Copper
Measurements : 1.6 X1.3 CmS.
Weight: 2.3. grams.
Obverse : Right facing bull, purnakumbha below head, two square lines.
Reverse : Four dots within a circle, two more square lines outside with dots inside(Figure-3).
(Figure-3)
ཡོད། 2. 1. Place : Akrukoda.
Metal : Lead.
Measurements : 10 X10 mm.


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78 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Weight: O.24 grams.
Obverse : Left facing bull, purnakumbha below face, two Square lines Outside.
Reverse:Triangle with dots inside, two square lines outside (Figure-4).
(Figure-4)
The bull is the chief attraction in these coins. Such Nandi Coins were issued in India since very ancient times. The Indus valley terracotta seals of the Chalcolithic period have been marked with bull emblems(Mansukhal 1988). The Mūvēntar of Cańkam period and the Malaiyaman chiefs issued bull coins (Krishnamurthy 1997). Among them the Pandyan coins are the most striking examples. In later times the Pallavas, Pandyas, Colas and later Ceras issued such coins. So it is very difficult to identify the donor with reference to the bull-mark.
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 79
The bull was a Pallava royal insignia which appears in their coins also. So some scholars were of opinion that these coins were minted by the Pallavas which due to their intercourse with Sri Lanka spread to the island (Codrington 1924:24, Seyone 1998:27, Mitchiner 1997:135, Sitrambalam 1993: 501). The Pallava coins were mostly circular in shape. The square coins were in circulation much earlier than the Pallava period. The Pallava coins in addition to the bull emblem, note a number of birudas (royal titles) such as Laksita, Alani, Daņikala, Šrīvambu, Vapu, Bagapigugu, Kagumpiqugu, Kagava, Dangiha, Srinaghi and Parama. Besides the following figures appear on the reverse: sankha, cakra, mark, crab, ship, fish, cattyagrha (Buddhist temple), and lamp (Elliot 1970, Nagaswamy 1981, Seetharaman 1994, 2000, Seetharaman and Sankar Ramana 2002, Kasinathan 1995:52-58). A few such coins were discovered at Matóttam in north Lanka (Seyone 1998: 37-38). The markings other than the bull which appear in Sri Lankan coins are not fond in the Pallava coins. The bull mark in Sri Lankan coins and those found in the Casikam, Pandya and Cola coins have common characteristics. A coin recently found at Alakankulam in Tamil Nadu illustrates a bull with a puranakumbha below its face (Kasinathan 1995:21). It is a replica of the Sri Lanka model. The Alakankulam coin in its reverse illustrates a fish which is replaced by a circle with dots or a square as in Sri Lanka. This is an important deviation. The Sri Lankan emblems are not to be found either in Tamil Nadu or any other part of India. In North India, A few coins with bull and Brahms characters have been reported (Thaplyal 1972:418-19.pls. II-III). These are later in point of time and also figuratively differ from the Sri Lankan types. The Coins in Andhradesa come closer but there are other differences. The Sinhalese kings, e.g. Vasapan or Mahasena, who issued lion coins with lion emblems in reverse included circles with four dots inside (Figure-5).


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(Figure-5)
Recently clay tablets of the bull type of coins have been discovered in south Sri Lanka (Bopearachchi 1999:90-91, pls. 22-24, Nos. J22-K32). Had these coins been minted in India there would ဂဝုး have been need for the moulds to be found in Sri Lanka. The availability of coins and their makers, the moulds, would confirm the Sri Lankan origin of the bull-marked coins.
The lion has been employed as an emblem or insignia in the
Sinhalese tradition since very ancient time. In medieval times the Sinhalese rulers inscribed their names along with the lion in their coins (Seyone 1998:39). The lion is associated with the Sinhalese history in early Pali sources. So the bull could not have got the same importance as lion in the Sinhalese Buddhist tradition. But the bull is a sacred animal for the Tamils as it is the Vahana (vehicle) of Siva who is worshipped by most of the Tamils. So the north Sri Lankan Tamils had the bull insignia in the royal umbrella and government seal also.
It is to be added that the bull - marked coins fashioned after the Tamil prototypes, were issued by the contemporary Tamil rulers of Sri Lanka. This is further strengthened by the numerous coins available. Tamil kings had ruled over the island during this period. But the name of kings are not found on the coins. So it is difficult to identify the king who issued the coins. Pali sources specify the Tamil King,
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 81
Ellalan, who reigned for forty four years continuously in the 2nd century B.C. He was perhaps the first Tamil king to rule for such a long period. Pali literature notes the coins issued in the island only since the reign of the above mentioned Tamil king. He is said to have donated 15,000 kahapana (coins) for renovating a dilapidated Buddha-vihara (M.V.XXI:26). In Pāli kahapāņa (T, kācu+paņam?) means a square copper coin (Geiger 1950: 144). There are other evidences to prove the circulation of square copper coins during the period of Ellalan. Therefore, there is a possibility to associate the square bull-marked coins with the reign of Ellalan.
Lakşmi Coins
The Laksmi coins in Sri Lanka are in several types and numerous quantitatively. These appear in very ancient human settlement areas and are found among the of around 3" century B.C. and together with the Roman coins of the 5" century A.D. This attests to the minting and use of such coins over a long period of time. It is confirmed by the several varieties of the coins available. Hoards were obtained in several parts of north and south Sri Lanka. Fifty-one coins were discovered in a mud pot at Mullaittivu in A.D. 1885. Hundreds of such coins were found at Kandardtai in 1917. Subsequently they were discovered in several places such as Nallur, Matöttam, Vallipuram, , Anaikköttai, Punakari, Udutturai (all in north Sri Lanka), Anuradhapura, Tissamaragama, Cilāpam, Puttalam, Ninthavur and recently in Akurugoda also (Peris 1917, Codrington 1924, Sivasamy 1974, Krishnarajha 1983, Pushparatnam 2001, Bopearachchi 1998, 1999). The coins are available in various metals such as copper, lead, little of silica, iron and nickel. Peries who studied the Kantarótai coins, named them as Laksmi with reference to the female figure on the obverse. This name is adopted by numismatists to date.


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82 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
All the coins are oblong. The shape differs from such types found in other parts of south Asia where they were issued contemporaneously. Only one specimen, conforming with the Sri Lankan Laksmi type, was found in India. This is datable in the 3" century B.C. But it illustrates the kapakavrksa with several leaves (Mansukhlal 1998). In other respects it differs very much from the Sri Lankan types. No other specimen of such coins have been reported from any other part of India. When first discovered in Sri Lanka, the Coins were treated as religious objects like amulets. In course of time these were discovered in ancient cities and commercial centre along with other coins and came to be recognised as coins. So they were in circulation during the ancient past. Few specimens of them were in Tamil Nadu in places like Karur along with Casikam and Roman coins (Nagaswamy 1995:37-9). The phenomenon would suggest their circulation in the island and their significance in foreign trade (Krishnamurthy Vol. Lll:59-61).
The obverse illustrates a woman in the shanaha (standing) attitude and the reverse with a Swastika, mounted on a pitha (pedestal). The shape of the coin, its weight and measurements are at variance with the Sri Lankan type. Recently hundreds of coins were discovered in Punakari. They are classified into eleven types according to their shapes and symbols (Pushparatnam 1998: A1-13). The length is of various types as follows: 1.2 x 0.1, 1.4x 0.1, 1.6 x 0.4, 1.7 x 0.4,2.5 x 1.6, 2.6 x 1.5, 3.2 x 2.4. The weight is as follows : 1.4, 1.5, 2.0, 2.4, 2.5, 3.0, 3.2, 3.9, 5.8 grams.
Though the female figure is identified with Laksmi, all coins do not follow common iconographic features. In some very young Women are shown. In most of the coins a lady is standing on a lotus, holding the stalk of a lotus in two hands separately. These Lksmi coins emanate from the feet level and extend up to the shoulder. Few coins illustrate her holding saktiayudha, sula and a traditional lamp (T.Kuttuvilakku) which replace the stalk of lotus. In most of the Coins

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 83
the lady is nude and in a few she appers with a garment. In some coins the breasts are large with a narrow hip and in others the breasts are flat with fleshy hip. She stands erect in some coins while in a few her face is turned to the right or left. Her face rests in her left hand Countenance. Some are decorated with ornaments like earStuds, bangles and anklets while others are with meagre ornaments or without any (Figure-6).
(Figure-6)
In many copper coins the woman stands on a lotus while the stalks held in hands are fitted with blossoming flowers on the top. Two elephants are seen above her. They shower water (abhiseka) on the lad by their trunk. It is suggested that this type conforms to the description of Gajalaksmi in Srisukta which is a praise on Dévi and manifesiation (Sivasamy 1974: 29)(Figure-7). Such type of Gajalaksmi images may be found in the Pallava temples at Māmalapuram (Varahamandapa) and Kācipuram (Kailasantha temple).They rarely stand but are mostly seated in the coins from Kantarõțai, Mātõțițam, and Anuradhapuram. The woman appears


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4 Dir, P. Pushparall nann
"عين .
seated with disheveled locks of hair (Seyone 1998:47, Parker 1981: 463-82),
(Figure-7)
The Seated posture is lalitasana with the left leg hanging, and the right rested on the pedestal. The left hand is lifted up to the shoulder, holding a lotus. The right hand rests on the right leg. Behind the head a carving resembling a prabhawali is found. On the basis of the various types of the female figures, it might be suggested that they stand for not only GajalaksmT but also Karaki, Durga and
 

forcerir Čoirs of Sri Larka PT Terra f' Riirler: 85
Kali. Prof. Raju Kalidos suggested that the woman with disheweled locks of hair might be Camurta or Pattinidewi-Kannaki (Figure-8).
(Figure-8)
Even though the Swastika appears on the reverse of Coins, it is not a common feature. A specimen from Marittalai illustrates a fenced tree in the coins of Carikam Pandyas. The Nindawur specimen includes eight other objects besides the swastika (Pushparatnam 1998.5). Among other figures a triangular dwajasthamba "flagstaff" and a mattalam, "musical instrument' are noticeable. The other objects from places like laur and Mannittalai illustrate puranakumba, Sivaliiga, Cakra and lamp. A rooster, javelin and peacock appear in the Coins from Kantarötai and Mullaitivu. A coin from Kantarotai shows Swastika on a pitha, Srivatsa and a bull (Figure-9). This is a very rare


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86 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Combination because the Srivatsa is a Vaisnava emblem, symbolising Sridevi who resides on the right chest of Visnu (cf. Vativay nin valamārpi vāļkinra mankaiyum palaņtu: Tiruppālaņtu of Periyāvār, v. 2; cf. Kalidos 1994:289), and the bull, Nandi, the vahana of Siva as Vrsabhavahanamurti or Vrsabharuda. The copper and lead coins from Akrukoda are supposed to include figures of ships on the reverse (Bopearachchi 1999: 95-96).
(Figure-9)
The iconographical peculiarities of the coins deem an explicit interpretation from the point nf an expert in that particular field. Prof. Raju Kalidos has noted the following observations. The fencedtree is likely to represent a sthalavrksa which if it appears in Pandyan coins of the Cafkam age would mean the prevalence of such a tradition during that period. The other emblems, including the Srivatsa, include the astamangala 'eight holy" symbols among other things. The Srivatsa and cakrayudhha are usually associated with Visnu. This is an indicator of the popularity of Vaisnavism: the other figure being Gajalaksmi it is auspicious not only for the Hindus but also the Buddhists. This appears on the lintel of Buddhist rock-cut temples in the various parts of India. The rooster, vel (cf. Verkkottam in cilappatikaram IX: 11, cited in Kalidos 1999:153) and peacock are pointers of the Murukan cult. The presence of Srivatsa and Nandi in
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 87
the same coin in juxtaposition might provide an insight into the Harihara (Hari-Visnu, Hara-Siva)cuit. The feminine figure standing or seated on a lotus and holding stalks of the blossoming lotus, attended by gajas 'elephants' is definitely Gajalaksmi. The goddess, carrying Saktiayudha is likely to be Kaumari who is one among the Sapta Matrkas. The Goddess with Sula might be Durga or Maheswari, the latter being one among the Matrkas. The lamp is one among the astamarigala symbols and it is tempting to suggest whether she is Mańgalamatantai, i.e. Pattinikkatavu-Kannaki. Similarly the goddess with disheveled locks of hair might be either Pattinidevi who is identified with Mahisasuramardini, Camunda and Kali in the Cilappatikaram (XX: 34-40, cf. Kalidos 1993;80).
The origin of these coins with respect to questions like "where' and 'when' has been suggested in various ways by scholars. Some would treat them too as native coins. Parker (1981:94) is of opinion that these might have been issued by Tamil kings who came from South India. A North Indian source of inspiration is traced with due regard to the prevalence of such coins in that part of the country. Recently such specimen were discovered at Karur in Tamil Nadu. So Krishnamurthy (1991:59-61) opines that these were due to commercial exchanges. This idea is unacceptable. The Sri Lankan type of coins have not been found so far on spotted in places other than Karur. Had they been of local origin more number of coins should have been found in various places.
The coins could not be treated as imported from North India or as their imitations. The pitha appearing below the Svastika is typical of Sri Lanka, not to be found in any Indian coin. This idea has been already emphasised. Imprinting figures of Laksmi in Indian Coins is an ancient tradition. The earliest models of such types are dated back to the Kusana and Gupta periods. But in both the cases, i.e., Sri Lankan and Indian, lot of differences are noticeable in the


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88 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
iconographical aspects of Laksmi. In addition to (Gaja) Laksmi several other goddesses appear in Sri Lanka. The Pattini cult is typical of the island. Though it had its origin in Tamil Nadu, it continues to be a living tradition here to modern times. Flat breasts and thick hips are models set by the island tradition. In some coins both Laksmi and Srivatsa appear on two sides. Thus there are several features which claim a local origin for these coins.
Some scholars associate the emblems with Buddhism and others with Hinduism. In Indian coins symbols of various religious groups appear. Pioneers considered the emblems on Casikam age coins as Buddhist symbols(Elliot 1970). This is because a few emblems common to all Indian religions appear in the coins Püranakumbha, Svastika, padma lotus and gaja are common to both Buddhism and Hinduism. The Buddhist Yaksis are provided with these. So they are treated as Buddhist symbols (Hettiaratchi 1950: 104-122). Again Nandipada, Nandi, peacock, rooster, javelin, lamp and Sivalinga are Saivite emblems. Emblems typical of Buddhism such as Tisa, gaja-Svastika, simha-Svastika, virksa-Svastika, appear in some coins. But these emblems do not appear in Indian coins. The lion which is an important emblem in Sri Lankan Buddhist tradition does not appear in the Laksmi coins. So the donors of these coins might be treated as Hindus of the later ages in Sri Lanka.
The chronological setting of the issue of these coins is a problem to reckon with. Some consider these as introduced about the Christian era and not earlier. Parkar (1981:94) taking into account the references in Pali literature and the coins obtained in Mullaittivu assigns them to the 2" century B.C. Similar types were obtained in the archaeological excavations conducted at Anuradhapura recently (Bopearachchi 1998:154). These are dated in the 2nd century B.C. A Coin was found in a grave of the megalithic period (Ragupathy 1987:124). A seal discovered in the same mound is dated in the 3rd2" century B.C. On the basis of these evidences the Laksmi coins

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 89
may be dated as the 2nd century B.C. as far as its earliest date is Concerned. The coins also appear along with the Roman coins which would suggest its popularity down to the 4'-5" century A. D.
Parker who examined these coins 100 years ago came to the Conclusion that these might have been introduced by the Tamil kings of Sri Lanka (e.g. Ellalan) who came to the island from Tamil Nadu. Parker's pioneering thesis stands valid today. These coins were in circulation for more than 700 years while other types of coins are restricted to a relatively similar time- bracket. The coins show variations in shape and symbols which may be due to the locality from where they were issued and the changing times. So these could not be assigned to a particular king or a dynasty. Further research may shed new light on the subject. The emblems such as Laskmi and Srivatsa are symbols of prosperity. The ship emblems are clues to the fact that the issuing authority might have been engaged in foreign trade. These coins also include the ceval (rooster) emblem found in South Lanka in a coin, bearing the name of Cattan. Significantly these coins were found in Tamil Nadu only at Karur which was the commercial base of Ceras of the Cafkam age. Contemporary inscriptions and Pali literature note the Tamil merchants who worked as a team of organised guild. Under these considerations, it would be better to associate them with trade guilds rather than a king or a particular dynasty.
Coins inscribed with a human head
Coins bearing the head of a king are considered to be of late Origin in Sri Lanka. It is also suggested that the bust-portrait of a human being was never issued in Sri Lanka. Such available specimen were treated as Greek or Roman. In India these coins were in circulation from very ancient times. Cashkam coins were engraved with the bust of a king along with the inscription of his name. Examples are the coins of Makkötai, Kuttuvankó tai, Kollippurai and


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90 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Kolirumpurai. The Sri Lankan coins of yore were mostly fashioned after the Indian, particularly Andhra, prototypes. So Such types are likely to have been modeled in Sri Lanka, based on the Indian examples. To confirm the thesis, a few coins with the portrait of a full human being have been discovered in south Lanka. They include the names of Mallakatisaha and Naha in Brahmi characters (Bopearachchi 1999: 53, 57). To confirm the prevalence of bust figures on coins an example made of terracotta was obtained (Bopearachchi 1999: 105). It was engraved with a human figure on a clay seal. The evidence is tempting to suggest that coins with bust figures were issued in Sri Lanka. This is confirmed by another model of a coin found in north Lanka(Figure-10).
(Figure-10)
The details of the coins are as follows:
Place: Kalmunai (Pūnakari) Metal: Copper rim: 0.8 Cm Weight: 1.8 grams Obverse : king facing left
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 91
Reverse: Man stands to the left, sula with handle in Centre and human figure to the right are noticeable(Figure-11).
The face of the man is broad nose is elongating, lips are thick and eyes bulging. As in Satavahana coins the forehead is decorated with a medallion and fitted with a tuft behind the head. The reverse of the coin includes two standing men. They bear tall makutas (headgears). In between the two men a sula with a handle appears. The human figures in these do not display any anatomical similarity with the Roman models. Though the Ceras of the Casikam age issued such coins, no similarity in facial forms is discernible. Again the sula with a handle has not appeared so far in India not even in Tamil Nadu. The sila found on coin from south Lanka with the name, Malakatisaha, agrees in design with the sula of the coin under note. So the coin might be of a given local origin, possibly associated with a Tamil king.
(Figure-11)
Due to the increasing trade with Rome, the Roman coins were minted in Tamil Nadu itself. The Roman types would have influenced Tamil coins, bearing the head of a king (Krishnamurthy 1997). It is not


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92 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
clear whether such a system prevailed in Sri Lanka, i.e. minting Roman coins in the island. But the terracotta mould of a coin, bearing the head model of a Roman coin, was discovered by the author from Punakari Mannittali in North Sri Lanka. Its rim is 1.2 cms and weight 3.9 grams. Prof. Indrapala has made a note of such a mould found in Kantarótai. These point out that following the Roman models coins with heads of kings or human beings could have been issued in Sri Lanka too. The relevance of this idea rests on future discoveries of coins or moulds that may come to light in future.
The foregoing evidences are sufficient enough to prove the issue of coins by the Tamil kings of Sri Lanka. In addition to rulers of the land, regional governors and merchant guilds seem to have played a role in the process. The Pali literature which relates the history of the island has summarised the rule of Tamil kings succinctly. The earliest Tamil kings are noted by the names Sena and Guttaka. They defeated the Sinhalese ruler of Anuradhapuram in the 3' century B.C. by employing a huge army and governed the country for twenty two years (177-155 B.C.) righteous by. Pali sources call them as the sons of a horse merchant and not as members of a royal family. Another invasion followed during the reign of Acelan in the 2"century B.C. It has been already noted that Ellalan (or Elaara) who was born in a noble family ruled for fourty four years during the period from 145 to 101 B.C He was the one king of Lanka who ruled for such a long time. The Mahavamsa (XXI : 15-34) talks high of the just and righteous regime of Ellalan. He followed the Hindu religion but did not persecute the Buddhists. He extended his patronage to Buddhist religious establishments (Mahavamsa XXI:34). He was defeated by Duttagamini. His son-in-law, Balluka who waged war with Duttagamini by employing a contingent of 6000 soldiers was defeated by the latter's general, Phussadeva, at Kolamahala (MV, XXV: 76-87).

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 93
When Vattagamini was ruling over the island around the year, 104 B.C., an army of seven Tamil chiefs reached Matóttam. The ruler pacified his rival in south Lanka, named Tisa, and sent him against the invading Tamil army (MV, XXXIII: 37-41). He was defeated by the strong Tamil army who seized the throne of Anuradhapura. One among the seven took the wife of Vattagamini and another Tamil Soldier went to the other side of the island with Pichchapattiram. The remaining five, viz. Pulahattha, Bahiya, Panayamara, Pilaymara and Datika ruled the kingdom one after another for fourteen years and eleven months (Mahavamsa XXXIII: 55-61). They seem to have been defeated by Mahatisa whose reign was one of chaos and confusion. One Soranaga, a pretender, destroyed many of the Buddhist viharas. Mahatisa's regime came to an end by the intervention of his wife, Anuladevi, who also helped the accession of a Tamil chief named watuka. He reigned for one year and two months in 47 B.C. The king-maker, Anuladevi, killed Vatuka and crowned another Tamil chief called Niliyan. He ruled for six months.
Several ups and downs took place in the history of Sri Lankan Tamil government after the 1 century B.C. On several such occasions they used to bring an army from Tamil Nadu to stabilise their power. Tanakan who was imprisoned by Ilambakarna, escaped and went to Tamil Nadu, brought an army to recover his kingdom. He ruled for fourteen years from 38 to 44 B.C. (MV, XXXV: 45). His wife is called Damiladevi (Tamiltevi). Hence she would have been a Tamil queen. According to the 13" century Sinhalese work, Rajavaliya, king Karikala Colan is said to have invaded Sri Lanka during the period of Vanganagatisa (A.D. 110-112) and took 12,000 men as prisoners to build a dam across the Kaviri. It also adds that Gajabhahu invaded Tamil Nadu and imprisoned twice the number of men that karikalan took away.


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In the 5" century A.D. a Tamil army under Pandu invaded the island and established a government for twenty seven years. It was ruled successively by Pandu Parinnda, Kuttaparinnda, Trindara, Tattiga and Bhitiya. The name Pandu is supposed to be the Pandya of the Tamil country. Rajavaliya considers him a Cola prince (Pillai 1975:49). Their rule extended up to south Lanka as proved by the inscriptions at Aragama and Katirkamam (E.Z, lll: ill-15).
If the coins examined in this chapter are associated with the Tamils, the question arises as to whether they were the invading Tamils or those of the island-inmates. Excepting Vatukan and Niliyan, all others, meddling in the island politics are considered to be invaders or merchants by the Pali literary sources. On this basis they are treated as foreigners by a few scholars. There is no denying the fact that there existed a link between the Tamils in Sri Lanka and those of Tamil Nadu. But it is not fair to assume that all rulers came only from Tamil Nadu. Even though Pali literature associates the Tamil rulers of the island with Tamil Nadu, no such evidence is forthcoming from the contemporary literature of the Cashkam age in Tamil Nadu. The names of Tamil rulers in Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu show lot of differences. Pali sources link the Tamil kings of the island with Pandya and Cola. In Tamil Nadu the coins issued by them invariably have their royal insignia (e.g. tiger and fish) imprinted. But no such evidence is traceable in Sri Lanka. So it would be better to say that the Tamils of the island because of their ancestral Connections with the Tamil country were able to secure assistance wherever they needed and the kings of the motherland could have helped them magnanimously. That will not mean that the sovereign pores of the Tamil country had a share in the administration of the island. Under such circumstances, it would be better to treat the Sri Lankan coins as the outcome of an indigenous genre, which might have been inspired by the models in the Indian mainland.

Chapter Four
Coins of Northern Sri Lanka
Divergent views prevail regarding the origin of a united Tamil government under a ruler in Sri Lanka. Tamil literary evidences, pertaining to the government in Jaffna speak about the origin of rulership with the coming of Colas (10" century A.D) at Katiramalai which capital was later shifted to Ciskainakar and Nallur. Sinhalese sources note Jaffna as the metropolis of this kingdom. These might Suggest that the capital was shifted from one place to another, depending on the emergency of the times. The single ruler’ s government is supposed by some scholars to have originated at Nallur in the 13" century A.D. while Cirikai and Jaffna were part of the kingdom. Scholar's who subscribe to this view consider Katiramalai as a fictitious capital even if it appears in Tamil literary sources to that effect. Pali literary sources which trace the history of the island from time immemorial, note north Sri Lanka under the name Nagadipa as an entity of its own. Its relationship or interaction with Anuradhapura down to the 7" A.D. century A.D. is not told, a few of the events enumerated, posterior to the 7" century, mostly deal with the revolts and invasions against Anuradhapura. The growth of the Pallava power at that time, the propagation of the bhakti cult and the increasing foreign trade had their reactions in Sri Lanka. When the Pallavas undertook expeditions to Sri Lanka, the major field of action was north Sri Lanka (Silwa 1981). The island Tamils joined hands with the troops from Tamil Nadu in overthrowing the Sinhalese rulers. These historical events and the recent archaeological evidences stand


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G Dr. P, Prishparafrtar?!
proof of the fact that the several capital cities, noted in Sri Lankan Tamil literature may mot be imaginary.
Numismatic evidences support two different phases of Tamil rule in northern Sri Lanka at Katiramalai and Cirikai. Most historians identify the place Katiramalai, mentioned in Tamil literature, with Kantarödai The archaeological evidences obtained from Kantarödai are placed in support of the hypothesis. Scholars identify Cirikai with either Wallipuram or Nalur (Rasanayagam 1928, Indrapala 1972, and Veluppillai 1981). The historical events, place names and archaeological evidences that could be compared with Pali sources and Tamilliterary evidences provide clues to identify the capital in the Wanni province (Pushparatnam 1993). The inference is further supported by the coins found in northern Lanka, particularly in the Wanni Zone.
Coins of the Katiramalai Kingdom
Coins of the various epochs have been spotted in northern Sri Lanka during recent fieldwork. A few conform with the coins of the Carikam age but the emblematic engravings are in later models. Biddulp who wrote on coins of the Casikam Pandyas took into account a few of the nother Sri Lanka Coils and classified the IT into three groups on the basis of their typology and symbols (Bidulp 1966). Mitchner (1991) has undertaken a recent research on the same lines. Even though they note the special characteristics of the coins, on the basis of the fish mark these are considered to be of the Pandyas of the Tamil country. They refer to the coins as of northern Sri Lankan origin but do not mention the places from where these were gathered. The three types of Coins under their review were spotted by our research in the Wanni area of north Sri Lanka in huge numbers,
The first type of these coins were spotted at Kalmunai, Mattu will Madu and Palawi in the Punakari area. All are uniformly

fricfer. Coffs of Sri Lankar TarriRrers 97.
square and melted in Copper. Though the measurements vary, mostly the length is 1.8 cms and the breadth 1.6 cms with the average weight of 2.8 grams. It can be classified in to three kinds. The first one has a fish between two lamps (Figure-1).
(Figure-1)
(Figure-2)
The Second one has a bull of obverse and the elephant in the reverse between two lamps (Figure-2) and the third one has either a


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98 Dr. P. Pushparatrian
bull or elephant and a hours or fish on the reverse(Figure-3). This three kinds are in a square or circular form and have variation in the symbol. This may point to the deferent period in which they were issued and deferent kings issued.
(Figure-3)
According to Biddulph (1966: 32) the Pandya king, Srinara Srivalabha (of the First Empire) who conquered Sri Lanka in the 9th century A.D, issued the coins. His coins in Tamil Nadu are circular in form with two fishes in the obverse and the name, Sri Awanibha sekhara kolaka in the rewerse. The coins in morthern Lanka are square. The square coins were issued in Tamil Nadu only during the Carikam period. Even these coins differ from the northern Lankan coins of the same epoch. What appears, as fish in lines in Casikam
 

dricfert Coirs of Sri Lanka Tari Rulers 99
Coins is zoomorphic in Sri Lanka. In the coins of Tamil Nadu the fish is carved alone while in Sri Lanka it appears along with the standing lamp (kuttuvilakku). Such types were never spotted in any place in Tamil Nadu, except northern Lanka. The shape and form of the fish in both cases are of different species. So those in northern Sri Lanka are of a special category, issued in the island itself. The most significant point is that they are found only in northern Lanka.
There are no evidences of the Sinhalese rulers of the island who issued Coins, bearing the emblems of the fish, bull, horse and the standing lamp. So these are the exclusive products of Tamil kings who ruled northern Lanka. With due reference to their typology and circulation in the island, these might be assigned to the post-Casikam period but anterior to the 10" century A.D. Mitchner (1998: 137) assigns the date 7" century which nearly comes to our dating system. The same type of circular coins might have been issued during the transitional period from square to circular(Figure-4). The circular ones are not only later ones chronologically but the issuing kings must also hawe been different,
(Figure-4)
Parantaka's victory of Naganadu and the Uraga Coins
Yalppaiavaibhavamalai is a Tamil literary work which tells the history of the north Sri Lankan rulers. It is dated in the 8" century A.D. The


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100. Dr. P. Pushparatnam
work extols Ugrasisha who ruled from Katiramalai and married Marutappuravalli and after the marriage shifted his capital to Cifikainakar (M. Ceñkatanakari) (Nataraja 1980: 56-57).The change of capital and the invasion of Sri Lanka by Parantaka Cola (A.D. 907-55) seem to be related events. Rajasimha Pandya who was defeated by Parantaka is said to have left his crown and treasures with the king of Sri Lanka and migrated to his father-in-law 's domain in Kerala (C.V.). Parantaka demanded that the Pandyan royal properties be handed over to him from the island king, Mahinda IV. He refused to oblige and this led to the Cola invasion and the capture of Anuradhapura (C.V.). The Pali chronicles Cũlavamsa, notes the invasion of the island by Vallabha during the reign of Mahinda IV (A.D. 956–72) who is said to have suffered a defeat. An inscription from Vecagiri confirms it (E.Z. ). It is not clear whether the invasion was intended to capture Nagadipa or to take Anuradhapura, moving from Nagadvipa. After this invasion, Nagadipa is identified as a separate entity in Pali literature. It is of particular significance. These incidents will have to be compared with the data forthcoming from Tamil literary sources in respect of the regime at Katiramalai.
The victory of Tlam by Parantaka Cola is not at all noted in the Culavamsa whereas his inscription, dated in the 33" regional year, extols him with the title, Maturaiyum lamum konfakdppara kecarivarman the great king who took Maturai and lam (S.I.l.). The same victory is confirmed in the Kalifikattupparani (V. 200) and Racaracacolanula (11. 39-40). The royal title might include exaggerated accounts. Certain other evidences to establish a link with Parantaka are also reported. One is a temple at Punakari mannittalai in the outskirts of Jaffna, and the other an image of Surya (the Sun god) discovered in the Pallavarayankattu region. Besides the names of Kutamuruttiyaru, Manniyaru, Nallur and Cöliyakulam in usage in the region are pointers of a Cola connection (Pushparatnam 1993). These might offer clue to the fact that the invaders from Tamil Nadu

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 101
Could have first established and stabilised their power on northern Sri
Lanka and then made headway toward Anuradhapura. Such a notion
is supported by the Pali sources. Prof. K.M.T. Silva (1980) finds ample
evidences to treat northern Sri Lanka as the base of Tamil invaderS.
So it is quite likely that Parantaka conquered northern Sri Lanka first
and then Anuradhapura. On this basis his titles in inscriptions could
have been coined. To enhance the idea, the Uraga type of Coins Services the purpose.
Coins with the name Uraga have been discovered in large numbers in Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu. But both the types differ much in their typology, metal and the symbols carved on them. These are Supposed to have been issued by the Cola governors of the island from the local mints. The Ceylon-man-type coins are found in Tamil Nadu during the period of Rajaraja and so he was considered to be the authority issuing such coins. It is better to consider these as Coins issued by Parantaka rather than Rajaraja to commemorate his victory over the island (Figure-5).
(Figure-5)
In Sanskirt Uraga means a snake (T. Pampu,Skt. Naga) and also the Naga people (Nages, T. Nakar). The Urakar as Nagas are


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102 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
noted in the Manimekalai (XI. 70) which takes its root from urakam "serpent (Subrahmaniyam 1990:136). The same word is said to appear in the Tevaram and Kalinkattupparani (Balasubramanian 1988). According to the Kuram Plates of the Palavas (Palava Ceppétukal Muppatu nos. 44, 45) Pampur (on the south bank of Kaviri in Cóla Nadu) was called Uragapuram during the 8" century A.D. The same place is also supposed to be Uraiyur (Venkatasami 1983:251).
A group of the aboriginal population in Sri Lanka is called Nagas in Pali literature. More than eighty inscriptions of the post 1st century A.D. mention the Nagas and minor chiefs of the same order. Naga kings (Ela Naga) who ruled over Anuradhapura are also mentioned in Pali sources. Four Brahmi inscriptions from northern Sri Lanka note the Naga chiefs or feudatories. According to the Culavamsa (44:703) a Naga chief, named Sri Naga, came with a Tamil contingent of army to conquer northern Sri Lanka (Uttaradesa). According to Prof. Veluppillai a line-mark in ancient inscriptions and graffiti on potsherds, resembling the phonetic sound, "ma", in Brahmi characters is considered to be the traditional clan emblem of the Nagas. According to the terned scholar (Veluppillai 1980) these emblems are abundantly found in northern Sri Lanka rather than in other provinces, mainly because the Nagas were concentrated here. During the immortal past the namely Naga was restricted in usage to denote a people of the type, but in course of time the name came to be associated with the Tamils and the residential quarters of the Tamils.
Pali sources identify Nagadvipa with the land to the north of Anuradhapura where the people lived and the Buddha is said to have mediated the case of two contending Naga rulers for the throne (M.V.). Sitrampalam (1993: 67-80) links the events appearing in the

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 103
Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai regarding the Nagas with Nagadipa of Lanka. A golden throne, inscribed with the name Nagadiva (pa), from Vallipuram in Jaffna further confirms the above thesis. The Rajaparampariyam (genealogy of kings) in Kalirikattupparai notes the Cola king, Killivalavan who married a Naga princess. Earlier a Pallava king is said to have married a Naga princess according to the Velurpalayam plates (Balasubrahmanian 1988). There are evidences to show that northern Sri Lanka was known as "Naga' during the time of Parantaka I. At Nelaveli in Tirukönamalai district an inscription of the 10" century A.D. registers the donation of Urakirikama, a village, offered as a devadana to the temple of Maheswara. Evidently Uragirigama is the name of a place in Naganadu. What was known as Punakari province as a foreign state in the literature of the age of Jaffna regime is noted as Urayiipunarim in Portuguese records. Some of the historically old places are known as Nagamunai, Nagattalvu and Nagapatuvan. The kudumiyamalai inscription in the Pandinadu region refers to the victory of its king in northern Sri Lanka as a triumph over Naganadu (country of the Nagas). All these evidences suggest that northern Sri Lanka was known, as Naganadu and Uraga but clarification is needed.
There are ample evidences to show that the rulers of the Tamil Nadu issued coins in countries where they ruled. Maravarman Sundara Pandya issued coins with the inscription "Coanadukondan' to celebrate his victory over the Côa country. Other examples may be cited as Rajaraja issuing coins with the inscription "Malainadukondan' to proclaim his victory over the Cera country or Kerala and Rajendra I's coins with the epigram "KankaikondaColan' to commemorate his victory over the Gangetic provinces (1981). But no evidence of coins with two different inscriptions in a conquered Country has So far been reported. Rajaraja Cola's coins with the epigram, Srilasikavira" (hero of Sri Lanka), have been accepted to have been


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104 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
issued from the island on the basis of multifarious evidences. If SO why should he issue another coin with the name, Uraga, is a valid
question. Again most of the Côa coins bear his name or biruda "title'.
Uraga was not his title, it denotes the country or people of northern
Lanka. Rajaraja 's colony in Sri Lanka not only included the Naganadu but also the Sinhalese inhabited Rajarattaipradesam and its
capital. So he took the title, Cinkalantakan (Simhalantaka). He
Selected Polannaruva to be his metropolis and renamed it 'Jananathamarigalam", which was one of his birudas, and Lanka came to be known as "Mummutichcolamandalam' (land of triple-crowned
C6a). Under such circumstances, there is no logic if he is said to
have issued a separate coin to demarcate his victory over Naganadu
and its people. If Parantaka claims victory over Lanka something, not noted in Pali sources, his adventures in the Naganadu were primarily responsible for it.
Parantaka's inscription, dated in his 38" regional year speaks of the victory over Maturai together with the victory over Ilam. Though the namelam, in ancient sources denoted the entire island in certain contexts, it denoted northern Lanka, i.e. Nagadipa, or Naganadu in numerous contexts.The 9" century literary works, Utayananperunkatai of Mayilainatar urai, handle two distinct names, Sirihala and Tlam (Veluppillai 1986: 10). Ilam in Pandya inscriptions, which stood for, Naganadu (ARE 1917, no. 588 of 1916) was Jaffna, part of Naganadu in VijayaNagara inscriptions (SII, no. 778). The different connotations are not due to the capital cities. Because the capital of the Naganadu during the VijayaNagara period was not the same of the Pandya period.
It is pertinent to take into account these evidences to consider why Parantaka issued the Uraga type of coins. It is from with the period of Parantaka that the historically famous lakkacu and

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 105
lakkarurikacu peep into the picture in epigraphical sources. Nearly seventeen coins from Tamil Nadu note these new types. Fifteen of these belong to the time of Parantaka I. Among them twelve were discovered in Tanjavur. The diminishing number of figures point to the fact that these coins slowly vanished from usage. In spite of this, no coin in Tamil Nadu has been reported which so far that is claimed to have been issued by Parantaka. Some dare say that a coin with the name Matirantan (Madhurantaka), was issued by Parantaka to commemorate his victory over Maturai (Nadana Kasinathan 1995). The same coin is said to have been issued by Uttama Cóla according to another scholar (Nagaswamy 1981:36). The problem of Matirantakan is not the main issue here. It is better to find out which type of lakkcu was issued by him if he is the minting authority of such
COS.
Uraga and Naganadu are two different nomenclatures of the same country and so there is no error in saying Parantaka issued the Uraga type of coins. While inscriptions note the country as "lam", the same could have been noted as "Uraga' on commercial grounds. Again, the rulers of Tamil Nadu and the Sinhalese rulers named the country in their inscriptions in Tamil and Sinhalese while in coins the Sanskrit equivalent was employed. So redoubling of the name could be justified.
if the atempt to link the victory over Naganadu and the Uraga Coins with Parantaka is considered appropriate the observation made in Tamil literature that with the coming of the Colas the capital in Katiramalai was changed to Cifikai becomes plausible. Parantaka's capital in Tamil Nadu was named Ciskapuram and that in his army soldiers from the Ciskai-nakar of Koshkunadu were recruited. These might reflect the Naganadu connection. Exudes in numismatics are of reopinion that these coins were minted in Sri Lanka itself. It also


Page 56
Dr. P. Pushparatriar
implies that the rule of Parantaka was established in Naganadu. The presence of the coins in northern Sri Lanka supports such a view. Another type of Coin may also be considered in this connection,
Simultanesouly with the Uraga coins, another type with the name, Laksmi, engraved is available in gold and copper, discussed by Codrigton (1924:60-62) and Mitchner (1998:137). The obverse of the Coin illustrates a human figure with face turned to the left. The right hand lifts up an object, which resembles a purnakumbha. Below it a standing lamp and Sula are carved. To the right of the head a sankhalike object is carved. The left hand of the anthropomorphic figure holds an object, akin to a vajrayudha. The reverse consists of the name, Laksmi, and a sun along the brim. Some identify the human figure with a king (Mitchner 1998:137). From a closer observation, it is found that the figure is seated with the left leg placed on a pedestal and touching the right leg. So it might represent Laksmi which name is carved on the other side of the coin.
These coins have been largely reported from Matottam, Atchuvely (Syone 1998: 32- 34), Pūnakari, Kantarõdai and other places. The Colombo museum also houses a few specimens. There is no evidence to prove these were received from Tamil Nadu. They are available sporadically in northern Lanka but no specimen has been reported from Tamil Nadu. So the fact of their Sri Lankan origin cannot be denied, Being peculiar to Sri Lanka, these are supposed to have been issued by the Sinhalese kings of the 7"-8" century A.D. (Syone 1998: 14-18). On paleographical grounds, these are dated in the later half of the 10" or early 11" century A.D. (Mitchner 1998:137), The Hindu emblems (e.g.Laksmi, Sula, sankha, wajrayudha, puranaku Inbha etc.) would link the coins win the kings of the same religious faith. So kings who followed Parantaka I might have issued these coins (Figure-6),

MFic feri Coins ty" Sri Lankari TzTFF7 il RIrlers IO7
(Figure-6)
Coins of the Cirikai period
ReCent researches in northern Sri Lanka hawe yielded several types of coins, issued during the 11"-13" centuries A.D. Such coins were noted by numismatists from very early stages of research in the discipline (Princep 1858: 419.23).


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OS Dr. P. Pushparatriar
(Figure-7)
Bidulp in 1966 and very recently Mitchmer hawe worked on these coins elaborately (while at the same time dealing with coins of the Pandyas in the Tamil country).
(Figure-8)
On the basis of the symbols, two types are classified: 1) A Couching bull facing right and seated on a pedestal, standing lamps on either side and a crescent above (obverse): two fishes on the reverse
 
 

Arıclerır Coirs of Sri Larıktır. Tarı il Rılers O)
either placed horizontally or vertically (Figure-7). SOITe Coins discovered by the present author show a flower bunch with a fish on each side. In some coins a big fish is found on the obverse, with standing lamps on either sides. The reverse illustrates a flower bunch in centre with fishes on both sides (Figure-8).
Second type of the coins show a standing horse, facing left with a balipitha in its front. Along the brim line a crescent and in the centre a sankha are found. The reverse illustrates three fishes placed On a pedestal with lamps nearby(Figure-9).
(Figure-9)
In some of the coins the fishes are found eating oceanic vegetables (Seyone 1998: 54 55). In some coins the obverse illustrates three fishes while the reverse is with two fishes (Figure-10).
Recent researches in Anuradhapura (Bopearachchi 1998. 157) hawe yielded coins with the bull in the obowerse and two fishes in the reverse. These are very rare finds. Three specimens of the same Were found in Tamil Nadu, now in private collection, The coins are supposed to be of Sri Lankan origin by most scholar to date. Most of them Who Worked on the subject fail to specify the places from where the Coins were discovered.


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10 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
(Figure-10)
Seyon (1998: 54-57) assigns the coins which received his attention to places like Mannar, Matottam and Jaffna. It know that 600 coins were gathered from the mango grove of Mr. Kumarasamy Utaiyan of Tavur. The author got them from the owner and he is in possession of more number of coins. As many as 302 coins were collected by Mr. Vadivelu of Punakari area. Other places of collection include Tenniyankuļam, Pulaccēri, Mattuvilnāçdu, Paļikkudā, Mannittalai, Kalmunai, Nallur (all in Punakar zone). Kantaródai and Udutturai (in Jaffna).
From a face value of the coins Bidulph (1966) and Mitchner
assign the first two types of coins to a period prior to that of S. Parakramabahu- (1167-1186 A.D) in the century A.D. In recent times more number of coins, with inscriptions have been discovered. These help to fix the date. Huge number of coins were found in Matoțițam (1998: 62, P. J nos. 26-29). A coin was spotted in Kantaródai also (Krishnaraja 1998). Two of the coins found in Matottam were read by Iravatham Mahadevan (1970: 111-20) who deciphered the words as Srirajasekhara, Srirajasekhara. The same name was read by Princep (1858:424) as Srivi... kaca. Mitchner (1998: 136) Considered the coins as of Cera origin and read the word as Sriceraparakrama.
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 1
A number of Scholars who reviewed these Coins asserted that these were issued by a number of kings during the 12"-13" Centuries (Seminar of the Tamil Nadu Archaeological Society at Pondicherry in 1990). But no consensus of opinion regarding the names of the kings found on the coins was reached. There are two reasons for such a predicament because the letters are not (1) legible, and (2) not familiar to the scholars of the history of Tamilnadu. On the basis of these evidences, the two types of coins, discussed in the foregoing study could be assigned to the 11t'12" centuries A.D.
The basic questions concurring these coins are: who issued them? and from where? Most scholars treat these as of Pandya origin with due reference to the fish emblem. The type of coin with bull on the obverse and two fishes on the reverse (in possession of . individuals) are not to be spotted anywhere in Tamil Nadu. Nor are they noted in any book on numismatics, published so far. The coins are being discovered in various places of northern Lanka. Of those gathered in northern Lanka, these excepting the Setu type issued by kings of Jaffna, outnumber others. The author has collected a fantastic amount of coins. 1200 coins which on the basis of weight, measure, typology and symbols could be divided into thirty types (Pushparatnam 1999: 6-9). If these are of Pandyan workmanship, more number should be found in Tamil Nadu also.
Some opine that the Pandyas could have released them in Sri Lanka to celebrate their victory over the island. In order to overemphasise the idea Bidulp (1966) considers the bull a common emblem of the Pandya and kings of northern Sri Lanka who because of their political intercourse with the kings of Kalinga could have issued such a hybrid type. These arguments are not acceptable. The "Uraga' and "Srilankavira' coins issued by the Côas are found both in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Maravarman Sundara Pandya's coins with the inscription,


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12 s Dr. P. Pushparatnam
"COonadukontan', issued to celebrate his victory over Cölas, and other such coins are found in Tamil Nadu and also in northern Sri Lanka (Pushparatnam 1993: 122-24). But if the coins under study were released to acclaim Pandyan victory of Lanka why are not they found in Tamil Nadu?, and why are they present only in the island?. In Pandyan coins the portrait of the king with his name and fish alone appear. The coins with bull found in northern Sri Lanka will have to be treated to be separately with no connection whatsoever with the Pandyas. If the bull is an emblem of the Kalingas, it could have had an interaction with the island directly due to commercial intercourse and not through the Pandyas.
The Pandyan rule in Sri Lanka is given as an important reason for the origin of the coins. There are ample evidences to prove the invasion of Sri Lanka by the Pandyas so many times in the long history of the island. They scored a number of victories to impose their regime and to extract tribute from the rulers of the island. But there is no evidence of their direct rule as in the case of Coas. They came, won victories, got tributes, and went away. The coins are mostly of the period from A.D. 1070 to 1215. During this period, the Pandyas were under obligation to the Côas and it was only after that the Second Empire of the Pandyas came into being. So there is no logic in assigning the coins either to the Pandyas or their feudatories in the island. During A.D. 1115 to 1256 six of the Pandyan meykkirttis (historical prefixes to inscriptions) by different kings claim to have invaded the island four times. There is no evidence of their independent rule or appointing governors to rule the island-colony. So it is better not to treat them as Pandyan coins which will undermine the historiography of the history of the Tamils as far as their Contribution to South Asian numismatics is concerned.
The foregoing study provides ample clues to isolate the Sri Lankan coins, which were issued by its rulers. Individuals or

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 113
commercial guilds could not have minted them. To such an effect no clue is available either in Tamil Nadu or in Sri Lanka. So the issuing authority should have been a ruling family of the island. The various typologies suggest their dates in different periods, issued by various rulers. The religious symbols of the coins point out the unmistakable Saivite affiliation of the rulers. So these could not have been the outcome of Sinhalese rulers. The concentration and distribution pattern of the coins is restricted to northern Sri Lanka and so the Cisikai-Nagar kings must have been the issuing authority.
Coins of the Cavaka kings
According to most historians soon after the end of the regime at Polannaruva the rule of Kalingamakan in northern Sri Lanka could have begun in the mid of 13" century A.D. He is considered to have ruled for a long time but no epigraphical or numismatic evidence is found to that effect. If the numismatic evidences are examined, the history of Kalingamakan may come to light. After Kalifikamakan northern Sri Lanka was ruled by the Cavaka king. The Kutumiyanmalai inscription of the Pandyas refers to a feud between two kings of Lanka and the assistance solicited by a minister of a Sinhalese king on whose behalf the Pandya sent his army. In the battle the king of Nakanadu, Cavaka is said to have been killed. But later when Cavaka son surrendered to the Pandyas, the government was left in his charge. These prove the rule of Cavaka and his son in northern Lanka.
A few of the coins in our collection have the name, Sri Cavaka inscribed. It was read by Princep (1858:424) as Srivi-kaca. Codrington (1924:90) repeats the same reading. The scripts for 'va' and "ca' are alike in coins of the age. So the letters 'ca' and "va' were read "vi'and 'ca' by the earlier authorities. They did not know much about the history of Cavaka but were familiar with Vijayabhahu, Virabhahu and


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14 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Vikramabhahu and their coins. But it can be read as Sri Cavaka(Figure-11). Prof. Pathmanathan presume that it can be read as Cavakan. These coins differ from other coins, discussed in this chapter. In the other coins the fish is carved. In the 'Sri cavaka' coins the bull replaces the fish and the name of the king appears in DevaNagari script.
(Figure-11)
The Kutumiyanmalai record notes the rule of the son of Cavaka who succeeded his father. Some of the coins found in Punakari area show three fishes. There is no evidence of the Pandya coins with the triple-fish mark. They issued coins with a single fish while ruling the kingdom with Maturai as capital and from Tirunelveli they issued coins with two fishes. After conquering northern Lanka, they are said to have carved the double-fish emblem on their banner. So the Pandyas do not seem to have issued coins with three fishes.
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 15
Again these types are not to be found in Tamil Nadu or other places. The Aryacakravattikings who ruled from Nallur from A.D. 1284 issued coins with the words, Setu, and their family insignia, the bull. All literary works of their patronage link them with the Setu language and bull emblem. The fish is not associated with them in any source. So the triple-fish coins are likely to have been issued by Cavaka after his defeat by the Pandyas in A.D. 1256 and before the emergence of the Jaffna regime in A. D. 1284, i.e. in between the years 1256 and 1284. This was the period of rule of the son of Cavaka. So he must be the donor of the coins. Others employed the fish due to various reasons. The Colas deployed it to celebrate their victory over the Pandyas and their country. Cavakan's son should have employed the fish emblem to convey his recognition of Pandyan supremacy. Some coins show two fishes on one side and three fishes on the other. It might be to convey the idea of Pandyan paramountcy (three fishes) and the Customary practice of releasing double-fish coins. The three fishes appear with a majestic horse, an agnikunda (sacrificial pit) and standing lamp, which might symbolise, the asvamedha Vedic horse sacrifice conducted by the king.
It might be added here that from the 7" century A.D. to the mid 13" century the rulers of northern Sri Lanka used to issue coins of their own. The historical sources bearing on this epoch in Pali, Sinhala and Tamil sources are meager and so their history itself is submerged in historical mist. So these are considered to be issued by regional governors of Pandyas or commercial guilds. Sevaral inscriptions of the commercial guilds who conducted trade with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asian Countries have been discovered since the Pallava period. In addition to commercial transactions, supported by armed soldiers, they had their own colonial factories and were instrumental in broadcasting Tamil culture abroad (Pathmanathan 1984). But they do not seem to have issued coins and no such evidence is available SO far. If the northern Sri Lanka coins are to be treated so, then Such


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16 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
traces should have been found in other in other parts of the island, where we do not get. A few inscriptions of the trade guilds were discovered in Sri Lanka only outside the northern region. So there is no substantial evidence link these coins with trade guilds.
Coins form an important part among the archaeological evidences The writer has tried to prove that there was a royal dynasty in Naka Nadu or Northern Sri Lanka. However One has to prove that these coins were issued by Naka kingdom. Coins bearing the symbols bull and fish among the above mentioned coins have been studied by many scholars from the middle of 19" cetury A.D. until recently (prensep 1858, Eliot 1858, 1970, Codrigton 1924, Biddulph 1966, Mahadevan 1966, Mictchiner 1998, Bopearachchi 1998, Seyon 1998). Among these numimatics are werth mentioning. All of them have not failed to show specifically in their study that these coins were discovered from Northern Sri Lanka. But they also mention that because the symbols bull and fish are found in the coins issued by the Pandiya dynasty they opined that they issued by the Pandyan. However this contention is not correct in anyway as far as the Coins discovered in Naka Nadu are Concerned
1)The fish in the coins issued in Tamil Nadu till 4" century A.D. was designed in the drawing form. But in the coins found in Naka Nadu they are effusion in the full form(Figure-12).
2) in Tamil Nadu the Pandya inscribed (symbol) a single fish in their coins when their ruled in Mathurai and two fish when they conquered Tirunelvely. They have mentioned in their inscription that even when they conquered Naka Nadu they had two fish as their symbol. No coins of any Pandiya period with more that two fish are available in those discovered so far in Tamil Nadu. But in all coins of all times found in Naka Nadu the number of fishes from two to five (Figure-13).

Ancient-Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 117
Pandya Coin Naka Nadu Coin
(Figure-12)
3)in most of the coins found in Naka Nadu the fish symbol is inscribed on a pedestal which is doted by three lines. This pedestal is Something peculiar only to the coins issued by Tamil and Sinhala kings of Sri Lanka (Figure-14). They are not found in any coins issued in Tamil Nadu or any indian coins.
Sinkala Coin Naka Nadu Coin
(Figure-13)


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18 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
4)The fish symbol in the coins issued in Tamil Nadu is mostly found linked with other symbols. In the coins of Naka Nadu fish is the prominent symbol (Figure-15).
Naka Nadu Coin
(Figure-13)
Pandya Coin
(Figure-15)
 
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 119
5) The coins of Naka Nadu are designed so exquisitely that their modal beauty and brighteness can't be found in any coins Of Tamil Nadu.
6) There are evidences to show that coins with the fish Symbol were issued in Naka Nadu. There is no evidence so far to show that the Pandya issued coins during most of the period, they were not issued in Tamil Nadu even during the period when the Pandya rule declined and no coins were issued in Tamil Nadu. Particularly during the period 4-8" century A.D. and during the period 10-12" century A.D. when they were subject to pay tribute to Chólas, Yet there are evidences to prove that during these periods coins with the symbol of fish were issued in great number in Naka Nadu.
7) The symbol of horse rarely inscribed in the coins of Sasigam period, has no place in the coins of the Tamil Nadu in later period. But in the coins of Naka Nadu horse is also a prominent symbol like the bull (Figure-16).
8) During our archaeological explorations of the writer in this Vanni region many coins issued in Tamil Nadu from Sarikam period to 13th century A.D. have been discovered. But the types of Coins numbering more than thousand found in Naka Nadu (Figure-17) have not been found in Tamil Nadu (Recently in Mathurai and Rameswaram very few coins with the symbol bull and fish have been found). If these coins had been issued by the royal dynasty in Tamil Nadu these coins should have been found in Tamil Nadu in great number.
9) The tradition of inscribing the bull symbol as in coins of Naka Nadu was followed not only by Pandyas but other royal dynasties of Tamil Nadu, the Pallava, Céra and Chola. They have used this as prominent symbol in their coins. And there are evidences that Tamils of Sri Lanka also followed this tradition from very ancient


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2O Dr. P. Pushparatria YP7
time. At the same time some peculiar I feature are noticeable also there. In Tamil Nadu the coins issued in the Safikam period particularly in the Pandya coins bull was a prominent symbol but it is in a standing position. But the contemporary Sri Lankan Tamil Coins this is seen in both standing and lying position. The terracotta moulds discovered in Northern and Southern Sri Lanka Confirm that this model
Came to be used in Sri Lanka from ancient ties. This Continues ewer in the coins issued in Naka Nadu.
Naka Nadu Coin
(Figшге-16)
10) Another special feature in the coins issued in Naka Nadu is that these figure of the bull similar to those of the fish are on pedestal with three lines. This Todal could not be seen in Tamil Nadu and other India coins,
11) Further the neck and hump (Wup) of the bull in these coins are longer and higher than those of the coins of Tamil Nadu. The beauty of the Naka Nadu coins is that the bull is wery prominent on the obverse and this feature is not found in the coins of Tamil Nadu.
 

Aright Cains ஆf Sri Lankar Tari Rers |2||
The Ariyachchakkaravarththi kings of Nallur of the latter part of the 13" century A.D. followed this tradition (Figure-18),
FN ሃm..
斑
鹦
(Figure-17)
The sources in Pali, Sinhala and Tamil naively refer to a government in northern Sri Lanka much earlier than the advent of the kingdom at Nallur in Jaffna, But no detail of the type of government and the kings there is extant. So the coins are said to have been issued when Katiramalai and Cirkai were capitals of the kingdoms. There are hazy notes of the rule at Nallur in the later 13" century A.D. but even in this case no continuous genealogy is available (Pathmanathan 1978). Under Such circumstances the Setu type of coins found in huge numbers in northern Sri Lanka is an important source material to prove the existence of a Tamil kingdom in northern


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122 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Lanka. The availability of the coins in northern Sri Lanka would stand in support of the literary clues in Tamil and the Pandyan inscriptions which note the Tamil kingdoms at Katiramalai and Ciskai. These cannot be fictitious acCounts.
Naka Nadu King Jaffna King
(Figure-18)
Then an important question arise, to "Where was capital of Naka Nadu was located ? arises Rasanayagam links Kathiramalai which is referred to Tamil literature with Kantarótai and feels that Kantarotai could have been the capital of Naka kingdom. There is the reference to Nakanakar in the Brahmi inscriptions belonging to 2nd century B.C. Dr. Ragupathy refers to this and says that it could be Kantarotai. Nicholas (1963) refers to another inscription of 9" century A.D. and feels that it could be a place near Vavuniya. Those who link Kuthiramalai with Kantarotai attempt to establish their opinion by referring to some Tamil literary texts which give a historical account. in this work, the history of Ukkirasingan who ruled in Katiramalai as the capital is linked with Kantarotai area. They refer to Kantarotai as a place where archaeological remains are discovered. However
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 123
when our review, the various literary texts which give an account of Ukkerasingan one can observe that these details of the capital vary from text to text. Jalpanavaipavamalai and Kailayamalai link Katiramalai with Kantarotai in the Valigamam area, Tirukönasalapuranam mention that details of this is near Manikkakankai, KÖneswarar kalvettu mentionspecks that this was in Trinkömalai and Mattakappumanmiyam refers to this as being in Batticalo. Under these circumstances it seems improper to identify Kantarotai which had connection with Buddhism till 14" century A.D., as the capital of Naka Nadu
From the archaeological and literary evidences available, it is more appropriate to locate the capital of Naka Nadu in the Vanni region out side Jaffna peninsula as there are more reliable sources to they to they support this view.
1) Most of the coins that were issued by the Naka dynasty have been discovered in the Vanni region. The Setu type coins which were issued when Nallur was capital were not found in Vanni to the extent that they were found in Jaffna. Similarly the coins issued by Naka Nadu kingdom were not found in Jaffna to the extent they were found in Vanni.
2)in Jaffna there hardly any ancient ruins which could be said identified as the remains of an ancient royal city. But during the archaeological of the writer explorations in Vanni region he was able to see remains of many ancient buildings in places such as Musikuvil, Celiyavil(Figure), Konavil, Arasapuram, Camaththiyamétu, Néravi, Urruppulam and Elavur. Hindu idols (two) with scripts to read the age and tiles with finger print have been discovered among the ruins particularly in Celiyavil. All these tend to prove that they belong to the period before 13" century A.D (Figure-19).


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D. P. Pushparatnam
124
(Figure-19)
 

Marciera Coiras /"Sri La 7 kar T&V) ri' Riler's 25
3) Pali literary chronicles refers to forts and army point of Kalingamagan (1215) who was friendly with the Tamils. When We make the study of the these places most of them are found to include Wanni which linkes Trincomalai and Mato am
4)The early Tamil literary works such as hymns of Nayanmar, Kailayamalai and Tamil Pallu literary works which are connected with Sri Lankan Tamils make prominent reference to Wanni region. Here if Katiramalai had been Kantarotai the Nayanamar's Would have glorified the temple of God Siwa at Kerimalai which belonged to king Ukkerasingan. But they have glorified the temples of Siva at MātoțițaIT (Tirukkethiswaram) and Triņkomalai (Tirukkoneswaram). Even the Potugues who came to Northern Sri Lanka in 16" century A.D. hawe mentioned about Pūnakary having link with Wanni as a place connected to either Naka Nadu or Naka ethnic people. This shows that the Naka dynasty continued even during the later period.
5) Tamil literary texts ention that the king who ruled with Sirgainakar as capital awarded. Yappanam in the North to a blind musician named Jalpati as a gift. From this it could be seen that the kingdom before Nallur was to the South of Jaffna that is in the Wanni region,
Though it could be said that the Naka kingdom Was in Wanni, one has to conduct further archaeological and historical researches to find out the location of the capital of Naka kingdom. But during the Th Century A.D. when Cosmas came to Sri Lanka, Matottam Was One of the famous harbours in Naka Nadu and it was also one of the important centres where various foreign merchants gathered for trade and commerce. The commercial significance and its town pattern were glorified by the Nayanmar hymns too. There are several myths associated with the description of forts built by Nakas are found. During the archaeological excavations Warious types of remains discovered in Matottam show the historical significance of the


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26 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
harbour and the surrounding area in ancient and medieval periods. The Pali texts provide ample evidence that this harbour was a centre for many Tamil invasions and the native Tamils of Matottam generally joined the South Indian invaders.
From the above mentioned evidences it could be maintained that the ancient capital of Naka kingdom was in Matottam. Hence it will be possible to analyse in the future history of Katiramalai which was the ancient capital of Naka kingdom with reference to Kutiramali in South of Matottam.
From the foregoing discussion it will be clear in all probabilities that before the later part of 13th century A.D. when a Tamil kingdom was established in Jaffna with the capital of Nallur by the Ariyachchakkaravarththi a general of the Pandiyas of South India, a Tamil kingdom had flourished in Naka Nadu since 6-7" century A.D. It would be more appropriate to call this kingdom as Naka dynasty than kingdom of Naka Nadu. In ancient Tamil Nadu, the names of Countries such as Cölla Nadu, Céra Nadu, PaOdi Nadu and Koshgu Nadu can be identified with the dynasty names of the respective rulers. The North of Sri Lanka was called Naka Nadu following the rule of Naka kings in the 6" century B.C. A Padiya inscription of 1262 gives a ConCrete evidence to attest to the fact that Northern Sri Lanka continued to be called by this name until Ariyachakkaravartthia new dynasty established their kingdom in Nallur. Thus it can be concluded that the name Naka Nadu has affinity with Naka dynasty.

Chapter Five
Coins of Nallur Kingdom
According to Tamil literary sources after the eclipse of Cifikainakar, the capital of the next Tamil kingdom was Nallur. It was also known as Jaffna and Nallur kingdom. The kingdom is said to have been founded by a brahmana, called Aryacakravati a war general under the Pandyas of Madura who invaded the island to establish his rule. Literature in Pali, Sinhala and Tamil, inscriptions of Sri Lanka and South India, and Portuguese documents confirm the existence of the new regime during the period, 13th to the 17th century A.D., until the advent of the Portuguese from Europe. During the same time span a number of minor kingdoms existed at Kandy and Kottai in South Lanka, Tirikonamalai in east Lanka and at Palukamam and Valikamam. The Rajadhani of Nallur, comprised the following administrative divisions namely, Valikamam, Vatamaratici, Palukamam, Panamai, Paccillaippalli districts, Mannar and thirteen islands, and the Panankamam, Mulliyavalai and Tennamaravati. During certain periods, the rule extended over east and south Lanka. The historical circumstances leading to the origin and expansions of the kingdom have been traced with authentic evidences by Professor Indrapala (1972) and Professor Pathmanathan (1978).
Though the government of Nallur survived for 350 years in north Lanka, only scanty historical source materials are available. The Tamil and Sinhala literary sources are not adequate enough to present a connected chronological chart of the kings and their activities. The available few epigraphical data are also insufficient to obtain a


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128 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
comprehensive picture. In spite of all these hurdles, the coins issued by the Nallur kings attest the existence of a prolonged government which set its mark in the political, economic and cultural aspects, including inland and foreign commerce.
Setu Coins
The rulers of Jaffna had issued various types of coins in different measurements during their rule. Typologically these coins agree with those of the Colas and the Polannaruva models. These coins have been spotted in Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu but the major finds were from various places in north Lanka, e.g. Vallipuram, Nākarkōvil, Pulōli, Mattuvi, Mānippāy, Paņdattarippu, Tellippaļai, Kantarōtai, Tolpuram, Vattukkōttai, Alaippitti, Maņkumpān, Nārantanai, Puikututīvu, Āņaikkōttai, Nalūr, Pūnakari, MatÖttam, Varani, Kaccay, Udutturai, Mullaittivu and other places. (Gnanapragasar 1928, Rasanayagam 1928, Sivasamy 1974: 1-12, Pathmanathan 1980:410, Krishnaraja 1983: 71-84, Pushparatnam 2001). So it was thought that the Jaffna rulers issued only copper coins. Professor Pathmanathan has noted a gold coin at Museum of Boston in London issued by the kings of Nallur (Pathmanathan 1980). In recent time the present author discovered silver coins of the Nallur kings (Pushparatnam 1999: 6-9). But in type and quantitative production the Copper coins dominate the Scene.
The most striking features of the coins are the inscribed word, Setu and the Nandi emblem. 'Setu' evidently means Ramesvaram or bridge while other implications such as dam, wave, territorial boundary, tank, bound and path are also suggested (T.L. il: 715, Pathmanathan 1980:411). 'Setu' is also identified with the stone dam, called after Rama, in the island of Pakkunirinai, lying in between Sri Lanka and India. A few of the religious centres, ksetras or sthalas, in Pandinadu were known as 'Setu' as evidenced by literary and epigraphical sources (Sll, Vill, no. 402). The name, 'Setu', appearing

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 129
in coins may be considered to be a symbolic emblem suggestive of the arrival of the Aryacakravarti kings from Ramesvaram and the deeprooted link that they had with this holy place of the Indian mainland. It could have also been used as an auspicious symbol and family insignia. In addition to coins, the same emblem was employed in all Sovereign documents, banner and inscriptions (Pathmanathan 1980: 41 1-13). South Indian inscriptions begin with the auspicious words, Svastisri and Siddham whereas those of the Jaffna kings begin with the invocation 'Setu'. This might suggest the fact that 'Setu' was more an auspicious and divine denomination, denoting the Lord of Setu at Ramesvaram and it is not known whether there was any such temple in the island where the kings of this family reigned. The army of the last of the Jaffna kings, Casikiliyan, while fighting against the Portuguese marched with a (totemic) banner, bearing the words, Setu, according to Fr. Queyros.
The kings are said to have assumed the royal biruda 'title', Setukavalan "Protector of Setu', according to the Tamil literary works, Cekaråca-cekaramålai (Skt. Jagarajasekharämåla) and Takkinakailäyapuränam (Skt. Daksimakailasapuräna). It might be noted here that the rulers of Ramanathapuram of the kallan lineage under the Nayakas of Matura in the 17" 18" centuries A.D., took the title, Setupati "Masters of Setu' (Kalidos 1976: 263-70). Sétukavalan and Setupati are on the same plane. While the Kalans treated themselves masters of lords of the way in which pilgrims moved in the Kallarnadu (from Putukkottai to Ramesvaram), a similar title in respect of the Sri Lankan Tamils might have taken origin with reference to a temple of equal importance as Ramesvaram within their sovereign jurisdiction in Lanka and not its original in Tamil Nadu Setu was the mythical bridge laid by the vanara "monkey' army of Dasaratha-Rama. He is Supposed to have gone to Ramesvaram and then to Lanka. So according to myths prevailed then it was likely that there would have been a place which was the terminal of the bridge connecting the


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island and the mainland. There could have been a temple for Rama Or Siva or for both venerated by the Setu kings. Whether there was really any such temple is a question which needs Some archaeological or other historical evidence. The Cekaraca-cekaramalai ( V.7) and Kayilayamalai (V.5) refer to one of the Ariyacakkravartti with the words, vitaikko tiyurī Sētuvum nĪkaņtika/ oņpatum poritatu mikaita kóvum, meaning the ko "king' who possessed the Nandi banner, the Setu, nine long kantis, perhaps carved on his family ensign. On this basis Prof. Pathmanathan considers Setu to be an abridged version of Setukavalan. In coins both the Setu and Nandi in zoomorphic form appear. The Takkinakaiyalayapuranam refers to a king called cekaracacekaran (Jagarajasekhara) with the annotation, ifapa vankofielutiya peruman, the dignified one who had the banner affixed with the bull emblem. A work of astrology, jyotisa, notes the bull banner (Skt. Vrsabhadvaja) of the king of Ciskai. These are proof of Setu and Nandi as hallmarks of the kings of Jaffna.
Though the coins were examined by scholars from the 19" century, no one came forward to asociate these with the kings of Jaffna. The first to work on the Setu coins were Princep and Elliot. Princip (1858:419-24) in his article on 'Lanka Coins' makes a note of two Setu coins with photographic illustration and calls them coins from South India. Elliot (1970: 152G, no. 72c) who worked at the time of Princip called them Cóla coins. Then came Rhys Davis who considered them coins of the Sinhala king, Parakhramabhahu, who issued them for use in Pandinadu. Rev. Fr. Tracy (1889-94: 1-12) was the first to suggest the differences between the coins of Setupatis of Ramanathapuram and the Sri Lankan Setu coins and opined that the latter were issued by island kings.It was Rasanayagam who first suggested that the Setu coins were issued by the Tamil kings Jaffna. Later Swami Gnanaprakasar (1920: 172-79) established this finding with several evidences.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 13
Among the later researchers, Prof. Pathmanathan deserves a worthy note. He studied eighty Setu coins and classified them under chronoloogical sequence and tabulated the coins on the basis of weight, measurement, symbols, letters and workmanship. They were divided into various types on the above points of variation (Pathmanathan 1980:414-17). Now there is a good number of papers on Setu coins which may be briefly summarised in the following aCCOunt.
1) A human being stands facing right. He seems to carry in hands a full pitcher-like object. Below is carved a crescent with a standing lamp to the left. The usual Nandi emblem is not found. The reverse illustrates a reclining human being, directed to the right. Setu is carved in Tamil script.
2) A man faces the left. On his both sides standing lamps are planted. On the reverse the Nandi facing left appears couchant. The upper section is carved with a crescent. Below the bull the word, Setu appears,
3) Of the same type as the previous two a purnakumbha is carved below the man facing right on his left side.
4) The standing lamp is on the obverse, bull to the right and in centre a man facing right. The reverse shows a man facing right. It is carved with the word, Setu.
5) The obverse shows a man facing right. The bull is seated facing left. Above the bull a crescent appears. This feature is not found in the four types, noted above. A trisula is added to the tail part of the bull. To the left is a standing lamp, fixed on a pedestal. The reverse contains a seated man, facing left. To the right the word Setu is carved.


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32 Dr. P. Pushparatrial
6) The obverse illustrates a standing man, facing right, He holds an illegible object just above his right shoulder. There is a standing lamp to the right. To the left a javelin is carved. The left hand of the man is suspended below and touching something. It might be a tree with several boughs or a vajrayudha. The reverse consists of a COLChat Nandi. Behind the bull the Crescent and sun are found.
Below the bull the Word, Setu is carved.
7) These are tiny coins. Instead of a human being an eight-petalled lotus is found. The bull is seated on a pedestal which is very rare. (Figure -1);
(Figure-1)
NLImeroUS of SëtU Coins Were discowereld in Course of Several explorations. All these conform to the seven typologies, described above. The present author has brought to light four new types, so far not reported. Noted among them are silver coins (Figure -2) which are
TETE.
 

PTC'ler7 Ceoir, of Sri Larka 7 any i Rutlers 33
(Figure-2)
In some coins the obverse shows a Nandi and lotus (Fig. 3) or peacock (Fig. 4) or a dwarf human being (Fig. 5). These are clues to suggest that more varieties of Setu coins may come to light in future.
(Figure-4)


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134 Dr. P. P.sh parat narrin
(Figшге-5)
Coins with the name of Kanta
So far Scholars hawe tried to establish the wiew that the Sētu type of coins were issued by kings of the Nallur Rajadhani. Recent researches of the present author have brought to light two types of Coins with the names, kantan and Ariyaccakkaravartti Coins of such type have been discovered in north Lanka by other scholars too. A few coins were deposited in the Ewelin Ratnam cultural Certre at Tirunelveli in Jaffna. These were found very rarely at Karur in Tamil Nadu. The Madras Museu has registered a few coins which were sold to a person from Tamil Nadu by a north Lankan. There are evidences to prove their island origin. The coins with the inscription," kan" may be noted first. The details are:
1) Place: Mannittalai.
Metal: Copper,
Measurement 1.5 cm.
Weight: 2.0 gram.
Obverse : There are two circles along the brim line. There are thick dots in between the circles. With in
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tariri Rulers 35
the inner circle there is a peacock facing left. The plumage is flat while the ko (7 fai is tall. A few coins show the peacock holding a snake in its beak but in the present case the snake is deformed. The Crescent and sun appear above the peacock.
The reverse has two circles along the rim line with dots inside. To the left a W5 javelin' is found and below is a box-shaped Square mark within which the 'saka' Tark is found. At the centre the Word, "kan', appears. Below two pada "feet" marks are found. To the left there is a triangular incomplete figure. It might be a symbol. Around the figures are small dots(Figure-6).
(Figure-6)
The significance of the coin is its peacock emblem. The origin of peacock in coins first began in India from the 4th century B.C., and prevailed till the 19" century in all parts of the subcontinent. In the north Indian types along with the mayūra, "peacock", the sakti (TVēl) appear with the names, Karttikeya and Kumara, inscribed (Gupta 1969). In the Pallava coins of the 7" century A.D. a bull appears in the obverse with the letter "dam' above the bull and the peacock on


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136 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
reverse (Seetharaman 1997). Rulers of the 17th century Tamil Nadu also issued coins with the peacock emblem. The Nayakas of Madura, Setupatis of Ramanathapuram and the Nawabs of Arcot were the issuing authority. A coin from Madura has the right facing peacock in obverse and a vel above the bird. The reverse has the words “Kumaran tu(nai)" inscribed. A coin from Tiruneveli has a six-faced Murukan, seated on a peacock and the name, Setupati, in the reverse (Seetharaman 1997). The Laksmi coins of the 2nd century B.C. from Sri Lanka include the figures of peacock, javelin and rooster. There after the peacock appears only in the Setu coins of the Jaffna kings.
The facts and figures presented above justify the prevalence of coins with figures of Murukan along with his emblems, the peacock and javelin, in India and Sri Lanka from time immemorial. These historical clues would suggest the fact that the Setu kings who issued these coins were steeped in the worship of Murukan or Skanda. The words, “kan”, found in the coins further confirm the proposition. Typologically the Sri Lankan coins very much differ from their Indian models. So it is certain that the island coins were issued by its rulers.
On paleographical ground the script in the coins are dated in the 14" century and there after. The Tamil word "kan' confirms their Tamil origin and the issuing authority who were Tamil kings. Contemporaneously no ruler from Tamil Nadu seems to have issued such coins. The idioms were typical of the kings of Jaffna. So these were of insular origin in Lanka.
A few of the coins of the Jaffna kings include emblems of other religious factions, besides the peacock and javelin. In one the peacock appears opposite to a Nandi, seated facing left. The image of peacock in both types is alike. Their plumage is bent while in the Indian coins they are erect as the bird is supposed to dance.

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 137
Pathmanathan was of opinion that the shortened name, Setu, was elongated into Setukavalan. The Tamil work, Cekaracacekaramalai, calls the king of Jaffna, Cekaracacekaran with the epithet, kantamalai-yariyarkön (Pathmanathan 1992: 317). Kantamalai is the name of a place in South India in its southern extremity, called Kantamatanam. According to the Setupuram Setu is a sthala in Kantamatanam. This place was the ancestral home of the Ariyaccakkaravarttikal. The Cekaracacekaramalai notes another epithet, kantamalai-yariyarkón (King of the Aryas of Kantamalai), which could be placed on a par with Setukavalan. If the latter could be abbreviated into " Setu', then the former epithet could also be' abbreviated into ‘kan’ which appears in the coins. This is a logical derivation. The Ariyacakkaravarti rulers employed 'Setu' as a family insignia and also as their royal emblem while its connotation as an auspicious and divine uttering could also be plausible. It might be due to the fact that the Ariyacakkaravartis were staunch Saivites. Similarly the 'kan' of coins and its elaborated version “kantamalai-yariyarkön would pinpoint the devotion of Ariyarkon to the Tamil God, Kantan or Muruka.
Coins with the name of Ariyacakkaravarti or Arumukan
The details of the coins are as follows:
Place: Virapāntiyanmunai (Pūnakari).
Metal: Copper.
Measurement: 1.3 Cm.
Weight: 1.9 grams
Legend on obverse: There are two circles along the brim line with dots inside. The peacock is carved. It differs figuratively from the previous type. It faces the right while in the other type it faces the left.


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138 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
It holds a small Snake in its beak which is clear. The Crescent and the Sun are much defaced.
Legend on reverse. There is a circle along the brim line. The javelin is missing. instead of 'kan', the letter 'a' appears. The human feet appear. To the right and left the same motifs are seen as in the previous ype Figure-7).
(Figure-7)
This coin resembles much the "kan type. Instead of 'kan, the alternative, 'a', appears. The figures of peacock, resemblance between the symbols, the typology of the coins and the palaeographical unity of the scripts in both would suggest that these
 

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 139
were issued by a king or dynasty at a particular point of time. A few of the disagreeing elements could be taken for granted as it is a common norm. All need not be warped out of the same mould even within a particular period.
The letter, 'a' needs to be examined to find out its significance and relevance. In South Indian tradition there was a custom to inscribe the first name of the king alone in coins. Good examples are the coins of Ceras with the letter "Cé' (Mitchner 1998: 160-61) and that of Ballala lll (A.D. 1292-1345) The coins of Hoysala who ruled over Korkumandalam bear the letter "ba'. Other coins of the period have the first letter of the king's name as head while the torso is anthropomorphic. For this model also the coins of Ballala lll are good examples (Seetharaman 1996: 89-97). In the Sri Lankan types both the "kan' and 'a' find the feet of a human being along with the hip below the letters. The anthropomorphic features are very clearly shown in the ‘ā’ type of coins. So the name "kan' can be identified with kantamalai-yariyarkon, and then logically the anthropomorphic engraving below the letters should also denote the same king. In such a case the identification of the king or man in the 'a' arises. The Tamil Lexicon gives the meaning of 'a', among others as a bull or Nandi. Since the Jaffna kings used to engrave the Nandi in their coins, the 'a' may be identified with the bull. But in fact under the letter 'a' human feet are carved. So it cannot be a bull but a human being or a king. The Aryacakkaravartti of Jaffna used to inscribe the word, Setu, in their coins and not their names. So 'a' might stand for the family name Aryacakkaravartti, the initial letter being represented in the coins. At the same time the letter 'a' might have denoted Arumukan a popular name of Murukan (who has six faces).
From the foregoing discussion, it is clear that the Nallur rulers of the Aryacakkaravartti family issued coins, bearing the inscribed words, Sētu, Kantan (kan) and Āryacakkaravartti (ā). These coins are


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140 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
good additional sources to trace the history of the Nallur Rajadhani. A number of kings had held sway over the kingdom during a vast span of time, extending over 350 years. But no clues to specify the names of - kings and their reign period are traceable. Of the deserving works on the subject the book by Prof. Pathmanathan (1978) may be mentioned. This work raises serious questions regarding the names of kings and their chronology. Under such circumstances, it is difficult to specify the names of kings who issued the hoard of Nallur Rajadhāni coins. The coins with the deformed name, ‘kan’ and the literary reference to Kantamalaiyarkon and the builder of the Kantan temple at the metropolis of the Nallur Rajadhani maybe vaguely identified with the one and same personality.
A random verse in Kailayamalai notes the Kantan temple, the city of Jaffna, both erected by one Phuvanékapaku. The literary reference is:
lakkiya cakâpta me/7/7ür
relupatāmāņta telai
alaarpoli mälai märpa
namрuva neka vaku (Puvanekavaku=Skt Bhuvanekabhahu)
Nalammikum Yālppēēņatu
Nakari ka ft fluvittunallaik
kulawiya kanta vétkuk
kõyilum ka ft fluvit täné
The verse refers to a year in the lakkiya era, 870. It is supposed to be Saka era, year 970-A.D. 941). So Puvanekapaku is supposed to be a Tamil king of the 10th century A.D. who founded the city of Jaffna and built the Temple. But there is no evidence of a king, called Puvanekapaku, or a kingdom at Nallur in the century specified. Seven kings with the name, Bhuvanekapahu, had ruled over Sri Lanka. Of these seven kings of the same name, Buvanekapaku VI had a Son

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 141
by name, Sapumalkumara alias Cenpakapperumal who in A.D. 1450 is said to have captured the Rajadhani of Nallur and ruled it for eighteen years. The event is confirmed by an inscription of the king from Jaffna (Indrapala 1971: 29-31). In all probability he was the ruler and builder of Murukan temple noted in the Kailayamalai, cited above. The invocatory eulogy verse recited in the Nallur temple (e.g. Catapumal, Srisarikabódhi and Buvanekapaku) refers to him only.
if the king could be associated with the temple of Kantan, the question whether he issued coins with the peacock figure and "kan' arises. In all Nandi coins the word Setu occurs. Because for the Aryacakkaravarttikings, Setu was the family insingnia. So the king had replaced Setu with "kan' and the Nandi with peacock. 'A' denotes the Aryacakkaravartti kings and “kan' is the shortened form of Kantamalaiyariyarkon which occurs in the coins with peacock emblem and there is a problem in linking the king with Buvanekapaku. So it is better to consider the coins in relation to the Ariaccakkaravartti.
The coins of Ariaccakkaravartti lineage usually bear the Nandi emblem and the words Setu. But this is not a general rule. In some cases the figure of Nandi along with a image of the standing dwarf appears. Nandi is to the left. In other coins the king is either seated or standing and to his left the Nandi appears. Particularly interesting are the coins in which the emblems typical of Murukan cult, the peacock and vel, appear. It might stand for a preliminary stage when the peacock came to be carved alone in coins. That is to say first the peacock appears with Nandi and subsequently it replaced Nandi. These might suggest the stages in the increasing popularity of Murukan cult. That is to say what was once linked with Siva, later became an independent cult. In Tamil tradition scholars talk of aruvakaiccamayam (cf. later Pandyan inscriptions) 'six Cults' of which Skanda was independent, the others being Siva, Visnu Devi, Ganapati and Surya. But in traditional Saivism Murukan is part of the family of Siva. In Saivism there are pancamurtis, five gods, who are


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142 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Siva, Dēvi, Gaņapati, Murukan and Caņdikesvara (kalidos 1989:223). in Sri Lanka also this kind of integrity and dissention are likely to have occurred which is pointed out by the coins under study. The Aryacakkaravartti, taking the epithet Kantamalaiyaniyarkon, would have been an ardent follower of Kaumara (Kumara or Kantan) cult.
The Cekaracacekaramalai identifies Kantamalaiyariyarkön with the king, Cekaracacekaran. Cekaracacekaram and Pararacacékaram (cf. Parakesari and Rajakésari, royal title of the Cola emperors, assumed alternatively) were royal titles assumed by the Ariaccakkaravartti on accession to the throne. This might have been in imitation of the Cóla titles (Parakesari= Pararacacekaran, Rajakesari= Cekaracacekaran, jagaraja 'king of this world', para 'the other world', Kesari'crown' or monarch, cekaram, sekhara 'garland"). One is not sure of the king who assumed the epithet Cekaracacekaran, The literary work, Cekaracacekaramalai was written in the 14" century A.D., during the time of Varodaya Cisikaiyariyan. He also took the title Cekaracacékaran. So it is quite likely that he also took the title, Kantamalaiyariyarkon. It was during his regime that Jaffna was at its best in all aspects of government such as polity, economy, religion and commerce. He collected tribute from the rulers of south Lanka and assisted the Pandyas of Madura who suffered due to the Islamic invasions, following Malik kapur and the Sultanate of Malabar. He is supposed to have supplied elephants and gold to the Pandyas. He is said to have patronised poets in Tamil and Sanskrit and offered them presentations in gold as per testimony provided by the Cekaracacekaramalai (1942:10). Basing on literary evidences and the clues supplied by Pandyan and Sinhalese inscriptions, he is assigned to the 14" century A.D. (Pathmanathan 1972: 244-47). If the ‘kan’ coins could be palaeographically assigned to the 14" century, then the king under note is likely to be the authority issuing this type of coins. But the induction of 'A' is a problem to be reckoned with and so the question is open for further research.

Chapter Six
History of the Tamils through Numismatics
Numismatics is one of the most potent sources to rewrite the history of a Country. Europeans had made use of it in the 18" century A.D. while it was deployed in India in the later 19" century and in Sri Lanka at the middle of the 20" century. In any developed country Scholars come across coins which were minted locally and those which were received through commercial contacts from other Countries. Foreign coins help to assess the political and commercial relations between the affiliated countries. Coins minted inland provide evidences to trace the settlement pattern, language, script, religion and the cultural histories of a nation. In recent times there is spurt in historical research in Sri Lanka by employing the evidences, obtained through numismatic sources. It was a fashion among scholars in those times to view all coins of the pre-13" century A.D. in Sri Lanka as imported from India, especially the Tamil coins which were Supposed to have been received from Tamil Nadu. These led to Several inconsistencies in historical generalizations. There is a need to relook at the old problem and an effort to sort out the coins of Sri Lankan origin is very much needed. It might set right the balance in historical research and get for the Sri Lankan Tamils their due place in South Asian history
Script and Language in Coins
Numismatics is a viable source to trace the history of script and language as in the case of epigraphy. While the notes supplied by epigraphy are abundant those of numismatics is Crisp. The earliest such numismatic evidences are available in Sri Lanka from the 3"


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century B.C. in the form of Tamil Brahmī inscriptions. These are on a par with the contemporaneous lndian Brahmi sources and profess to yield much data on religious affairs of the Buddhist congregation. Interestingly they contain a number of Brahmi Tamil letters and are rich in yielding Tamil personal names. Such data are abundant in coins of the 2" century B.C. Three salient features of these coins may be presented: 1) coins in Tamil Brahmi script issued in Tamil language, 2) Tamil names ending with the characteristic Tamil suffix, an, which appear in northern characters, and 3) coins with Prakrit names using Tamil Brahms letters. Most significant usage is "" which is typical of Tamil and "ma' which is typical of Tamil Brahmi script (Bopearachchi 1999: 58, 63). These are proof of the prevalence of Tamil Brāhmī and the Tamil language in Sri Lanka. In any case language precedes writing and literature and so the spoken Tamil should have existed much earlier than the date of Tamil Brahmi script. During the medieval period Devanagari in addition to the Tamil script, was also employed as is evident from the coins with the word, Savaka. Both the Sinhalese and Tamil merchants had made use of Devanagari. International trade may be the reason for such usage. It is also known from literary sources that the Tamil kings of north Lanka rendered services to both Tamil and Sanskrit, the latter being written in Devanâgari script.
Coins and Tamil Settlements
It might not be possible to identify a race or people with reference to the coins unearthed in a country or place. This is because the coins minted in a particular place or country percolate to other regions in an age of international commerce. The abundance of a coin, obtained from a place or country, might help to identify the issuing authority in consultation with other corroborative evidences. It helps to identify the people or race who are associated with the origin of coins. There is a tendency among Sri Lankan historians to relate

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 145
the earliest settlements of Sri Lankan Tamils with monuments of the megalithic period. The cultural identities on both sides are cited as main reason for such a kind of methodological approach. But during the historical periods, people of the same megalithic culture had bifurcated into Tamil and Sinhala and so it is difficult to say that all megalithic centres were settlements of the Tamils. When Buddhism spread in the island, a section of the megalithic population had embraced the religion and patronized it. These are proved by the Brahmi inscriptions, spotted in centres of megalithic culture. Though these records are in Prakrit, several Tamil personal names, family names, titles, social usage and place names are found in them. It is around these ancient Centres of human habitation and Cultural activities that coins have been unearthed. Commercial and Cultural contacts might have facilitated the increasing links. Coins of Tamil Origin are found in increasing numbers around centres of megalithic sites which help to identify the early settlements of the Tamils with due reference to other sources such as inscriptions and Brahmi potsherds.
Tamil Coins of the pre-6." century A.D. are in huge numbers at the following places: Tissamaragama, Ampantottai, Anuradhapura (in South Lanka), Mantottam, Mullaittivu, Punakari, Kandarotai, Vallipuram (in north Lanka). Both inland and foreign coins have been found in these places. So these were centres of the earliest kingdoms and Commercial bases from where trade with Countries abroad was active. The megalithic settlements of the Tamils, discovered in these regions, and the increasing number of Brahmi inscriptions found there further confirm the origin of kingdoms and the overseas contact they had for commercial purposes. The Brahmi inscriptions appear with the typical Tamil letters, '', 'r', 'I', 'I and n (Pushparatnam 2000). Other Tamil expressions are Parata, a community name (I.C, no. 643); Vēl, parumaka (Perumakan), Parumakaļ, Kutumbikam, Rāca al titles (I.C, nos. 612, 647, 745, 795, 610 43); makal , maruka, marumakan, marumân, all domestic usages (Puahparatnam 2000: 1 – 10), vayal,


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matu, nakar, Palli, KÕttai, KÕtu. Pitti, Nätu, Kätu, Toțițuvāi, Kuțā, Kuiți, Ur, all place name suffixes (IC, nos. 794, 656, o 538) and also personal names.
Sixteen of the inscriptions discovered in this region talk of a king of fish (Mahima-raja) with the drawing of fishes which are said to be evidences of the Tamils who lived there without any subservience to the Sinhalese kings (idea of Mendis, cited in Venkatasamy 1983:610). Pali literary sources refer to the Sinhalese king, Duttagami, who is said to have invaded Anuradhapura kingdom of Ellalan, and prior to that event he took several months to gain victory over thirty two Tamil kings who ruled in south Lanka (M.V. XXV: 75). Even though the pali literarySource isan exaggerated literary clue, it confirms the presence of the Tamils in south Lanka in remote periods. During the post-7th century A.D. among other temples, one was built for ViSnu at Tevinuvarai in south Lanka (Indrapala 1999). These are evidences of the Tamil occupation of south Lanka from a very early period. These are further confirmed by the coins unearthed in the region. Anuradhapura was a powerful kingdom from the 3rd century B.C. till the Colas conquered it in the 10" century A.D. The throne was several times occupied by the Tamils. The forerunners of these rulers were the microlithic and megalithic peoples who culturally got closer to South India. More number of Brahmi inscriptions has been discovered in this region. These inscriptions offer more clues to the Tamil inhabitants of the region. A record refers to the league of Tamil merchants who were engaged in commercial enterprise (I.C. 1970. No.94). So the Tamil coins of the region were not only the outcome of habitation but also their commercial activities.
In north Lanka fifty nine Brahmi inscriptions were discovered in caves in the Vanni district and not in other places. Whenever Tamil coins were found, megalithic and historical human settlements have been located. At MatOttam in addition to Tamil coins, other inland and alien coins were spotted. It was mainly because of the fact that

Mniclant Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 147
the place was one of the most ancient ports in the island. Its status as an ancient human habitation has been proved by the megalithic monuments discovered from Ponparippu in the south to KandarOtai in the north. These monuments bear close semblance to the artifacts found in Tamil Nadu at Arikkamedu and Adicchanailur. That the region was populated by the Tamil Speaking people as evidenced by the following potsherds with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions potsherds bearing words like Veland Tam found in Punakari area (Pushparatnam 1993: 38-41)and, a seal with the word Koveta found in Anaikkottai (Raghupathy 1987: 202-203). Against this background it may be added that the presence of huge number of coins found in north Lanka was mainly due to Tamil settlements therein.
It should be kept in mind that coins dated from the 7" century A.D. were mostly procured from the north Lankan regions. All coins dated in the post-10" century were obtained only in north Lanka and not in other parts of the island. Very few such coins were found in Anuradhapura, South Lanka and Tamil Nadu. So all coins of north Lanka could not be said to have been imported from outside the island. Even though the Jaffna Kingdom lasted for more than 350 years, its coins were rarely found beyond the orbit of north Lanka. These lead to the generalization that after the 7" century A.D. Tamil settlements in north Lanka went on increasing. That will not mean that outside north Lanka the Tamils were non. -residents. Most Tamil inscriptions of the post-8" century A.D. were found outside north Lanka at Anuradhapura, Polannaruva, Kurunakal, Panduvasņuvarai, Tirukonamalai, Padaviya, Nilaveli, Kuccaveli and other places (Veluppilai 1972, Pathmanathan 1971-72: 13-36, Subbarayalu & Shanmugam 1998: 32 - 43, 1999: 11-12). These inscriptions were mostly found in Tamil inhabited regions in east Lanka. A few inscriptions were found in north Lanka at Matóttam, Urkavarturai, Jaffna and Urumpirai. Paucity of rock to carve inscriptions is given as


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a reason but if researches are undertaken in the rocky Vanni region more clues may be obtained.
Coins and State Formation
Coins are evidences of the formation of governments and kingdoms. Such a link has been established in respect of the sixteen mahajanapadas which existed in North India during the pre-Maurya period. In their coins no scripts or words or royal emblems were found. More than 200 graffiti were identified (Gupta 1969). According to Pali literary sources (MV VI-VII) urbanisation and formation of kingdoms took place in Sri Lanka with the migration of peoples from North India in the 5" century B.C. It would be better to suggest that urbanisation and kingdoms were formed during the megalithic period with the introduction of irrigation, agriculture, use of iron, small-scale industries and foreign commerce. Tangible evidences of these phase developments have been discerned through the Brāhmī inscriptions found in megalithic sites. These brief epigraphic notes give kingly titles such as Raja, Maharaja, Kamani, Gapati, Parumaka and Vēl. These aver not only the royal status of rulers but also the titles of nobles who held a high status due to trade, employment and social importance. Few of these titles are supposed to be those of minor chiefs and petty kings. Some of these might also suggest the elevation of clan chiefs to royal status.
Vēļ and parumaka are typical Tamil epithets. Vēl is supposed to be clan chief but such a status in course of time came to denote the powerful leader of a people. Vél is also considered to be the equal of raja "king' in Sanskrit (Thapar 1984:24). The social status of the leader holding the title, Vel, was akin to the Vésir of the Casikam age (Pushparatnam 1993: 19-28). It is confirmed by the feminine title, perumakal, which appears in contemporary inscriptions. Seneviratne (1993:68-69) who worked on pre-state to state society formation is of opinion that the leader of a particular area or locality takes the titles of

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 49
makan and perumakan in Cańkam literature the names of Ori, Korran, Elai, Pekan and Erumai are suffixed with peruman and perumakan. Perumakan corrupts into peruman and perumaka in spoken Tamil. Perumaka is also an invocation. Such a kind of Conventional usage is likely to have prevailed in Sri Lanka as pointed out by the Brahmi inscriptional titles, marumakan and maruman which end with makan and mān (Pushparatnam 2000: 1-11). These are pointers of the origin of native Tamil kingdoms of a rudimentary nature, further confirmed by the coins.
Of the names appearing in coins of the period from the 2nd century B.C., 90% resemble those found in Sri Lankan Brahmi inscriptions. Except, Kapati which denotes a family chief, no other inscriptional title appears in coins. A clay tablet with a stamp mark on it gives the name, Tisaputa mahaga Parumaka. It is from Anuradhapura, dated in the 3rd-2nd century B.C. This title fails to appear in coins so far discovered. So it is better to say that these Coins were issued by commercial guilds or those commanding a high status in society rather than by minor chiefs or Feudatory kings. It might also be the beginning stage of the emergence of kingdoms. At that point of time copper and led coins were in usage which were Square without any words. Minor kings of the royal establishment at Anuradhapura are also likely to have issued the coins. The type of Coins are found in various parts of Sri Lanka, especially in the South, when compared with other regions and so the Tamils are likely to have Settled in extensive areas at the early period and the most powerful among them were the founders of kingdoms. Contemporary Sri Lankan Brāhmī inscriptions note the Tamil word, kuiți, denoting people united by blood connections which point out the grouping of Tamils on the basis of race or language. The Mahavamsa mentions the conflict between Tamils and Sinhalese rulers in the 2" century B.C. and also notes thirty two Tamil kings (CV, XXV: 75). This might signify the rise


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of clan leaders to the status of minor chiefs with their own territorial jurisdiction.
Most of the post-7" century Tamil coins were discovered in north Lanka. It tends to suggest the rise of Tamils to the level of forming kingdoms from their earlier status as minor chiefs or feudatories. Silva is of opinion that the popularity of the bhakti movement in the 6" century A.D. in Tamil Nadu along with the emergence of merchant guilds and invasions of Sri Lanka were responsible for the drift between the Tamils and Sinhalese in the island which also led to the identification of the Tamils on the basis of religion, language and race. The presence of Tamil coins in north Lanka, in fact, Suggests the emergence of regionalism among the Tamils and their rise to rulership status.
Coins and Commercial Enterprise of the Tamils
Coins arose mainly to facilitate commercial activities and played a vital role in invigorating the process. In early times, commercial guilds issued coins with the due sanction from rulers of the land. In ancient Sri Lanka rulers encouraged commercial enterprise abroad which resulted in cultural exchanges. These are confirmed by the foreign coins and other archaeological evidences discovered in Sri Lanka. Such an intercourse was proved not unilateral but bilateral proved by the coins, Brahmi potsherds and archaeological finds present in Tamil Nadu. The Tamils are said to have played a leading role in such commercial activities according to Pali literature and the contemporary Brāhmī inscriptions (I.C 1970: nos. 94, 356, 357). The geography of Sri Lanka, the abundance of commercial products and the natural harbours in the north and south of the island were the factors behind the flourishing trade.
Though coins were the chief items of exchange for Commercial products the Sri Lankan coins were not so much

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 151
employed in foreign trade as in inland trade. Particularly the Brahmi inscribed coins were found in Sri Lankan trading centres but not outside the island. The reason may be that such coins were mainly meant for donations to the Buddhist order and also for local trade. This subject is open for further research. Coins obtained outside the island, particularly in Tamil Nadu, are those of the Laksmitype and those bearing the figure of lion. The Laksmitype was found in Karur, Second capital of the Ceras, which prove the commercial relationship between the Tamils of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Of the post-7" century coins those bearing the figures of bull and fish and the Sétu type were found in a few parts of Tamil Nadu and north Lanka. Large number of coins were not found when compared with the presence of Tamil coins in northern Sri Lanka. Reasons for such a stalemate Will have to be further examined.
Coins and Religion of Tamils
Coins serve the purpose of identifying the prevalence of religious factions, deities, iconographical forms of the gods and goddesses and their art traditions in point of time. They constitute an important source of history. On numismatic evidence alone, there is a method to write the history of a region or religion or a time span in India (Sarma 1990, Mansuhlal 1968, Nagasamy, Seetharaman). In Sri Lanka Coins have been cited while writing a general history or the history of religion, besides pointing out the type of religious practice (Parkar 1981:459-521, Sivasamy 1975: 32-37, Pathmanathan 1985, Sitrampalam 1995: 398-408). So there is a need to look at the religion of the Sri Lankan Tamils with exclusive reference to their Coins.
Indian numismatists have ascertained more than 300 symbols and emblems found in coins. Many of these are from the Harappan seals which are identified with symbols of Hinduism. In later times Buddhist and Jain hallmarks were imprinted (Sarma 1990). Taking the religious symbols in North and South Indian coins into account,


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Mansuklal has listed twelve emblems common to Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. A particular emblem associated with a god in a religion is also linked with a god or goddess of the same type in another religion. For example Vaisnavi in Vaisnavism bears the Cakra and the same emblem is associated with a similar goddess, called Cakresvari, in Jainism. So the identification of a deity in coins depends on various factors in addition to emblem or more emblems.
The most repeated emblems in Sri Lankan Tamil coins are the following: Siva-linga, Nandi-pada, Nandi (theriomorphic), bull (zоomorphic), trisula "trident", bana "bow", tanka or T, battle-axe”, vel javelin', mayil or mayur 'peacock', kukkuta "rooster, Srivatsa (mark of Sri, Goddess of Fortune), Laksmi, padma "lotus, gaja 'elephant”, kurma 'tortoise', matsya fish', aswa horse, sankha “conchshell', cakra 'disc, fenced virksa tree', swastika, candra 'moon', Surya 'sun' and so on. These emblems are associated with various gods and goddesses in Hinduism; e.g. Siva (Linga, Nandi or bull, trisula, tanka or malu), ViSnu (Sankha, cakra, Srivatsa, Laksmi, padma, gaja, kurma (an avatara of ViSpul, Matsya (anotheravatara), asva (Kaliki awatara?), Devi (trisula, Laksmi, sankha and cakra), Murukan (vel, kukkuta, mayura)and so on. Surya and Candra are minor deities. The fenced tree might symbolise a sthalavrksa, an important member of any temple of a god or goddess. Gaja is associdated with Indra as his vahana or Visnu who offers grace to Gajendra "King of elephants' in his Garudaruda-ViSnu form. The bana is an important emblem of Rama. Both Saivism and Vaisnavism seem to have been very powerful religious factions as pointed out by the numismatic sources. Even though Buddhism had a strong ground in Sri Lanka, the most ancient pre-Buddhist religion of the island, Hinduism, did not lose its status, further supported by epigraphy, archaeological artifacts and the literature in Pali which tells the history of Buddhism. Megalithic survivals further attest the antiquity of Hinduism. These are terracotta figurines (Denaniyagala 1953 : 133-38), javelin, rooster (Pushparatnam 1993; 27-31), the two-pronged and three-pronged

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 53
\
sulas carved on potsherds (Sitrampalam 1995). These prehistoric
evidences take the history of Hinduism in Sri Lanka to the remote past.
Of the religions in Sri Lanka the most antique is Saivism. Some of the kings of the island from the 4" century B.C. bore the names, Civa, Kuta-Civa, Civabūti, Civan (Skt. Siva). (MVX: 29, XX: , I.C.) Very interestingly literature this name fails to appear in Carikam but only in Cilappatikaram (X: 180) the paradise of Siva is indicated by the phrase, Civakatinayakan. Since the 3" century B.C. about eighty inscriptions note people who bore the name, Siva or Civan (Sitrampalam 1995:169). These are evidences of the deep-rooted Saivite tradition in Sri Lanka. Earlier coins also have letters, Siva, Carved on them.A few coins show the Nandipada on one side and the invocation, Sivaha on the other side (Bopearachchi 1999: 54, no. 13). This is an irrefutable evidence of the deep impact of Saivism in the minting of Coins which also means it was a powerful religious sect. The trisula is an important weapon of Siva. It does not occur in the Indian punch marked coins but appears in later days (Sarma 1990:13). The origin of such coins are to be found in these coins of the megalithic time in Sri Lanka. In course of time similar types appear in coins of the various epochs. A coin of the 2" century B.C. obtained in South Lanka depicts a standing human being with a trisula in his front with the words, Malaka Tisaha (Bopearachchi 1999:53, no. 11) on the obverse and reverse of it. In few LakSmi type of coins a trisula is found to the left of the goddess which replaces the stalk of the lotus. In the later Nallur Rajadahani coins the trisula finds a place along with other Saivite emblems.
Of the various Saivite emblems of the ancient Tamil coins, the most striking is the Siva-linga. The Liiga is said to be the most ancient anionic representation of Siva. Siva is the Lord who is beyond guna (mental flavor)and beyond a human form and So he appears as an idiomatic representation in the formless Lisiga, called kuri in Tamil literature (Sivagurunathapillai 1991; 4). Kuri means a symbol or an


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indicator. This form appears very frequently in the LakSmi type of Coins. The reverse of the coins include the swastika, a bull to its left and the Linga in union with Avutai or YOni to the right (Pushparatnam 1998: 1-13). In few coins the purnakumbha appears in place of the Lińga (Parkar 1981:1-13). Prof. Raju Kalidos, a specjalist in iconography, suggests that the Lisiga and purnakumbha are symbolically on the same plane. In few coins the tanka or malu appears. This weapon is typical of Siva and no other God holds it and its association with mrga "antelope' is very common in South Indian iconography (man and malu in Tamil) . The Nandi “bull' is the vāhana vehicle of Siva (cf. Tēvāram 1. 1. 1. Tōtutaiya ceviyan, vitaiyeri means the Lord who mounts the bull (cf. Rajarajan 1996: 305-10, figs). In Indian coins the bull may appear all alone or with other symbols. The same type of representations are reported in Sri Lankan coins. Coins of the 2" century B.C. show the bull either standing or seated. In the LakSmitype, the bull is couchant to the right of swastika. Other Contemporary square coins show the standing full close to a swastika or tub-like object.
Of the medieval coins, the most redundant is the bull when Compared with other emblems. The bull in these cases is seated on a pedestal, facing right or left, with standing lamps on both sides while the Surya and Candra appear above. Sūrya and Caņdra should have been earlier worshipped independently and later associated with Saivism. The moon appears on the Crest of Siva, i.e. the Crescent (cf. the above cited Tevaram hymn: tuivenmaticuti). Surya is said to have instituted temples for Siva and worshipped the Lord. There is a temple, called Bhaskaresvara (T. Parutiyaparkoyil, Bhaskara and paruti meaning Surya), near Orathanadu in Tanjavur district which is a temple for 'Siva' supposed to have been founded by the Sun God. In coins of the Nallur Rajadhani, the word Setu is carved below the bull while in a few others portrait it replaces the bull with a bull to his left and trisula nearby. The Saivite lineage of the rulers of the time is

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 155
proved by the Nandi which not only appears in coins but also in royal banners and state documents. A king of the period is called itapavan koti elutiya peruman (the dignified one who had the bull imprinted on his banner) of the Daksinakailasa Puranam (Pathmanathan 1980: 412-13).
The cult of Murukan was also popular among the Sri Lankan Tamils as indicated by the emblems appearing in coins. Important ones among those emblems are Vél javelin', mayil "peacock' and céva "rooster. The most ancient emblems associated with the Cult of Murukan was the Vel (Zvelebil 1981). There are ample evidences in Cafikam literature pinpointing the association of vēl vith Murukam, e.g. Kuruntokai 111, Maturaikkānci 613-15. In Sri Lanka the Brāhmī inscriptions repeat the words, Vēl, Vel, Vela which are invocations of the God, Velan. In North India, the Velan worship went in the names of Kumara, Subrahmanya and Karttikeya (cf. Kalidos 1999: 72-90). In Sri Lanka Brāhmī inscriptions, the names Kumara and Visakha appear (IC, 1970:nos. 576, 582, 356, 357). Visaka is supposed to be a Tamil name. But Raju Kalidos - disagrees and says that Visakha is the auspicious naksatra of Skanda which is purely Sanskritic (cf. Kalidos 1999:80, citing Amarakosa). These are evidences of the Murukan Cult in Sri Lanka (Sitrampalam 1995: 181-225). The tradition is further confirmed by the emblems appearing in coins. A coin of the 2nd century B.C. with the inscribed name, Makacattan (Mahasasta), has the figure of a peacock in its obverse. It was found in the vicinity of Katirkamam area which is one of the important centres of Murukan Cult in the island. In the period of LakSmi coins the Vél appearing on the obverse and peacock in reverse. Another important Tamil idiom linked with the Murukan cult is the katampu tree. There are ample clues in Carikam literature to this effect; e.g. katampamarnnta Celvan (Paripatal 8. 126). In the Laksmi coins instead of the Svastika a fenced tree appears. This is likely to be the katampu of Murukan Cult


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During the Nallur Rajadhani period the cult of Murukan was very much favoured in addition to the patronage to Saivism. In the Setu type of coins the peacock and javelin appear opposite to the bull on the left side. In other coins the peacock takes the place of bull and the name “kan” (=Kantan) appears. It has been earlier suggested that the name might be the abbreviated form of Kantamalaiyariyarkon, the title of the Jaffna king. These are hints to suggest the popularity of Murukan with contemporary Sri Lankan Tamils. One third of the temples for Murukan in contemporary Sri Lanka are named after Kantan. In Tamil Nadu also famous cult centres such as Palani and TirucCentur, the name, Murukan is very popular even if the hill is called Kantamalai"Hill of Kantan'. Professor Veluppillai is of opinion that for the popularity of the Murukan cult in the island, particularly in Jaffna, the Kanta Puranam of Kacciyappa Civacarya was the chief incentive. So the learned professor thinks that the said puranam must have been composed earlier than the time of Arunakrinatar and dates it in the 14th century A.D. (Veluppillai 1985: 231). Arunakirinatar (15th century) notes Yalppanam along with Katirkamam as a centre of Murukan cult in the island. These are further evidences of the growing popularity of Murkan worship.
The worship of ViSnu was equally patronised in the island along with Saivism which is attested by the numismatic evidences. The prevalence of Vaisnavism is proved by the sources found in Pali literature and the Brahmi inscriptions. in the inscriptions various names such as Viņu (I.C, 1970; nos. 1217, 1218), Rama (IC, 1970: nos. 347, 843), Kopala (=Gopala, I.C, 1970: nos. 1217, 1218), Naraya (= Narayana, , C, 1970: no. 990) appear. Visnu is identified with Viņu. Rama is one among the ten avataras of ViSņu vho is very much associated with Sri Lanka in the Ramayana, Gopala and Narayana are the other names of Visnu (cf. Sitrampalam 1995: 33940). In a carnelian bead of the 4" century A.D. the words Visnu putisaya appear (Indrapala 1972:31).

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 157
It is to be noted that many of the emblems appearing in coins relate to Visnu and his consort LakSmi. In the Brahmi inscribed coins of south and northern Sri Lanka and in the LakSmi types the symbol of Visnu, the Srivatsa appears which in iconography is a mole carved on the right chest of Visnu. It represents Sridevi. It is symbolic of prosperity, abundance and water (Mansukhlal 1968). It is one among the most ancient representations of the goddess in Indian iconography. Its origins were found in the Chalcolithic culture of India and of the megalithic culture in Tamil Nadu. . Later it dominated the iconography of Buddhism, Jainism and the Hindu sects. The earliest trace of Srivatsa is found in the Brahmi inscriptions in linear depictions (I.C, 1970: no, 268). It appears in coins from Kantarótai in northern Sri Lanka and Akrukoda in southern Sri Lanka (Seyone 1998:84, no 3; Bopearachchi 1999: 53, 67, nos. A. 11, E17, 18) and these Tamil coins are of the 2" century A.D. It is again repeated in the reverse of the LakŞmi type of coins. lts evolution in various stages could be discerned from a study of the LakSmi coins. The fully developed form of Srivatsa may be found in the 11" century where the name, Sri LakSmi, is stamped.
In the Laksmi coins, Sri is seated on a lotus and is being showered with water by elephants, holding pitchers. The elephants may be identified with Airavata, the mount of Indra, king of gods. The symbolism is that the king who issued the coins is the equal of Devendra. In those times kings used to refer to themselves as Mahendra Parakrama. So the elephants might convey such a status of divinity to the king. The padma "lotus' is common to all Indian religions and more particularly to LakSmi and ViSnu. The other emblem, swastika, is as old as the Harappan civilization in Indian tradition. It is supposed to symbolise the sun which assures good luck and longevity in one's life (Sarma 1990: 72). To begin with a Hindu symbol, it was later absorbed by Buddhism and Jainism. In fact many of the symbolic representations in Buddhist-Jain iconography were originally Hindu as these two heterodoxy sects bi-nd tri- furcated from


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Hinduism. The swastika finds a place in many Indian coins but it is
found mounted on a pedestal only in the island tradition. In a few
inscribed coins, the Kurma and Matsya take an important place (Bopearachchi 1999: 59-60). These occur in the later northern Sri
Lankan Coins. These two stand for the Tortoise and Fish incarnations
of ViSnu, the first two being among the dasavataras (Mansuklal 1968).
These are definitely clues to the popularity of Vaisnavism, further
confirmed by the Sasikha found in other coins.
The other idiomatic representations in the coins are Surya, Candra, kuttuvilakku 'standing lamp', purnakumbha "full pitcher, pear and Conchshell. The relevance of Surya and Candra has been noted in the foregoing paragraphs. Though the standing lamp and fullpitcher are common to all traditional South Asian religions, these are very auspicious objects important in Saivism and Vaisnavism, used in all domestic and temple rituals. The pearl is an important asset of the Pandyan historical tradition and as well Sri Lankan. In fact the name Pandya and the word muttu (pearl") are inseparable and muttu was exported to the Mediterranean world. The queens and nobles of the Greek world were crazy for them. It was an important source of income for the Tamil merchants of those time. An important emblem naga 'snake' typical of the island, fails to appear in figurative form. But the name, Naka, is inscribed and so the issuing authority might have been connected with the worship of snakes. In the fish coins a temple supported by five pillars is found. It might denote a primitive type of temple which existed in those time (e.g. Draupadi- ratha in Mamalapuram).
The foregoing summary from the study of coins throws light on the various aspects of the history of the Sri Lankan Tamils such as ancient script, language, human settlement, genesis of kingdoms, religion and so on. In spite of the solid clues obtained, the picture is not full. And what is more important is much remains yet to be done. Thei study has depended on the already published data which is subjected to reinterpretation plus the auther's findings through field explorations. The Setu type of coins has not been classified so far

Ancient Coins of Sri Lankan Tamil Rulers 159
either on the basis of their distribution pattern or chronology. Field work has not yet been carried out in east Lanka to spot and unearth the hoard of coins as have been found in the north. Sinhalese scholars have evinced a keen interest to examine the coins brought to light by field work and excavations in recent time. Many among them did not bother much about coins other than those issued by the Sinhalese kings. Random research results in manipulation of data, resulting in the legends of the coins being hidden or suppressed and the total number and the variety of the typologies not being thrown open to the international faculty of history. When collective research is undertaken, more light could be shed on the history of the Tamils in Sri Lanka.


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160
Abbreviation
Akam Cilap
C.V.
D.E.D.
D.V.
E..
E.Z.
I.C.
M.V.
Malaipatu
Maturai
Maņime Na
Pati Pattinap Perumpaņ
Puram
S.S.I.
S.S.I.C.
T.L.
To
Dr. P. Pushparatnam
Akanānūru Cilappatikāram Cūlavamsa Dravidian Etymological Dictionary Dipavamsa Epigraphia Indica Epigraphia Zeylanica Inscriptions of Ceylon Mahavamsa
Malaipatukatām Maturaikkańci
Maņimekalai
Narinai
Pati Iuppattu Pattinappalai Perumpāņarupațai Puranānūru South Indians inscriptions Studies in South Indian Coins
Tamil Lexicon Tolkappiyam
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178 Dr. P. Pushparatnam
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CHAPTER THREE


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