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listory of the Tamils from historic times to 1800 *
by 。 | E. L. Tambimuttu جگے |
--r கொழும்புத் தமிழ் கேம்
இங்ா 57 ஆம் ஒழுஇ.
- 越
கொழும்பு
I IIM
| ^
y
“
幫
ILLUSTRATIONS

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D R A V I D A
(A History of the Tamils) From Pre-historic Times to A.D. 800
By E. L. TANMBNMUTTU
With a ForeWord by K. A. NI LAKANTA SA STRI, M.A.
(Professor of Indian History and Archaeology, University of Madras)
(Published under the auspices of the Colombo Tamil Kalagam).
(ALL RIGHTS RESERVED)
1945 -

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FOREWORD
It is with much pleasure that I accept Mr. Tambimuttu's invitation to me to write a foreword to his book DRAVIDA. In a short compass he has managed to tell the story of the Tamil countries and their civilization in a very readable and interesting manner. He has read widely and writes with clarity and precision. He follows the best authorities accessible to him and his narration is marked by an admirable sense of proportion. His illustrations, few as they are, are well chosen and the cultural side of our history receives adequate attention.
History can never attain a totally objective standpoint even if any science can ; and Mr. Tambimuttu's work is necessarily to some extent an expression of his personality. It is possible that the reader Occasionally comes across opinions and estimates he does not readily accept; but every one who reads this little book, I hope there will be many who do so, will readily recognise that the author has fulfilled with great ability the difficult task he imposed on himself of producing a short history of South India for the general reader. On the whole he has successfully resisted the temptation to read present disputes into the past to the extent of obscuring its real character, and he deserves a word of commendation.
This is the first book I have seen which seeks to satisfy a want that has been felt for some years, viz., a history of South India as a whole, and not merely of any single dynasty or of a particular period. I hope that scholars in our schools and colleges will find good use for it as also the general reader.
K. A. NILAKANTA SASTR.
University of Madras,
2nd February, I 943.

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گستہہ دیشتر مگمحمسحر سیخ کی میجر X لمی گرد مرے ;(ޝަބި4އޝަ Z 1M"%%/2ގ2TXA كما
pMAM"Tr :حمص س عبر ہو سمجسمےے منہگار
مق*7/ - 4 ، بے کPREFACE
It is my earnest wish that all Tamils should possess a sound knowledge of their great past. The average Tamil, even if educated, is far too culpably ignorant of the proud heritage of their race. I however realised that most people have neither the time nor the inclination to study great research works such as those produced by scholars during the past twenty-five years or more as these are multiplying rapidly. It is especially for the benefit of this large class that I have compiled this little book. I am conscious of the limitations of my own scholarship in a historical field of such extensive and almost bewildering ramifications, and my sincere thanks are therefore due to Rev. Father Gnana Pirakasar, Swami Vipulananda and Professor K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, M.A., whose helpful advice and encouraging words urged me on to finish the task that I had undertaken.
My sincere thanks are also due to Mr. Q. Delilkhan for having read through the proofs and to Mr. S. Sivapathasunderam for having helped me with some illustrations.
I shall consider my labour well rewarded if this little work would rouse in the reader the desire to know
Ore.
E. L. T.
Wellawatte,
IO-9-45.

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CONTENTS
PART
CHAPTER
I. Pre-historic Times - - - II. The Coming of the Aryans a s qe
III. Aryavartha and Dakshinapada es a - - - - IV. Landmarks of History (B.C. 600 to the Christian Era)
W. History of Tamil Literature (From the Earliest Times to A.D. 600) e. a VI. Works of the Last Sangam as a VII. Tamil Kings of the Sangam Period... o es e 8 VIII. The Political History of Dravida (A. J). 300-900)
IX. The History of Tamil Literature (From A. D. 600-900)
PART
I. The Chola Empire 0 0 4 v AO 4Q9
II. The Cholas and the Pandyans (A.D. 1070-1216) III. The Pandyan Empire, J 2 I 6- 3 Io .... • IV. The Decline and Fall of the Tamil Dynasties V. Tamil Literature Under the Later Cholas and Pandyans VI. The Nayaka Dynasty and the British
Bibliography
Index
List of Illustrations
Races of India A Seal of the Mohan-jo-Daro Period Pre-historic Burial Urn Harps in use among the Tamils during the Sangam Age India during the Last Sangam The Pandyan & Pallava Empires Ruined City of Mahabalipuram ...
Mahendra Varman
A Dancing Girl of the Same Period
Madura Temple O. The Chola Empire اس میں ......................... Raja-Raja's Temple, Tanjore Tanjore Temple 0. Palace of the Nayaka Dynasty, Madura Tank and Pleasure Garden, Madura
O. 30
PAGE
14 8
24 32 40
43 52 56 6o
65
7 I 72
Facing Page
Ι6
22
33
34
4 I 43
54 65

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Indil, often described as a sub-continent, is a country nearly as large is Europe and like Europe is the holic of several nationalities (now called
ligulistic groups) each With a la Iguage, culture and political Pre-historic history of its owi. Tle Patlans, Punjabis ind Rajputs of tle Nortlı, tle Gujarillis LIIcl Malınırlatt als of tille West, tlı e Bengalees and Billaris of the East, the Andhras, Kannadas, Tamils and Malayalees of the South, and even the Sinhalese whose home is Ceylon, are
| children of Mother India.
They are all descended from the various races that, from the remotest |ast, lad invaded India and settled down in this country. Of these the most important are the Dravidians, Aryans and the Islamic
The ိဗ္ဗples races. The Dravidians and the Aryans are Hindus by religion, Races of and they are often classed as a single community for political India purposes. The Islamic races consist of Arabs, Turks, Afghans and Mongols. They arc of course Muslims and they have cenlargely supplemented by converts from Hinduisin. The other religious SaaaLLL LLLLL LaL LLLL LLLaLLLLLLLS LLLL LLLLaL LLLLLLLLCL LLLLLL LLL LLLLHLLLLHLHHL Hinduisit and therefore belong citler to the Dravilian or the Arya Il races.
Times
The Drawidians who represent the most ancient civilized population of India occupy practically the entire peninsula. Even the population of thc
Te North-Eastern and Western regions are found to be of mixed Drawidian Aryo-Dravidian, Mongolo-Dravidian and Sytho-Dravidian Race and its origi" (Fig. 1). The Aryans though numerically inferior, have Distribution considerably strengthened their position by spreading their language and culture and thus weaning many Dravidian tribes oil the parent stock. They predominate in the North. The Musliis, CLttered all over India, are loudly claillouting for il national home in certin ; rts of North India where they are in a majority,
Some well-Ilıcaning people say that neitler thic Drawidian mor the \ry:Lll race exists today in India, and that these names merely refer to inguistic groups. No doubt both races have now lost much of their *Lirity by years of intermixture, and al Con moi religion las also had its hare in minimising their differences. Nevertheless to suggest that they have how fused into a single race is far from the truth.
In the North-West, now outside India proper, there still exists a Jravidian dialect called Brahui. In the Indus Walley, archaeological excavaions have brought to light the remains of scveral pre-historic cities of rividian origiII atleast 5000 years old. These facts are suficient to show LL LLL LLL LLLLLLLLS STLLLaLLa LHHL LLaLLLL0mmLLLLLL LLOCCS0L LL LHHLLLLCC0SLa LHHLLaLLLL LLL clia was under the sway of the Dravidian race. Today Dravidians who till spel: Drayicillarges sur 41 as lēcigu,"*famil, Kannada, Malayaup fifTulu felly a iiiiurity and are confined to the Madras Presi. fency including the Cochin, Travancore and Pudukotta States, Mysore and ilrts of Hyderabad States.
The Northern and Eastern Provinces of Ceylon where the Ceylon Tillilils live should also be considered part of the modern Dravidian country.

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The word "Dravidian" is derived from the Aryan word "Dravida" or "Drainila' which are found to be only corruptions of the linic Talmil. The origin of the Tamil or Dravidian race is lost in the mist
೨ಳ್ದ סf of hoary antiquity. There are many strange stories and con Drawidian flicting theories about it. The presence of numerous aborigina
Race tribes in the hilly and jungle regions of India and Ceylo
suggest that the Dravidians had at some remote perio entered India as invaders. They might have driven the uncivilize aborigines into the hills and forests and settled down in the fertile valley and alluvial plains where they built up great civilizations in course of time such as the one discovered in the Indus Valley. In North India, the pre historic civilization of the Dravidians, was either destroyed or absorbed b later invilders, III peninsular Indil, however cspecially in the extrem South, where the Drawidian civilization flourished well into historic times, i. gradual blending of the aboriginal lithic culture and the Iron-age civiliza tion of Elle Tamils has becil ioticed. It is possible therefore that th Drawidii is absorbed a considerable portion of the indigenous population This process of absorption can be noticed even today in South India and Ceylon where the Weddahs, Irulas and others are slowly Incrging into th civilized population.
Till about the second millennium before Christ, there lived in th country now called Iraq, a people known as the Sumerians Their burie The cities lıi ve 1ow beeil Llle:Littled, and it was believed th:Lt the sumerians "oooo the Cilliest and the best-known example of a race a people who were Lindoubtedly the pioricers of hul Imam civil zation. No less an authority than Dr. Hall has pointed out that the Sunerians closely resembled the Hindus of South India-i.e. the Dravidian Many think therefore that the forefathers of the Dravidians Illigrated t III clia froIIn the region of al cient Sullnerial,
Recent archaeological discoveries in the Indus Walley have brought t light the great similarity between the pre-historic culture of India and tha. Indus of Sumeria. But at the same time they have helped us to pu Walley back tllլ: beginnings of civilization in India to such remot periodil that it sollindls unreasonable to give it a Sumeria origin. It is more likely that these were contemporary civilizations of kindred race.
One of the peculiar customs of pre-historic people was the burying their dead in earthenware jars or trils. This type of burial with loc wariations wils coilillon to both the Sumerians and th Dravidians, but quite foreign to the Aryans and others whi C later foi uinci il l10111ę: in India. Numerols burial urns were di
t" covered in Sindh and in the Indus Walley, and they are n doubt relics of the days well Dravidia IIs occupied this region. In Sout India this custom survived up to the early centuries of the Christian era an there is reference in Taunt Titelliture the ur-strial given to a Chola ki Inamed Killi. Walavail, Although I no major artijāēlologii, excavatiot 3 hav yet been undertaken in South India, several accidental discoveries has been inade. Among the Ill the Ilost significant is an ancient cemete containing thousands of burial urns, discovered in Tin nevelly along the ban of the Talibrapart Ili river. Froll time to time, workmen engaged in buildin
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

N SEAL OF THE MOHAN.J.C.)ARO PERIOD

Page 12

( 3 )
operations have also come across burial-urns practically everywhere in the Madras Presidency. The Tamils were perhaps the last of the Dravidians to give up this custom.
The Indus Valley Dravidians of pre-historic times had reached a very high state of civilization when they were overwhelmed by a less civilized race. Both archaeological evidence and the recorded obserIndus Wall wations of the Aryalı inyaderş point to the fact that the Dravidian cities consisted of hundreds of buildings, some
s է8, many stories high. Even the common people are found to have lived in Well-built houses provided with water and drainage. They lincw how to work in metals and manufactured glass and pottery of many designs. A bronze statuette found at Mohan-jo-Daro was recognized as that of a dancing girl very much resembling her modern sisters of South India. These pre-historic people also possessed a systein of writing now known as pictograph characters. Inscriptions discovered in the Indus Walley are still being studied by scholars with a view to deciphering them. It is possible that this form of writing was common to all Dravidians, although no discovery in support of this has yet been made in South India.
Modern Dravidians are of course Hindus, but Hinduism is not a religion in the same sense as Christianity or Islam. It was not founded by a single illdividual teacher. It really represents the accumulated wisdom1 of the two rilces—the Dravidialul a Ilıd Llı e Arya I1
Civilization
Pre-historic
:: collected together during a period of at least fifty centuries. C 醬 There are two Ilain schools of Hinduism-Whislavis Ill and
Saivism. In a very broad sense it can be said that Saivisin is founded on the pre-historic religious cults of the Dravidians. Even today Sitivism is the popular religion of the great Dravidian population of South India and North Ceylon, and it is a significant fact that it was in the Tamil country that this cult developed into the Sidhanta philosophy.
In the seals discovered at Mohall-jo-Daro can be seen the figures of birds and animals drawn around a man scatcd cross-legged, The figure, though only in outline, bears much resemblance to the popular conception of Siva. Some authorities like Rev. Father Heras are of opinion that the man represents the prototype of Siva, and the objects around him the embleins of the various totemistic tribes into which the Dravidians were then divided. Siva in the symbolic form of the "lingam' was also worshipped by pre-historic Dravidians just as their descendants do today. These preNiyan inhabitants of North India excelled not only in arts and crafts but they also knew algood deal about astronomy, medicine and other sciences. Their knowledge of diseases peculiar to the Indian climate and the efficacy of indigenous herbs must really have been great. The Aryans, it is said, took up the study of these subjects mainly as a result of their contact with the |non-Aryan native tribes. The extant Sanscrit worliks on these subjects are no doubt the fruits of this cultural contact (Mukerji's Hindu Civilization). This advanced civilizatiop liscovcprd ini hic -- Iziduis Walley could not llave been as it. Iniiia registry. The Dravidians of the South must have been equally civilized and cultired. In the next few chapters we shall Sec how far Tamil tradition and literature support this claim.

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CHAPTER II
m
The pre-historic civilization of the Dravidians is the bed-rock or foundation on which every invader of India from the Wedlic Aryans to the The llocleTill Europeans built or tried to build their O WAI'Il cultural Coming of edifices. Like the foundation of a building, this foundation of the Aryans Indian culture is not seen by the casual observer, and has therefore been completely forgotten. The various superstrictures that have risen oil this foundation, from the coming of the Aryans to the consolidation of British power in India, have all been studied and admired, but little do we know about the foundation laid by our prc-listoric Licestors that now lies buried deep in the sands of time.
We llawe seen how more thal five thousand years ago India was a civilized country. Contemporary civilizations also flourished in Iran, Iraq Palestine, Egypt and other countries of the Near East. All these countries were then inhabited by people more or less inter-related, and their customs LLCLLL LLL LLLL LLLL LLLaLLL LaLLLLLLHHHLHHtS LLLaL CCHGaLLLL0L LLLLaLL aLLtC CCLL the direct descendants of this race. Between the third Lind the follrth Illillenniulls before Christ a race of fair-skin Iled people, whose home is believed to have been somewhere in Central Asia, began to over-run Europe in the West, and the then civilized countries in the South.
In Europe, they easily overcame the aboriginal tribes, and established themselves in the North. Today their descendants proudly call themselves the Nordic race. At that tille however they were little better than the indigenous tribes whom they had displaced. They were more or less halfcivilized and worshipped numerous gods who were but personifications of Nature, Sonic tribes belonging to the same race found their way south Wilrds and little by little overcame thc civilized people of the Mediterranean countries. They absorbed the conquered peoplc and their cultures, and in course of time developed a grander civilization than the one they had destroyed. This new civilization reached its zenith in Greece and in the isl:Linds of the Aegean Sea. From here it found its way to the Italiat Peninsula where it grew into the great Roman Civilization. The Roman under Constantine the Grcat, their Emperor (A.D. 284-305), accept Christianity as their stale religion, and soon Christian missionaries fro Rome spread the religion and culture of Southern Europe into the countries of North Europe including the British Isles. Until they accepted Christianit the South Europeans too were worshippers of Nature Gods and Goddesses and their deities such as Appollo, Mars, Jupiter and others are only t well-knowl.
This fair-skinned race who invaded Europe and the countrics aroun the Mediterranean Sea, began to arrive in India about th
rwas in - A. 凯 Same period - Het y called themselves "Aryans,' a nam
by which the whole race is now kilow).
====--------- سعی ۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔+
We have seen how the Aryans migrated to different countries an different climes. Consequently they became separated and each uni developed in its own way. Nevertheless the various languages they spea today can be traced to a common origin. They are now referred to as th Aryan family, We should not however think that all those who spea
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

( 5- )
languages belonging to the Aryan family are also Aryans by race. It is a
well-known fact that the Aryans forced their language on all the conquered Iations. Even the unconquered people were greatly influenced by them.
The first wave of Aryan in Illigration coming through the North-West clid not spread South of the Sutlej and Juillili rivers. In the region to the The North of these rivers the Aryans first settled down. II wedic Age 'S lof time more and more of Aryan tribes began to arrive, and naturally they began to spread towards the South always keeping along the rich and fertile banks of the two great rivers, the Indus and the Ganges,
They remained a semi-nomadic people for a long time, depending on their cattle and, like their European lilisinen, they worshipped Il Lillerolls Nature Gods such as Suriya (sun), Agni (fire), Wayu (wind) and a hortle of other powers. They also possessed a nu Ilımber of Hero-Gods, the chief of
vOil vils IIrā.
The rich and fertile country which now became their home, by and by changed them into an ambitious and aggressive race. They were quick to learn and adopt the ways of the civilized natives, but at the same time they spurned the indigenous people and sought to dominate them. This no doubtled Eo a long-drawn out struggle between the two races.
The life led by these early Aryans in their new home with the Ilatives opposing then at every step, their fears and their hopes, are all well portrayed in the hymns of the Rig Veda, believed to have been Sung by Aryan Rishis (holy IIlen) during this period. Whatever hidden meanings hilosophers of later times IIlay have discovered in the Rig Wedic hymns, they are, first and primarily, simple outbursts of praise and thanksgiving to the Gods for favours received, and humble supplications for further help of a illore or less political Ilature.
Indra was perhaps the earliest of their Hero-Gods, and it is to him that most of the Wedic hymns are addressed. The natives were divided into Imerous tribes, the more advanced of wholl lived in well fortified citadels, They do not appear to have united together in their struggle against the Aryans. The invaders therefore conquered them tribe by tribe, The Rig Weda -30-20, gives thanks to Indra for the defeat of Samparan, the king of the Dasyu tribe, and the destruction of his citadels. Another hymn, Rig Weda 133-4, requests Indra to destroy the Dasyus, who are described as nonbelievers in Wedic sacrifices. Yet another verse 4-30-2 I refers to the treacherous slaying of thirty thousand Dasylus.
From these hymns we learn that the Aryan invaders found the natives rich and powerful, enjoying a high standard of Inaterial comfort. Their cities are described as containing hundreds of buildings-a fact now borne olit by archaeological sinds. The Aryans could not suppress their feelings of wonder and amazement at these great cities of their enemies, and it is quite evident that they learnt to build and li, it cities from the conquered natives, lie Wedic Aryans also brought new customs and manners into India. They cremated their dead, and considered the native custom of LIrill as something uncivilized, so much so that in course of time the Dravidians too began to adopt it. They also offered burnt-offerings of animals to their gods, and attributed various virtues to these sacrificial rites.

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The Rig Wetla 7-2 I-5 and 10-99-3 contemptuously refers to the Dasyti and other Dravidiari tribes as worshippers of the phallels or ligan, which indicates that the Aryans did not at first look upon the religious cults of the natives with tolerance. The Dravidians spoke a natural language, avoiding all sounds that unduly tax the larynx, a feature still reserved in Tillil (some think that this is a phonetical deficiency) ind the Aryl 115 have therefore ridiculed the Illtive dilects as lini telligill.
The next stage in the struggle between the two races is often referred to Els the l’Iranic Ngc. The Puranas or ancient stories, though committed The to writing ill listoricial titles, contail legends thousands of Puranic Age years l, Boll the Aryans la trid Lle I)"Lwir liat Ils preserved stories of their owl exploits, but in later clays when both had settled down as friently Ileighbours, these stories began to get mixed Llp a greut deal. Tlıcy we'c coinninnitted to writing by religio, is meil who dicl Inot view the Ill from a political algle. Their idea was to propagate religion tlı rough these storics, illud consceļu Lently tlı ey al Ice fOLI ILcl to be highly exaggerated, and mostly favourable to the Aryans.
The natives who are still described as rich alld powerful, in spite of their having lost a great part of North India, are referred to as Asuras illnd Rakshas. We notice that by this tile the two races had borrowed a good deal from et:L.Llı titler, :Lind, altlı oluglh they were politically antagonistic, tilleir customs and beliefs had much in cominou. Therefore it is reasonable to assume that many centuries separated the Wedic from the Pulalnic Age,
The fighting between the two races had developed from local tribal conflicts to oile of :ını zull-Irıclia Scale. Örı more tlı;L in One OCCalision the Aryans werc ini dl:Linger of locing completely wipsccl Out, WhČLlewer the Asur:Ls and the Rakshits gained the upper i: Ild they trealed the Aryan interlopers with scant Ilercy, so much so, that their nailles halve Conne down to us is personifications of barbaric ferocity. But in spite of all their Wilrlike qualities, the native tribes who were very much disunited were forced southwards little by little. In course of time the whole of North India fell into Aryan li:Linds. The Piranas tell is that an Aryan Prince named Skanda defeated the Asuras and drove them to the extreme South. Likewise Soille centuries later, lama, with the help of certain noll. Aryan tribes of South India, invaded Ceylon and defeated the Rakshasa King Ravalia. These stories may be true or lot; nevertheless they show us that the Aryans finally overcame the opposition of the natives and wrested from theill the entire country North of the Windly; Mountains. Their conquest and consolidation of North India was an extretlicly slow process, but this gave then sufficient time to absorb thic coliquered people, so that thcy (the non-Aryalls) begall to identify the Insclves with their conquerors Lild ceased to give trouble,

CHAPTER II
Towards the cind of the Purlinic Period, Ill: it is, ill-out B. C. Iodo, the L ES0L SLL LaL00tLLLLLLL LLLL LLL LLL LLLrLLL LLLL LLLL LLLLLL L LLLLLL
LaLaLC LLLLLLL L LLLLa LLLLLLa LLLLL LLL LLLLLLSaCtLLL SLLLL LL
Arಳ್ಲtha the Soutli by the Windhya InCOLLI Italins, Arya var Lilla. PeniııDakshinapada sular I idiil I now libeca Ime tliet li comme of tline: inclejıcııcle'ıt
Davidi:L1 Initions, Lil it C; LL11e to be: lkl 13 w as Dakslıiııil|1.Lçlı Ol' tlıc: Soutlıcı’lı Country.
Both Aryavarthil and Dakshini were divitical into null crous kingdoms; aLLLL LLLLLLLLs LLL HHCLLLLLLS LL LLL LLL LLLLL LLLLLLLHLS LLLLLLaS LLLLLLLLS CCMltLLL LLLLLaL LtLLLLLLL LL LLLLLLa LLL LL LLLLLL
Kingdoms of powerful of the Aryan kingdons. In 1):lishina, the great
Arಳ್ಲtha l:Leill that stretched fron) the Wildly as to the hills of akshina pada Mysore was inhabited by Drillvidi:LII triles who were the P forefathers of the Telugu speaking Aildliras of today, We
now little or nothing about the Dravidian Kingdoins that flourished in this egion, because most of then lost their identity in the process of aryalizafoil that overtook the Ill. The kingdoms of Kalinga and Telingalia, situated LL aL LLLLL CLatCS LLLLLLa aaLLLCH LLL LLL LLLL LLLL LLLLGL LL LLLLLLLlaaLLL IIIll's. They now for in the Andhra districts of the Madras Presidency,
Between the Deccan plateau and the Souther El plains was the hill coulry of Karun:ldu í Mysore). The Karunaders or Kannadas as they are known Jalily, Were collposed of several war-like Drawiili in tribes. Chola, Cher; and 'i Illyal were the chief kingdoms of the Southern plains. These were the List to coine under Aryan influence, and it is here that the ancient civiliza. toll of the Drillvidians survives to this day with some semblance of purity.
We lose sight of the island of Ceylon for a considerable period since lic clefeat and death of Ravana. The position of the Rakshasis appears to have gradually deteriorated, Lintil some centuries later the וחIII island fell into the hands of the Nagas, who though or Lanka rir: i I r l :..
considered an aboriginal tribe, were quite a civilized people. its eral Naga kingdoms flourished in the island till about the 5th eitury B.C.
By about B.C. Iood, the Wedic CLılt of Ilı e Ary: Is lıFld colisidleri bly maLlLS S LLLLL LLmaL LLLLLL LLLL CC CLCLL LaMGL LLL LLLGLH LLLlLLLCLlL LLLLL L couplicated ritualistic religion, l, now 11 as Bral Illinism, or Br:llIllinical II'induisIl today, FrOLIl the liands of the grc:ı E. Rislinis religion luid pils sed into lle: Eu: Illicls of al class (or 1:3 te, will C) colsicilered themselves tilhc last stige i L1 c volution.
Most of the Aryan h-croes such as Skanda and Rilin: had by this time LLLLLL LLLL LL LLLLLL CClLLLC LL LLLLLLLg GLL LLLLLLLaaLLLL LL LLLLLS LCLLLHH CHLS CHLS LLLL LL LLLLLLLaaLaL HLLL LLLLLLLaLLLL LLLLLLL gLLLLS LLaLaa aLLLL LL L hwy'i:T 5 Chile.
In the process of absorbing the conquercd people thic Aryans found it
ccessary to accept the worship of Siva and the linga II. In fact sonic | y, is became artilent converts to Drivilill cults. Nevertheless, in general
a widian culture and language had to accept a subordinatic position in
Tahminical Hinduism

Page 15
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Aryavartha. A civilized race like the Dravidians illust have contribut much towards the building up of the so-called Aryan civilization of Nort India, Centuries later when the Arya is tried to introduce their culture it the Linconquered Tamil country they found that much of what passed off Aryan culture in the Nortlı already existed in the South. This, Illo doubt indicates to what extent the conquered Dravidians of the North had helpe in building up the so-called Indo-Aryan civilization.
By slow degrees the Aryans had evolved a social order to suit their ow
needs, The direct successors of the Wedic Rishis were the priest class calle
the Brillilills. They were the custodians of the Wedas it is
- "ך Агузап "časte Till suclı Arya in lc:Lrning Fancl-wisdom. They alonc possessic
stETT the right to herfor Il ill religious and social ceremonics у Their influence over the rest was therefore very great, a
they occupied lic highest place in society. Next came the Kshatriya or thi military castic, They were rulers of the country, but had no jurisdictio over the Brahmans (Y, Well-9-40). The third was the Waisya caste. Thc were the merchants and trillers. These three constituted the main Arya society. The conquered people who had accepted Aryan culture formed fourtlı group called the Sudras. Tlıcy were tillic worlkers. In fact they ha to do all illenial work and into the bargain were refused even the ordinar rights of citizenship. They were kept down in every way, and condemne to eternal servitude.
Sole of the non-Aryan tribes however refused to have anything to d with the Aryans and remained aloof in the fastnesses of th Tհը ဖူငasts hills and motintains. They thus remained outside the Arya fold and were naturally outlawed, and step by step drive
Untouchables into the living hell called untouchability.
In thc Mahabharatha it is written that in ancient days a Rishi name Agastiya crossed the Windhya mountains, into the Southern country. It Агуап said that he was the first Ayan to accomplish this, and it Infiltration described that before hill the Windhyas effectivel | into obstructed the path ဝှf tle Still and the Moon, obviously Dakshinapada reference to the failure of Aryan kings, all of whom trac
Р their descent to the Sun or the Moon, to carry their co quests south of thic Windhyas. Agastiya's mission was no doubt a peacef one, for it is said that the Windhya itself gave him permission to cross ove
In the Ramayana however we find more details about this first Ary: settler in Dalsl inapada. McInbers of this Agastiya family appear to law settled clown in three clifferent parts of Dakshina pada; one on the bank the Godaveri (Ibid 3) another in the Pothiya Hill in Pandya (Ibid, 49) an a third in Ceylon (1 bid 4, 4). Other Aryans InList have followed th Agilstiyas, and settled down in various parts of the Dravidian count Indeed the Drawidian kings received then well, and gave then every facilit to follow their own customs and iman inci's. Most of these Aryan settle were no doubt Brillilan mission: rics whose onc and only aim was to sprea their religion. Perhaps like all missionaries, they sincerely believed Eh they were bringing cultile Lild civilization to il heathen race! We kno' how the European Christian missionaries calle to India in the sincere beli that the Indians leeded the civilizing influence of their religion. This pe haps was the attitude of the Brall nails who settled down in the Dravidi
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

( ) )
country, The kingdoms of the Deccan being closest to Aryavartlia, came Liller the early attention of these Brahmails. The spread of Brahminisill in the Decclu resulted in the lrytnization of the people. The Caste-system, As well as Aryan custoils and beliefs, soon became well established among | lic Deccan Dravidians, Their language too rapidly changed by talking ill Aryan words. Thus they began to drift away from their kinsmen of the South, the Karunaclers, Cholas, Cheras and Pandyans, who began to be referred to as Dravid is or Draimilas (Tamils).
About B.C. 700, Brahmans began to arrive in large numbers in Dravida or the Tamil country. The kingdoins of Chola, Chicra incl Pilicly; were very ancicit oncs. Perhaps they cisisted even beforc the coming of the Aryails. They are mentioned in the Ril mily:LI1; and the Mahalillaratha, in connection with events that took place at least two to three thousand years before Christ, These night be inter interpolations; nevertheless the extreme antiquity of these kingdolls lias never been questioned. They were highly developed in all directions. The Dravilian or Tamil language as spoken in these three kingdoms had by this title reached a very high state of literary excellence. The Tanils were very proud of their ancient language and civilization, Perhaps they realized that their country was now the last stronghold of the Dravidian race, They called their language Sen-Tamil (cultured) to differentiate it froll less developed dialects that existed in other parts of the Dravidian country, Sen-Tamil itself was divided into Iyal, sailind Nataka Tamil, which shows that the language was highly developed in literature, music and drama, The Brah Ill:LI Inissionaries ill Dr; wid:l therefore found that they had lore to le;LTIn tlı:ılıı to teaclı. Ju 1st :Ls Clıristi:LI1 Iılıissiorıai"ies Sl 1clh as ""WeeTa-M: IınLIniʼ and Dr. Pope studied Tamil and wrote extensively in this language, so did the Bral Illins of old. It is a significant fact that just as DT, Pope wrote a grammar of the Tamil language, so did the first Aryan missionary, Rishi Agastiya.
Bahman5 in Dravida
The Brahmans mixed freely with the great Tamil poets and pilinars of Lhosc tiles and composed oetry according to the lics literary traditions of the Tamils. Thus they proved an asset to the people among whom they LLLLLL LLLSS LLLLLL LLa aLLLLL LLLLLLLSLLLCLL LLLL LLLLLLLL0a LLLLaaa LL L0LtLLLLLL of all learning in Aryavartha, and this position they sought to will for themsclves in Dravid; too. In this they succeeded to a great cxtent and it gave llen the opportunity to import Sanscritwords and literarystyles into Tamil, Aryan beliefs and superstitions too gradually took hold of the Tamil people, Tle influence of the Brahmans grew with the times a nel Brahminism, modilied to lit into existing cults, soon became well-established in Dravida. The Purlinic storics were given a different linealling; it was explained to the Tails that the Asuras allil Raksh;sils were really del Iloils, giants it ill terrible monsters whom the Aryan gods had fought and cliestroyed, thus naking the world a safe place for hull ill beings: To satisfy the less credulous esoteric interpretations were found, slowing how ultimately Good triumphed over Evil. There is ample proof that with the idea of acceleratig the work of spreading Brahminism malny learned Til Illils were admitted into the Brahman fold, They are now known by various salmily nailles that indicate their Dravidian origin,

Page 16
( то )
The Dravicilians of Peninsular India, cspecially the Cholas, Cheras and andyans had, even before the advent of the Brahmans, developed a social The systeill, where caste prejudice was absert and there was olle law for all. Tribes living under siinilar conditions, and
Caste System = : == -س! --
following lindred occupillions, were naturally drawn to
In Dravida . . . .
wards citch other. This in course of tillic led to the forming of five clifferent groups, representative of the live different kinds of lands that went to make up the Tamil country. They were the Wellalas (farmers and tillers of the soil) who occupied the fertile alluvial plains, the Pll'adivars (merclhillts, lishermen all seafarers) who inhabited the coastal region; the Idly; r (shepherds) who lived in the uncultivable scrub and GmLLLLLLLLS LL CLLLLLL LL LLLLLLL LLLLLL L0LLLL LLLLHLHHL LLLLL LLaLLLLSLLLLLLLL LLL LL Eastern Ghats, Lincl the Milrawar or war-like robber clans of the sal Indy des crt-like region of the extreme South.
The attempt of the Brallmans to introduce the Aryan castic system into the Taillil country was never a success. The bulk of the people still call LLLLLLLmmLLLLLaL LLLLL LLaLLL LLaLaLaLLLLL LLLCa LLLCLLS LLLL LLLLL LL LLL LLLLLL to adopt the Aryan system had its unfort Llate results Lilder British rule. Ill the census of 1921, over 94% of the population of the Madras Presidency ELLLLL LLLLLLL Lttt LLtLLLLLLL LLL LLLLLLLLSlLlLLLLLLL LSL LLLLL LLLLL LLLLLLlLLLLLLlLLLLLLL L LLLLLL LaaaLLC LLLLL SLLLLL TtLHGSSSS SLLLLL LLLLL SLLLLLLLL LLLLLL LLLLLLLLL LLLLLL LL to put up with all the injustices aid social disabilities placed on the Sudra cilst: by the Ary:lin lil wgiver Milii L.

CHAPTER IV
In the storied past of India, the first land 1:1 rk of history bc.comes
LLLLLL aLaL LLLLLa L0SLLSS LLtLLLLS LLLLLLLH LLLH LLLLLL LLLL LLL LLL LLLLLLLLS TL
rcligio 15 rcfort'ılıler 11a1mel Miilhal vira. AlbULıt till is timne, Laဗူးငုံ of Brilli miIlisIll wlliicll liul pcted even into I); will, lild {B.C.óČ0-tů ťľ10 become very corrupted. The Brahmans dwelt more on the Christian Era). ritualistic side of religion, d still offered sacrifices of El Ini L1 als to tlıc: Wellic gads, The: c:1ste-system, wliclı galve
LLL LLLLLC LLLLLLLLm LLLLLL LLa LtLLamGL aLGLLLLL LLLLL LLaaSSS LLL LLLL rtLtgaLlLaLS SLLL LLLL LLLaLLLLLLLa LLGLLL LLLLLaLLLLLLLL LLLLLLLlLLLLLL LLLL LLLaLLLLLLLaS LLLLL LLtSLLLLaa0a
LLLL LLGCaL LSaLHHLLLLLLL LLL LLLLLLLLS LLLLLCLLLLL CCLLLLLLLLmL ccCL GcLLS LLLeS LLLLLL LLLLLaLLLL LHHLHHLLLLLLL LLLL LLLC LLLLLLLlLLLLLL LLL LLLLH aLLLL LL LLLLL LL0
LLLLSLLLLCCS LLLLL LLL LLL LLLLa aLLLLLLLLmmaa LL Lrm LaaLLL La CCmLLLLLLL LLLmmmLL0S
LLLLtttLCSCS aLLS LLLL LLLLa tLLL LLL LL LaaaaL LrlLLLLLLL LLLLLLLLS LL LLLLS SLLL LLL stand up against the corrupt 11:lctices of the Brahmans. He prohibited killing Lind taught that all life was sacred.
LL LLL LLL LLLL LLLC LLLLLLLaaLa LLLLaa LLLL LLL LLLLLL LLLLmmLL LLLLCSSS LLLLLL LL LLLLL LLaaLLLL L LLLLL LaLLLLL LLL LLSLLLLaaS
No doubt the orthodox Brahmans opposed Mahaviral als al leretic. Nic vertillell.css when lle diced about B.C., 527, he had a following of fourtee III thousand aldherents.
Soon after the Jima came Gautalia, the Buildlia. His lisc story is well
aLLLHHHS LLLLL C LLLLLL LL LlLlLLLLLLL LL LLLLLL LLLL LLL LGGLLLLLLLa LLaS GLLLLLL
foLindlel tlh: Buddlı ist religion. Buddhism to wis : L
Gaಖ್ಖhe LLLLLaL aTLL LLL LLLLLL LtLLL aLLLLLLLaL LLLSLLL LLLLLLLLmmmLLLLLLLS
Gilutilina too taught that all life was sacred, Lild differed
LLLLLL LL LLL LLLL La LLLLLL LLLLLLLlLlmLaLLlL LLLLLLLLS LL LLL LLLL L LLLLa Illuch opposition from the Brall maus, and he died about B.C. So.
It is said that on the same day that Gautama died, there landed in the Island of Ceylon a band of Aryan warriors, from either Bengal or Gujarat. A. According to the traditional story, sever till clied of the In, CkLLL S LLLltlTlS tGy SLGLLEL LyySLLLLLS tlLlLlLLLTLT LLT СеуӀоп including, al prince Time. V Jaya, were translitti i rom the II lomela 11d. Vijaya and lis Illeti ultinately ločcame mastels of the island, having subdued the Yakkas and the Nagas. Later they iii termarried with the Tamils of Pandy: aid this laid the foundation of L aLLLLLLLa LLLLLaS LL LLL LLLLLLLL LLL LLLLm LLLLLLLLtttLL LLL LLLLLL Llla Iron Pandya. They belonged to the various artisan classes whose services were ill demand in young Lilika. These e:Lily Tamil settlers tCL LCaLa aaaLtLLLLLLL LLLLLL LLLLLGGLLmLaLLLL LLLL KMLLLaL LLLLlLLLLLL LLL LLLL CLLLLSL history by bands of Dravidian settlers from the mainland. A good proportill of these have no cloubt been absorbed into the Sinlalese lation. The Test are known today as Ceylon Tamils.
III B.C. 327, Alexander, king of Macedonia, and master of a vast empire
that stretchctl from Greece to Persia, invaded India.
1:3 He conquered a portion of Western Aryavil Ithil, and
{Fil LLLC CLLLLL LLLLCaS LLLLL LLL LLLLL LLaaC LL
C hands of native Lilers who had sworn allegiance
ountry in
Mahawira and Jainism

Page 17
( I2 )
Alexander died soon afterwards and a king named Chandragupta, who ruled over Magadha, took the opportunity to extend his kingdom. Eventually he brought the whole of Aryavartha under his rule.
After Chandragupta, his son Bindusara continued the work of conquest initiated by his father. Bindusara carried the war into Dakshina possibly for the first time since Puranic times. Bindusara's son Asoka was as warlike as his father and grandfather. He attacked Kalinga, the only Andhra kingdom that now remained independent. The immense loss of human lives that resulted in this war, it is said, made the Emperor feel disgusted with worldly power and drove him to seek refuge in the teachings of the Buddha.
It is sometimes pointed out that this conversion of Asoka saved the
Tamil kingdoms from becoming mere provinces of the Mauryan Empire. We cannot be quite sure about this, because early Tamil literature makes
mention of an unsuccessful attack by the Moriyar (Maurya?) on the northern
borders of the Tamil country supported by Telugu troops. Nevertheless the
whole of India now came under the influence of Buddhism. Asoka sent
missions to every nation in India and even outside. Among his independent neighbours to whom he sent missions, he has particularly mentioned Chola,
Chera and Pandya.
Though the Tamils no longer profess Buddhism, there is much evidence in Tamil literature, to show that Buddhism flourished in Dravida up to about the ninth century. Great Buddhist writers, such as Bodhidharma, Buddhadatta and Dharmapala, whose Sanscrit and Pali commentaries are even today considered to be authoritative, all hailed from the Tamil country.
We have seen that a considerable portion of the Sinhalese nation was made up of Tamil settlers. Apart from these there was a large floating population of Tamils, chiefly merchants and Ceylon had not built up a foreign trade as yet, and the Tamil $წ"შუმზე, merchants who resided in Ceylon therefore took the у produce of this island to the great ports of South India, such as Musiri, Korkai, Kayal and Puhar, which were well-known to the Greeks, Phoenicians and other sea-faring people of the Mediterranean countries. Thus as middlemen, the Tamil merchants made huge profits and became rich and powerful.
Horses from Arabia and other countries were usually brought to the ports of South India, and Tamil merchants held a virtual monopoly of this lucrative business. As horses were required by Indian kings for their armies, these horse dealers possessed much influence and were even able to interfere in local politics. About B.C. 177, two brothers named Sena and Guttika, the sons of a dealer in horses seized the Sinhalese throne, and forced King Asela to flee to the South for safety. They ruled for 15 years at the end of which Asela succeeded in defeating the usurpers.
The success of Sena and Guttika showed how weak the Sinhalese were.
Sieventeen years later, in B.C. I45, a merchant more powerful than the two
Eilalan sons of the horse merchant, conceived the idea of becoming
Conquers king of Ceylon. His name was Ellalan or Elara as the
მჭწწ. Sinhalese call him. He hailed from Chola. When Ellalan
у landed near Trincomalie with a powerful army and marched on Anuradhapura, King Asela once again fled for his life.
Tami

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Ellalan was a very just and good ruler. As a king he proved to be one of the best that ever ruled over Ceylon. In fact even his enemies-the Sinhalese-are loud in his praise and have named him, Elara the Just.
King Ellalan was not a Buddhist, and in spite of the utmost care he took steps not to hurt the religious susceptibilities of his Buddhist subjects, incidents between his non-Buddhist soldiers and his Buddhist subjects could not have been altogether avoided. This often led to minor clashes and the Sinhalese outside Rajarata or the King's province, exploited these religious riots, and kept the spirit of revolt alive.
Nevertheless for 43 years the Sinhalese could not regain their kingdom. When Ellalan was almost in his dotage, a young Sinhalese Prince named Gamini started a religious crusade against the Tamil ruler. After many reverses, Gamini succeeded in capturing Anuradhapura, having killed the old warrior Ellalan in single combat.
In B.C. 44, Ceylon again went under Tamil rule. Seven Marava chiefs, more or less bent on plunder, invaded the island. King Valagambahu left his capital and took refuge annong the southern
'gi'); hills. Two of the victorious Maravas returned home taking C S with them their share of the booty which must have been ¿: considerable, for King Gamini and his successors had spent
much wealth in embellishing the city of Anuradhapura. The other five chiefs are believed to have occupied the throne, one after the other, in succession for about fifteen years in all. It is said that in their anxiety to become kings, one murdered the other and when the last of them was ruling, King Valagambahu attacked Anuradhapura and drove the Maravas out of the island.
It should be noted that all these SO. called invaders from the Tamil country were either petty chieftains or Soldiers of fortune. The kings of the Tamil kingdoms do not appear to have taken any part in these invasions. From about B.C. 5o to A.D. 25o, the most powerful people in Europe were the Romans. Their empire extended from one end of Europe to the other, and they were also masters of Palestine and other Asiatic countries touching the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It is noteworthy that the Tamil kings enjoyed most cordial relations with the Roman Emperors. For thousands of years the Tamils had maintained trade and commerce with the Mediterranean countries, and when the Romans came to power in Europe, Tamil kings sent embassies to Rome. Such an embassy is mentioned to have reached Rome in B.C. 20, sent by "King Pandion' to the Court of the Emperor Augustus. Tamil literature tells us that the great cities of Dravida were crowded with foreigners, and from descriptions given, we can easily distinguish the haughty Romans with their "stern and manly appearance wearing arms hidden beneath the folds of their togas.” It is said that many of these foreigners were employed as guards by the Tamil kings. At Musiri, there existed a Temple of Augustus, and 1,2OO soldiers were stationed there, no doubt to protect their commercial interests. Descriptions of early Tamil cities show that the walls and battlements were mounted with catapults and various mechanical devices similar to those used by the Romans.
Trade and commerce between the Tamils and the Romans must have continued up to the end of the second century, as Roman coins belonging to this period have been unearthed in very large quantities, especially at Madura,
Romans in Dravida

Page 18
CHAPTER V
The Tamil language is perhaps the only living contemporary of Sanscrit, Pali, Greek, Latin, Hebrew and other 'dead” languages that flourished more than two thousand years ago. Tamil undoubtedly possesses the oldest and the richest literature among the many languages current in India today.
History of Tam i Literature (From the Earliest Times to A.D. 500).
The history of Tamil literature must therefore be long and interesting. In fact its beginning, like the origin of the Tamil race, is lost in the early mists of tradition. In later days, the attempt to the Origin of standardise the traditions of all Hindus resulted in the Tami |ိုးနီဒိ၊re rise of Puranic stories in the South more or less in . keeping with those current in the North; these stories have caused much mischief, by obliterating the important land-marks of history and giving even ordinary events a mythological aspect, hardly acceptable to the modern historian. Thus for instance, the Puranic version of the origin of Tamil literature tells us that once upon a time Brahma the
Puranic Version of
Supreme God of the Puranic Aryans, came down from the celestial world
to bathe in the Ganges, accompanied by Saraswathy the goddess of learning and two other celestial maidens. On their way, unfortunately, Saraswathy became enchanted by the music of a mere mortal and lingered a while to listen. As a result, she reached the river only after Brahma had finished his bath. Brahma thereupon cursed Saraswathy declaring that out of the fifty two letters that formed her body, forty nine would be born as great poets. In the fulness of time Brahma's curse was fulfilled, and the forty nine letters now born as poets, wandered all over India, and finally met together at Madura the Pandyan capital, where they inaugurated a 'sangam.” The head of this sangam was a poet named Nakkirar.
This poet Nakkirar is of course a historical person and many of his writings are with us today. He is believed to have lived during the early part of the second century, and was the head of a School of န္ဒုမ္ဗ် literary critics, which later came to be known as the Sangams Last Sangam. The venue of this Sangam was Madura, 3. and it was organised under the patronage of the Pandyan monarchs. Nakkirar who is known as one of the sternest critics of his times says in his commentary on "Ahapporul’ that it was the belief among the Tamils of his day that many thousands of years ago, King Kaysina-Valudi of Pandya inaugurated a society or sangam for the furtherance of Tamil learning. This society existed at South Madura, the then Pandyan capital, for a period of 44oo years. It was patronised by 89 kings of Pandya, the last of whom bore the name of Kadungon. A formidable array of poets-4449 of them including 7 kings-is said to have contributed their works to this sangam. Among them we find the names of a few gods of the Hindu Pantheon, who after all might have been mere mortals once upon a time
Among the works mentioned as having been accepted by this School of critics, we notice some on music, dancing and the allied arts. But alas not one exists today. It is said that in the reign of King Kadungon a great

( 15 )
tidal wave swept across the Pandyan Kingdom, submerging Panai-nadu or the Palmyrah country which formed the southernmost district of Pandya. The city of South Madura and the great library containing the works of the First Sangam perished in this great tidal wave. The identity of Panai-nadu is not altogether obscure. The extreme south of India and the extreme north of Ceylon are essentially "Panai-nadus' even today and, in the remote past, might have formed a continuous stretch of low-lying Sandy country. Marine-geologists are actually of opinion that an inrush of the sea had at some pre-historic time separated India and Ceylon, and if the tradition of
the Tamils-the very people who inhabited this submerged country and who alone could have witnessed this event-can be given any credence, this must have happened about B.C. 54OO. V.
Soon after the submersion of South Pandya, Vanther Seliyan, a Pandyan
king, made Kapatapuram the capital of his kingdom
The Middle and continued the good work of his ancestors by re
establishing the literary sangam. This is now known as the Middle Sangam,
Kapatapuram is mentioned in the Ramayana as one of the likely places where Ravana might have taken Sita. It is described as a celestial city rich in gold and adorned with pearls. Nakkirar says that according to the belief of his time, Kapatapuram remained the seat of Tamil culture and learning for 37oo years. Tamil literature flourished here under the patronage of 59 kings and 37oo poets are said to have contributed to this sangam. None of the works reputed to have been produced by this Sangam exists today, except perhaps the work of a solitary grammarian. This is the Tolkappiyam. Its author Tolkappiyanar is popularly believed to have been a disciple or Rishi Agastiya; at any rate his work Tolkappiyam is based on the Agastiyam, reputed to be the first grammar of the Tamil language. So much of myth has grown around these two names that it is impossible to determine the real age in which they lived.
To resume the story as recorded by Nakkirar, it is said that further inroads of the sea forced the Pandyans to abandon the city of Kapatapuram, in favour of modern Madura. This happened during the reign of King Mudattiru-Maran, who re-established the sangam in his new capital.
This society now known as the Last Sangam, had existed I8oo years, from the time of Mudattiru-Maran, the founder to King Ugrapperu. valudi The last during whose reign Nakkirar himself appears to have lived. Therefore it must have been founded about B.C. I7oo. Four hundred and forty nine poets are mentioned as contributors to the Last Sangam, and it is a matter of pride to all Tamils that at least Nakkirar's account of the Last Sangam is no myth. The extant works of the Last Sangam actually contain the writings of all the four hundred and forty nine poets, though some are only in parts.
The story of the three sangams has been subject to much criticism and many have absolutely discredited the whole story as mere myth. Nevertheless this is not the type of myth that could Hಠ್ಠty have taken shape Out of ñolနိfiဖွ’ Considering the age of Agastivar as can be determined from Arvan sources, and
gastlyar as can be dete eC EO y the fact that he was a grammarian, it must be admitted that a considerable amount of Tamil literature must have existed before his time to enable him to produce a grammar. The story of the Three
Sangam
Sangam
Three Sangams

Page 19
( 16 )
Sangams need not therefore be discredited because of the mythological aspect in which details appear. This is only natural considering the extreme antiquity of the incidents around which tradition has grown.
Today the literature of the Last Sangam not only contains the works of the accredited four hundred and forty-nine poets but also of many more who perhaps lived after Nakkirar. This sangam as an active body is believed to have functioned till about the end of the third century. It lingered in name at least many centuries more. Till about the twelfth century temporary schools were got up in the name of the long defunct Last Sangam, to pass works of outstanding merit, into the rich store-house of Tamil literature.

( 17 )
MAHARA YAL
SAKODA YALÉ
SENKOD, YAL
Harps in use among the Tamils during the Sangam age.

Page 20
CHAPTER WI
The works of the Last Sangam proper are in a class by themselves and have been easily distinguished by their purity of language and ರಾಷ್ಟೀಕ್ಗಿ of style, The earliest of thenil are found to contain hardly Works of the any Sanscrit words o' reference tv) Arya II SOcial 01 religious ideas, Although their number is not great, these hits of poetry must have come down from an age when Aryan influence was almost absent in the Tamil country. By this alolic We can guess their extreme antiquity,
In style these poems have been aptly compared to the natural outbursts of singing birds, and Completely differ from the artificial literary style of the Aryans,
From these poems we gather that our ancient forefathers were a very brave and war-like people. They possessed a very high Selse of honour, and no Taillil. In other would forgive her son if he fied from the battlesiell.
To receive a wound in the back was considered the most shameful thing that could befall a Tamil warrior. Hero-worship was very popular andstones plantical to the illemory of fallen heroes often became objects of reverence and worship. Though society was divided into the five major occupational groups, there was perfect equality along all people. Love and courtship usually preceded marriage; customs cliffered from region to region. The government was a benevolent monarclay and besides the standing army, soldiers were also recruited in time of war under the wellknown feudal system, The three Kings of Dravida often fought cach other for imperial rights over the entire Tamil country. Even the petty tribal clieftains, living in their own well-fortified citadels carried on punitive warfare almost un ce:Lsingly, But this incessant fighting within the country does not appear to have interfered with trade, agriculture and other peaceful activities that bring prosperity to a people. On the other hand, the arily was always in full fighting trim, and the martial spirit of the nation was kept alive.
last Sапgaпп
Poets and "Panars" (Illinstrels) wandered from castle to castle and kingdom to kingdom, singing heroic ballads in praise of their noble patrons, to the accompra Iniment of Lluc sweet ya 1 (harp), These anars contributed not a little to the great success of the three singllins. Milly of their ballads have come down to us, and they give us real and beautiful pictures of the life led by the Tamil nobility of that martial age.
The poems of the Last Sanga in were collected together into several anthologies, uncler the royal corn III and of Tamil kiings sich Els grapper L1waludi, Ceral Iriumporai and Maran-valu di, who lived during the latter part of the Last Salgam, These anthologies have been arranged mostly according to the tleme, the most popular being "alia In” and "puliram” that is, Love LLLL LL LLLLLLLLS aLLL LlLLLlL LL LLL LLLLH LClLlLLLLLLL LtLLL LLLLGLHLL LL SLLLLmSCCaaaLLLLLS LL LLLLLL Four Hundred Lowe Songs. This contains the works of several poets, and was compiled by the order of IXing Ugrapperuvaludi. The earliest War poems are likewise known as the "pura-nanuru' or the "Follr Hundred War Songs.'

( 19 )
I'lese contain the works of 150 poets. As wars are usually fought by kings, lle: "ptıra-manuru” collection gives us interesting accounts of the war-like littivities of some of the "crowned kings" of the three Tamil kingdoms, who lived during the period of the Last Sangam,
"Narrinai' (iffar) another collection of 4oo poems, by 175 poets was Illicle by the order of King Maran-valudi. The subject matter of these
Oeills is love.
"Kuruntogai" (garias reins) consists of 4 or songs by 205 poets and also le: is with love.
"Ainguru-nuru' consists of 5oo songs by 5 poets and it was compiled 1y tle order of Cetal Irumporai, King of Clera.
"Padirrup-pattu' (usage trusis) consists of ten songs of which only eight, by eight separate poets, are now extant. They deal with the war-like activities of the Chera Dynasty.
"Pari-padal" (uflLrt-ei) consists of seventy songs. "Kalittogai' (a c8aas reas), a long love poem was composed by a poet 1. Inc.d Nallancluwanar.
There are ten other works, known collectively as "Pattuppattu," and they
ill t: ա.
“Tiru-murugarruppadai" (RCity (у а тд.д. јLJE ) by the poet Nakkirar in |irise of Muruglin, the War-god of the Tamils.
"PorLıı:L'arruppaldai" (Gurger TrečLJEM L-) by tle poet Mudattamak-kaniniY., describes the heroic deeds of Karikalan, King of Chola,
'Siruppanarruppadai" (na ursyiallutol-) by Nalur Nath thanar, in ir lise of a cluiestain na Ined Naliliak koda tı.
"Perumpanarruppadai” by Uruthran Kannanar, in praise of Tondaiman Illa I thiraian, ruler of Tondai.
"Mullaippattu' by Namputhamar, describing the glories of KaverippattiIain, the capital of Chola.
"Mathurai-kanchi" by Mankudi Maruthanar, in praise of Nedu Il-jeliyat), King of Pandya.
"Nedunalvadai' by Nakkirar in praise of King Nedun-jeliyan. "Kurinjippatlu" (gjasëllua "G) by Kapilar, for the express purpose of sainting an Aryan king with the sweetness of Tamil poetry.
"Pattinappalai" (ull-stur2n) by Uruthiran Kannanar in praise of King Arikalan and the city of Kaverippattina II.
"Malaipadukadam" (Lovelfi) by Perunkundur Perunkausikanar, in trilise of a chieftain named Nanihall.
In addition to these eight anthologies, and ten long poems, there are illeen other poetical works which betray the increasing use of Sanscrit VIII als and ideas borrowed from Bralı minical Hinduism. They are theretic believed to have been produced during the latter part of the Last it Ingam, when Aryan culture had more or less influenced the Tamil people. I'll cy a roc ;
'Naladiyar, Nanmanikadikai, Kar-narppatlu, Kalawalinarppathu, Ina| Tipathu, Iniawai-marppathu, Ainthinai-aimpathu, Thinarimalai, Thinaimoli,

Page 21
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Ainthinli-elıpatlıu, Tirukkıral, Tirika dukam, Asarak kovai, Palamoli Sirupanjamulam, Muthu molikka nchi, Ealatlıi and Kain nilai.
Of these the best known is the Tirukkural. This famous masterpiec consists of 1,330 couplets of concentrated wisdom, and deals with almost a subjects that interest mankind. It has been Calcd the Tilllil Wexl:L, bL1 unlike tlıc Weclas of the Aryans, tlıc: "Kıral' steers clear of dogmatic religio and deals with each subject froll a purely ethical point of view. It author, the great sage Thiruvalluvar, was one of those ancient Tamils fo whom dogmatic religion had no meaning, and it is believed that he was Jain, perhaps the most puritan of the religious sects. His life-story is yet In atter of controversy. Except references to stray incidents in their liv nome of our amcicntpocts tellsus amything about themselves. Thc storie that originated in later days have no historical foundation and should no therefore be talken seriously.
The 'Kural' has been translated into many European languages iII:llding Lilti Il,
Two of the five Great Epics, Sila pathilka ra. In and Manimelkalai, als belong to the Last S:t nga III and were perhaps tlic last great works to
lccepted by the Sang-LLI. The epic style of literature is bclicved to lilw been of Aryan origin and it indicates that about the latter part of ti Sangam Age, possibly about the Imiddle of the second century or ey later, Tamil poets began to stray away from purely Tallil styles, ind starte to follow or copy the literary traditions of the Aryalis,
Silapathikarain, or the Epic of the Anklet, is woven round the life an miraculous ticeds of al clastic la cly Ina Ilımed Kan inakai, After ler death sh calle to be worshipped as Pattini or the Goddess of Chilstity. At one tin her worslip had spread into many parls of India including Ceylon. I Ceylon, Tunils still worship Kannakai Auluncil, and emples dedicated her are now Inore in Lillerolls in the Tamil provinces of Ceylon thin 11 in Sout India. According to Sinhalese tradition, the worship of Pattini w introduced into Ceylon by Gajabahu I (A.D. 174-195) who is reputed to has brought to Ceylon an anklet or 'silambu' of Pattini. Pattini devales a foi Indl in 11 any parts of the Similialese country, arıld tilluc "halamba" (Silamb is still Lin object of reverence in all Pattini devales.
Tilhc i Il cicle Luts relatedl in the cpic are believed to have taken pla during the reign of a well-knowl Chera king Illmed Senguttavan, and author of the epic was none other than a Prince of Chera and a young brother of Senguttawaii, who later canc to be known as Illango Adig Senguttavan was one of the greatest Tamil kings of ancient times a Illango has taken the opportunity to include a short account of his brother achievements within lie pig's of his immortal work.
Manilinckalai was written by a grain merchant of Madura named Sita Sattanar who was a close and intimate friend of Illingo Adigal. He was Buddhist and though his work centres round the conversion of Ma melkalai to the Buddlı ist faith, lle gives Luis a learneal Cxposition of Bulldh
philosophy.
These two works give Lis a mile of information about the civilizati of the ancient Tamils and the arts and crafts that flourished in the Tal country nearly two thousand years ago, Dancing and music find a v
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

( : I )
III incint place in ancient Tamil society. The technique of these arts liffered considerably from the Carnatic Music and Bharata. Natyam current ill SJLith India today. Astotl Inding details are given regarding the various 11111:ical instruments that were in use in those times Lind the careful training LSaH0 LL CC LLLaLLLL LLLLLS LLL LLtLaLa LLLLLL LLL LLL LLLL L LLLLaLLLL LLLLL LH III clergo physical as well as vocal training from her fifth to her twelfth year, Lill when considered prolicient often give the first public perfor II:Lince it cler the paltronage of the Royal family. This shows the great interest | like by the Tamil kings of old in Imatlers of culture.
A wide range of Illusical instruments of purely Dravidial origin are ill-O illentioned. Among them we find four kinds of y'als (harps) and thirty(ILelkinds of dru IIs, It is also interesting to note that Tailhil technical words 'yering the whole field of music, dancing and philosophy were then in use, although today they have all been replaced by words of Sanscrit origin, on | { lic pleial of ein riching the language,
The existence of Tolkippian and other Sang-Lim literature brings up the lestion whether there existed an independent system of writing among the ancient Tallils. It is delinitely known that Tamil literature froll the very beginning was written and Iolor:ll like the Wcidas and Otlıer Sanscrit literature. Tolkappiain itself, while depending on the literature of an earlier period, levotes an entire chapter to "eluttu' or letters, which is itself a pure Tamil worl, At the samme time it is inter esting to note tlıat the carliest Sanscrit Ir, Illinarian makes no Inention of writing perhaps for the very good reason III, it 10 Script existed among the early Aryans.
It is well-known now that the pre-historic Dravidians possessed a is stem of writing as early as B.C. 5,000, Prof. Langdon has shown very coVillingly how the so-called Brahmi script developed from the pictograph alphabet of the Molha Il-jo-Daro period. He further thinks that the Aryans lopter this for their own tusc, tlutus einrich ing their language and at the time time developing features not found in other branches of the Aryan I, II lily of languages (Mookerji's lild I Civilization). The Iloiler Tamil Ricript was adopted about the tenth century and it was developed from an cirlier form known as "Watteluttu." This is similar to the Grantha script in which Sanscri cane to be written in South India. Besicles "Watteluttu and Kiril it hit there existed in India, especially in the south, witrious other forms | Writing but Ill Orc or less with a Common origin. All these scripts are find to have some connection with the Brahmi script used by the Emperor Nioki in the third century before Christ. Apart from the prehistoric finds Al Mohan-jo-Daro, thic rock edicts of the Mauryan Emperors are the earliest |historical records discovered in India. Hence many link that scripts used III South India were all derived from the Brahmi or Asokan script. Asoka till the other Mauryan Emperors may have been the first to link of pre"I'll wing listory in stone. Possibly they copied the art from the Greeks who itled over part of North India during this period; but to assume that writing w;15 L Ilklow Il in India before their time is far froll correct. In fact it is w found that the Brahmi script resembles very closely the Phoenician Histo ripit of the 7th century before Christ. Hence it is also believel that the "liliest India Ll script is of Semitic origin, without considering the possibility SaLLLLLL LTTCLLLLL LLLLL LttCtLLaT LLLLLL L LLLLLLLGL LLLLLLaaaLaL LLLL LLLLLL Will the Contemporaty nations that dwell in the Mediterranean region,
History of the Tamil Script

Page 22
( 2.2 )
Eveil if the Phocinicilin origin of the Brill miscript is to be accepted, is well to remember that these sea-faring people from the Mediterranea coast canc to India by sea and not by land. Therefore their connectio with South India, the Dravidian country, must have been very much carli Llı;ın Ywitlı tlıe Nortlı. "T;L1 mil Words, clıiefly II;ııme5 of Innerch:Lndise, hav found their way into ancient Hebrew a Lld Greck. South India Il timber all other articles have also been discovered in the pre-historic ruits of Mugh ci thus eloquently testifying to the commercial activity that existed betwee Drawidian India and the Carly Mediter: 1) can nations. Considering thics acts, thcre is a mile rooil to believe that, if at all this happelled, the ancie Phoenician script, first introduced into South India, found its way to th 1ortli in collrse of time; and possibly di Il'ing ttle reign of A solti vario forms of it existed bot hı ilı Ary:Livalı rtlığı ald Dalxslı irını,

( ? )
INDIA DUR ING THE LAST SANGAM
(Up to A, D, 300)
ARYAN KNGOMS
TAM IL
ANOHRA IF 概 AND AN
TREAL AREA KARU NADLU ET
PATALIPUTTA
MA, GFADHFA,
WANHYA, -།།
A TE - Իէ:
F.F.'lik HiPRTTI IrLAW)
KRF HRLR,

Page 23
CHAPTER WI
The Saing: 11 literature ilit Toduces Is to in Llimerous kings : Eld cliefs of LL LLLL LLLLLLLLS aLLLL LLL 00L aaaL LLLLL LtLmmLa LLLLLL LLLLLaLLLLL LL0 LLL L0 warlike Lctivities, but unfortu Ilal cly these references are LLLLLL LLLL LaLLLLLLL LLaLLLLL LLLLLLaLLLL LLLL LLLaLLLLSS cicit lo 'cast Lle is lory of this picriod is a continuous I 11rr:itive. TII: Gll Cll Inity ogliIIs the Ary:Lns Wils Juite: tLLLLLLL LL LLL LLL LLL LLL LLLLLLL g L LltlaaaLL LaLLLLLLLaS LLLLL LLLLaLa LLLHH LLLLaLLS LLLLLL LLLLLLaL LL LlLLa LLaSLLaa LLLL LLLLLLL a LLLLLL LL LLLLL LL0 LLLLLL LLLLL LLL LgLLL LLLSaL LLLLLaaL LLLLL LGG LLaLaaS LLLLL LLLL LLLLLL HLLLLLLL LL LLL LLLL LL LLLLaa LLLL mLmmLLL LLLLL aLLL LLLL LLL LLLLLT LLCLtlL LLaLLLLL LLL LL LLLL LLGLL LLL LLLLL LaLLLLL LLLL mLLLLaaLLLL LLL LLLL LLLL SLLLLCLCLSCCLLLLLLLS LLLlllS LLLLL LLLLCLCLtLLLLLLLLS LLL LL LLLLL LLLL LL LLLLL LHCHLLaaLLLL LLL Aryaval that.
Tamil Kings of the Sangam Period
LLLLLL LLLLmLaL LLLL LLLLLLaL LLLL LLLLCLCLS LLLLL LLLLL LCLLLL LLLaLLL LaLLLLLLL ille borders of tille Tarııil country, Llı: İlkings of Dravid: I must li:lave realiset
LLL LLLLL mmLGLSLL LLLLLaaaa LLLLLL LLLL LLLLL LL LLLLLLLLS LLLLLL LLL LLLLC LL wards till about .N.D. 335, the Tanils were forced to light the Aryan Illtions ttLLL LLLL LSLLLLLLLS LLL LLLLLLCLL LLLLL LCLLLLaaLC LLLLLLS LL LLLLLL LL LaL LLLL LLLL LCCCLLLLLLLS LLtttLLtlltuL LaLLLLL LLL LLLLL LaLaaLLLL LLLLLLLLS tLLL LLL LLLLLLaL LSLLLS LLLL LL LLLLLtmmLL LLLL LLL LLLL LL LtOLLLLLLL
LLLmLLSLLL LLLLLLLLS LLLL LL LCCCL LCCLLSLLL LLLL LLLLLLLlL LL LLLlLLLLLLL LLLLaL LLLL LL (Guitas, ine:Irly live: Celintul ries liter—ıl OLlt MA., l). 3oo.
The political history of North India luring this long period of 400 years is a tale of Woe. About B,C.. I do the Indo-Greeks, descendants of LLLHESLLLLLLSL LLLLLLLLS LLLLLLt LLL LLLLHHLLLLLL GLLLLLLS LLtLLLLLLL LL LLLLLL LLLLLL LLLLtmLSLLL HLL LcSLLLLCttLtLL LLLLLL LLrLrLLLL LLLLt lLL gLaLLLLLLL LLLL LLLLaL over Wesler II Arylvartha. This lasted almost up to the beginning of th LLLLLLLLm aLLS L LLL aaa L tLLLLSS LLL LLLLLSa aGa LLLL LaL LLLL LL LLLLLL LLLlLL LLLalmamLLLac LLLLLL LLLLSLLLtStL LLLLLLSS LaaLlaaLLLLL LL LLL LLLLLC LaLLLLL LL tlhe Wildlı yalis which oirice formel part of the Mauryalı Empirc. They cwe LLLLLL LLSLLLS LLL LL LLL LSLS 0rL LL LLLLGL LLL LLLLLLaL LLLLLL C Awaiti. The Andhris during this period were largely Biddlists and the LLLL LLmmLLC LLLLLLaa LLLL aLLSLLL LLSSS SLL LLLLL LLLL LLLLLL lHLaLLLLL LLLLa ings and sculptures that can be sect to this clay at Nasik Ajaita, Allerival aLLLL LSLLLLLLa tLLLLLLL LLLLaac LaL LLLLLaLaLSLLS LL aLLLLL LLLLLaLLa L LL
LLLLtE LL0 LLL LLLL L LLLlLLt LLLLL LLLLLLL LLaLLLLL LLLL ttLL dagobilis a tcl vili: Tes; a r'e foi Lid to have beein built, faslı ioned after tlı Andhri style of architecture. As two Biddhist countries, no doubt, Ceyla LLLLLL LLLLLLLLSLLSglLll0m LELaaLL LLL LLLLLLLL0LLLL LLLL LLLLLLL ccLL LLLLLLLLS
LtttLL LLL LLmllmaaaaLS LL Laa LLLLLLa LLLLLL LLLL LLLLLtStLtLLLSL LLLLL LLLLLL over Western Aryavartli were defeated by a Mongol race called th Kisha Ils, and tille gre:Liter part of North III dial Cit me lider the sway of th Kush: Kings, Ri Isll:111 "Lule lasled for about 300 years, till the rise of th Guptas, This it call be set: Il til 1:at thc: gr.:Liter part of North India walls Lunde foreign II ule: e Wer si Ilce till: fall of Lili: Milurya. In Empire, Perlı ils tle onl kingdoms that bolsted of soille ir 1 dependence: were Wajira, Magatlha, Wang and tile territory between the Galges and the Himalayas which accordin
cooá6
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

( 25 )
| the Silapathikaram was divided into ten petty states. It is interesting to Holc that the Tamil lings of this period claim to have fought against the kingdoils of Eastern Aryavartha and not against Wester Aryavartha which was under foreign rule practically throughout this period.
Anong the better known kings of tle Sangan period are Karikalan, erhaps the first to invade North India, Peri inceral-Adili, king of Chera Il a greit wal'rior willio met his clefic:.tt at tille hı:A Ils of Karikalan, Arya padlaiLSStLLL LLLLLLLLmllLlLllLS aLLLL LL LLLLL LLL LLLLL LaLaLLLC LLCCLLLLLLLLGG NexiLı t1 -Ccr":al lati, Clhei":LI 1 SeingLı ttiı W; i, n, Killiw;ulaw:an of Chtol:L, a luI"otlıer-in-l:t W LLLLmmaaaLLtLLLLS LLLLL LLLLtLLLLS LLLLLLLlLLLLLlll LLLLLL LLL LLLLtLLtlLLLmalSLLLLS |'etilar-Kili, Pillyan Miranvalili, Ugrapperuvilludi and Ceral Irumporai.
Of thesc except lK:Lirilka lan and Seng uttava in tlıc l'est c::LITI nedl tlheir right to file either it wars condicted within the borders of the Tamil | oil try or in the patronage they accorded to the Sangains. Aryapadai. LLLLLL LLLLLLLL LLL LlLlLCcLLLLLLLL LLLaSLLLLLLLS L0L LLLLL LLL LLLLLLLLS LLLLL L tLcL LLLLGL aLHH aaLLLLLLL LTaLLLL LLLL LLCLCL00SS LLLLLL LLLLLLLLS 1unately no furtler information is available on the Subject.
The earliest Lild the best-known of the warrior lings of Dravid is litrikalan, King of Choll. It is written that Karikalan was the son of Ellanjet-Selli who was, as his name suggests, a younger Kಳ್ಯ ಜ್ಷian E. of the king of Clioli. He inherited the tlı rolle of Chola while yet in his Ilother's womb. This slows that LL LLL LLLLL LLLlL LLL LLLLLLLLS LL LLLLLLLLS LL LLLLGLLLLL CCLLmLLLLLLL LL LLLLLLLLS I tring his minority the kingdom was aduinistered by certain chieftains who 11 lowever 10 intention of restoring the Crown to the right stilleir. It is LaaaLL LLL LLLLaLL CLLLLLL LLL LLGLLa aa LLLLLL LL LLL LLLL LL LLLLLLLS LLLLLL KLLSLLLLL tttL LmaaL L LLLLLL LLLLLS LLL a LLLLLL HttttLLS LLLLLaLLLL LLLLCLLL LLLL His loyhood clays. It is said that as a lid lic was thi'OWI) into Irison and LaaL LLLLL LLL LLLL CLLLLSLLLLS LLLLLLGLLLLL LLLL aaaLCLL LLLL LLLL CLLL LLL LLLLLL to Clier; where his laterill uncle Irt limbada Tlaliyar was living. Legends si, te til at tlhe people of Cholal getting tired of the LLS ir picts relibelled against LLLLL LLAAS SLLLLL LLLLLGHHHH LLLLLL LLL LLL LLLLLL aLLLLLLS LLL LLLLLL LLL LLGLGLH LLL yJL1 E Ig R;ʻl. Tilk:4l;LI1.
Wlci Karikalai became king of Chola, he set himself the task of lirii ging together the various trilocs who under their OWI) chiefs carried on IL LIšcless type of internal wariarc. Hic forced the turlulent (Oliyar ılınd NIII will r to submission. The bringing of inity within the lingdom Iow 1: L'e him sufficient strength to proceed against the sister king dolls of Cher, and Pandya. It is believed that the kings of these neighbouring ling cloils helped the usurpers during the days of Kalikalan's boyhood. LS cLLLCLL LLLL LLL SLLLLLLLL LLL LLLLL LLLLHHLHLHHLLLL LLL LLL LLLLLLLLmGG HlLL SLSHHaaLLLL LLL LLLL SLLL LLLL Sttt LLLLLLaS LLLLL LmLLLLuS LLLS LLLLL LLLLLC LallLLL LLLL SC LLLLL LL LLL LLLLLLLLmmL LL LLL LLLLLLL LLLLLLLLS LLL LLaLLLLL LLLLLL I'el Litll-Ceral, the Chera King who was considered the most fallous Warrior of the day, wished to meet young Karikala II in single combat, and li: wi II; recognised him at i disti LInce Irishedl Lor w:Lirdi to meet him. LL LLLLLL LaaLLLLLLLCL LL LLLLLL LLLLL LGLLLLLLL LLLL LL LLL LLS II rows at the advancing figure of his cinemy, It is said that as he rushed LLLLLL LLLLLLL CLLLLLLS LSLLLLLLSLLLLLLLL LLLLaLaLLLLL LLLLL LL Laa LLLLLLL It is men followed, and in that fraction of a second, an arrow from the bow

Page 24
26 )
of his enemy struck hill on the back of his shoulder. The wound was s slight that Peruin-Ceral did not even feel it at that moment. The fight that day was indecisive and at dusk the opposing armies retired to their respective camps. It was while examining his wounds that night, surrounded by his chiefs, that the King of Chera discovered the slight scratch on his back, Although his chicfs assured him that that was but an accident, the implication of such a wound worried him so much that he refused to give battle the following day, and finally committed suicide rather th: Il bring disgrace to his illustrious forefathers.
The victorious Killrikala in brought both Pandya and Chera under his sluZerilinty, and thus United the Tamils perhaps for the first time in their history. Having thus brought the entire Tamil country under his just and wise rule, Karikallin sought to expand the Empire beyond the traditional limits of Dravida. His enemies on the north were the Andhras. We have seen how the Andhras became the most powerful people in India, after the death of Asoka. Although thicit power last cd till about the beginning of the third century, they had in any "ups' and 'downs' dulring this period. The rise of the Cholas LIIlder Karikalan put the Andhras into the slide for a title.
During the time of Karikalill, the Andhra country appears to have been divided into several kingdons. Nine of these united together to oppose the Tamil invaders. At Valai, a great battle was fought which lasted seven days. It ended in a crushing defeat for the Andhras. The defeat of the Allrils gave Karikalan a free passage into Aryavartha. There is rool to believe that the Andhras who were of the same racial stock as the Tallils beca Inc allies of Karikalan, when the latter invaded the Aryan kingdolls of Wilchiral (Wajira), Magadha and Avanti. Poets and writers who were contemporaries of Karikalan, beyond mentioning his conquest of the "northerners', give us no further information on the subject; or perlhaps their writings : Lire now lost, However, later Writers, during whose time perhills. Other records existed, tell is that the victorious Tamil army crossed the Ganges and relched the castern base of the Himalayas which barred their way more effectively than any Aryan army. The Tamils, born and bred in the SL111 y South, lilable to stand the cold of the Himalayalı Tegion çleciklexl to tırn bilck, and it is mentioned tlıat Karilkalan caused his Tiger Crest to be Clived upon a cr:lg, as a witness to his unrivalled feat, There is however no evidence to show that Karikalan rolight the Conquered ling cloins of the north under lis direct rule. It is mcntionel that Wajira, Magadha and Awal Inti presentecil Karikalan with an enormous quantity of gold and other valuables. The Andhra country was however treated differently. Karikillian appointed Ill clubers of his family as sub-kings and chieftains in Illany parts of the Deccan. In later years, the descendants of these Tamil princes called themselves Telugu-Cholas, and even als late is the soll rtcenth Century, Andhra chieftains, asfar north as the Bastar state proudly claimed descent from Karikalan (E. I. II, page 338). Isarikalan shifted his capital froll Uraiyur to Kaverippattinam, a well. known port at the Inouth of the Kilveri river. From Pattinappalai' and other poems we gather that this new capital of Chola was a nagnificcnt city spreading several miles long the bank of the Kaveri. It possessed many large and beautiful buildings. Foreign ships came sailing right up tgp the jetty and discharged their cargoes on the roadside, where they lay in

( 27 )
great heaps waiting to be stamped with the Tiger Seal of the Cholas. Karikalan, realising the importance of forcign trade, encouraged Greeks, Rimals and others to visit his kingdom, and put up wilrehouses for their couvellicnce. It is described that the streets of Kaverippattitlam were full of foreigners, no cloubt merchants from many far-off lands,
Agriculture, the Ilainstay of the Chola Tamils, was by no means leglected. It is claimed that Karikalan built an embankment along the
Xavcri for a distancc of One l'1undred niles,
After the death of Karikala in the Cholas appear to have lost their hold on the subject nations. Both Pandya and Chera became independent
agairl. Ned Linjeli yalin, ilking of Pandya, and Ncdun-Ceraltan, Nedಣ್ವyan king of Clucral, who perhaps lived after Kaikalan claim Nedun-cerattan' have invaded North India. Possibly they came to a
clash with the Aryans in all attempt to arrest the lisintegration of the Tamil Empire built by the Great Karikalan, Unfortunately We know nothing more about their great venture, Nedun-Ceraltan was succeeded by his son, Senguttavan.
At this time a civil War was going on in Chola between Senguttavan's brother-in-law Killiwall van and nine other Chola princes, Senguttavan took sides with Killiwalawan, defeated the nine Chola princes, and establish ccd peace and order in Chola. Later lic forced Pandya too to acknowledge his suzerainty, and thus once again the Tamils found themselves united under a strong ruler.
Senguttavan's younger brother, Illango Adigal, in his great work 'Silapathikaram' tells us that the king of Chera decided to build and «ledicalite al tCImple to Kan Thinlkani, tlıę story of whosc clastic life was already well-known all over the Tamil land. Orders were about to be given to the sculptors to carve an image of Kannakai out of granite from the Podiyil hill sacred to the Tamils, when there came to the Chera court a Brahman, who had just returned from Aryavartha. This Brahman related to the king low at a banquet, certain Aryan kings who held sway over the territory lying to the north of the Ganges had spoken disparagingly of the Tamils, boasting that during the time of the Tamil invasions there were no heroes like themselves in Aryavartha.
When Senguttawan heard this, he decided to get the statue of Kannakai carved out of granite from the Himalayas, and to give it a bath o urification in the Gangcs itself,
This was no doubt a challenge to the Aryans, and it was only an excuse to invade the north. On an auspicious day, at the head of a mighty riny which included ten thousand cavalry, five hundred elephants and a IIIIIldred chariots, Senguttavan started out on lis march to Aryavartha. He lade his first halt at the Nilgris where he received tributes and fresh iCo In tingents froIl Illally wassal states, The Ka LTLI madlers (Kannadas), tline (viars and the warriors of Kudagul-nadu are especially mentioned as having offered valuable help. It would be reinembered that many of the ruling N. till ral kings and clieftains of this period were descendants of those appointed by Karikalan, Possibly they still acknowledged the suzerainty of the Tamil kings or perhaps they were friendly towards Senguttawan. It 18 ||1itc obvious that Senguttawan's spherc of influence extended even als far is the Ganges, for mention is made of the Nurruvar Kannar, believed to be
Cheran Sengutta Yan

Page 25
( 28 )
chiefs of Malva, who journeyed all the way to the Nilgris to see Senguttavan personally and dissuade him from his warlike intentions. They even offered to bring a piece of granite from the Himalayas if that would satisfy the king. But in the words of Silapathikaram, the king replied:
"Balakumara's sons, Kanaka and Vijaya and other Northern kings with unrestrained tongues, on the occasion of a Royal banquet, spoke disparagingly and in ignorance of the valour of the Tamil kings. Therefore with exceeding wrath, even like the God of Death, this army marches forth.'
Having thus made known his firm resolution to his allies, the Nurruvar Kannar, he ordered his general, Villavan Kodai, to resume the march. Senguttavan's quarrel was with the Aryans who lived north of the Ganges, and he appears to have left the kingdoms of Eastern Aryavartha severely alone. When the mighty army after many months of marching reached the southern bank of the Ganges, they found the Nurruvar Kannar already there with a fleet of boats to ferry the army across the river. The kingdoms north of the Ganges were ruled by Sittara, Vicitra, Rudra, Bhairava, Citra, Sinha, Danurdhara, Siveta, Kanaka and Vijaya. The last two were the chief enemies of Senguttavan. The Aryans attacked the invading Tamil army on the northern bank of the Ganges. The battle was fierce and long, but at the end the Aryans fled in disorder. It is described that the Aryan kings tried to escape disguised as women, priests, minstrels and such non-combatants, but were recognized and taken as prisoners of war. The victorious Senguttavan, having thus vindicated the honour of his race, stayed in the conquered country for some time. During this period he caused the statue of Kannakai to be carved. The purification ceremony was also held, and laden with much spoils of war and accompanied by the captive kings, the Tamil army returned home after an absence of three years. The celebration of Senguttavan's triumphant return, as described in the Silapathikaram, reminds one of the gorgeous scenes enacted in Rome on similar occasions. But unlike the Romans, the Tamils refrained from slaughtering captives. On the contrary all the captive kings, except Kanaka and Vijaya, were allowed to return to their respective kingdoms on their acknowledging Senguttavan's Suzerainty. Kanaka and Vijaya, dressed in the female attire in which they attempted to escape, were sent round to the capitals of Chola and Pandya, to be laughed at by the entire Tamil world. But Illango Adigal tells us that this was not appreciated by the kings of Chola and Pandya, who thought that captive kings should be accorded better treatment.
Senguttavan next built a temple and installed in it the statue of Kannakai, Many foreign kings were present on the day of dedication and among them, it is interesting to note, one Kaya Vagu (Gaja Bahu), King of sea-girt Lanka. Gaja Bahu I was king of Ceylon from A.D. I74 to A.D. I95 and we have little difficulty in recognizing him as the guest of Senguttavan. According to the tradition of the Sinhalese, it was Gaja Bahu who introduced Pattini worship into the island, possibly as a result of his visit to Chera. The Mahavamsa tells us nothing about this incident probably because the introduction of a foreign and non-Buddhist religious cult could not have been looked upon with favour by the Buddhist clergy who compiled the chronicle. However the Rajavali, compiled several centuries later, relates a very colourful story of how Gaja-Bahu, accompanied by a giant named Nilamaha Yodaya, paid the King of Tanjore a surprise visit,

( 29 )
and demanded the release of twelve thousand Sinhalese held in captivity. On the demand meeting with a refusal, the visitors proceeded to give an exhibition of their personal prowess by marvellous feats of strength. This accompanied by a threat, that thousands of such strong men were waiting eagerly in Lanka to cross over, so unnerved the Tamil King that he not only released the twelve thousand Sinhalese, but even allowed Gaja-Bahu to take with him twice that number of Tamils to Ceylon. The story further adds that Gaja-Bahu also brought to this Island the 'Silambu' or anklet of Pattini, the goddess whom the Tamils worshipped. The introduction of Pattini worship might have been deliberately omitted by the compilers of the Mahavamsa, but had the 'Silambu' been brought merely as a trophy of victory, as suggested in the Rajavali, it is difficult to understand why this great and bloodless victory- a feat perhaps unrivalled in history-should have been passed over in silence in the great chronicle, the Mahavamsa. Not only is this story clothed in the garb ( f fiction, but its very tone is so fanciful, and the circumstances so improbable, that its veracity may be rightly questioned. Further the historical inaccuracy referring to the Chola King as the King of Tanjore-a city unheard of before the ninth century-would tend to confirm the suspicion that this tale is of a very late origin. In contrast to this, the casual and friendly reference made in the 'Silapathikaram'- a contemporary record-to Kaya-Vagu of sea-girt Lanka, and his presence at the dedication of the first Temple to Pattini, supported by the Sinhalese tradition that Gaja-Bahu brought to Ceylon Pattini's 'Silambu, which is really the symbol worshipped even today in all Pattini temples, leaves no doubt as to the identity of this Kaya-Vagu or the nature of his visit to the Tamil country. -
It is not known how long Senguttavan's vast empire lasted. Like all ancient empires it might have crumbled soon after the death of its founder It is impossible to follow the course of history during the century that followed. Various kings are mentioned with reference to local conflicts.
Some of them such as Maran Valudi and Ceral Irumporai were patrons of the Last Sangam, which continued to flourish under their care. The best known of the Tamil Kings who lived after Irił. Senguttavan is undoubtedly Nedunjeliyan of Pandya. Nedunjeliyan His fame rests on his great victory against the contem(Victor of porary kings Of Chola and Chera at the battle of Talaiyanganam) Talaiyanganam. He is therefore better known as The Victor of Talaiyanganam. He also won further success in Kongu-nadu and thus not only exercised imperial rights over the whole of Dravida, but also boasted of an empire beyond the limits of the : He was also a poet, and some of his verses are found in tlhe Puram collections.
The Chola king, Perunarkilli, who appears to have lived after Nedunjeliyan, claims to have been crowned in the Aryan style, according to Perunarkili Vedic rights. This indicates the growing influence of the Arvan Brahmans in the Tamil country. Before him Kari
of Chola y ranmans intne 1 amil country ef Orc Th1 mm K2ar 1
kalan was induced to offer Vedic sacrifices, but there is no evidence to show that Tamil kings before Perunarkilli adopted the Aryan custom of Pattablishekam. Perhaps Perunarkilli was the first to be made a Kshtriya, for according to the Aryan conception, only a Kshtriya was entitled

Page 26
( 30 ) to this honour. This indeed was a signal triumph for the Brahmans and from this time onwards these advocates of Aryan culture gained for themselves much favour from the kings of Dravida.
This also marks the beginning of a new phase in the history of Dravidaa phase in which Aryan cultural and religious influence was destined to play a great part.

( 3 )
THE PANDYAN & PALLAVA EMPRES
Between A.D. 600-900.
V) ND -YA
SNAPURA
MANCALAPÜRAM - -
(MANGAlo?...;
PALLAVA EMPRE
PANDYAN EMPRE

Page 27
CHAPTER VIII
From about the beginning of the 4th century the Last Sanga m began to decline and by about the 6th century it had ceased to function as all active body. This was directly due to the callility that ': overtook the three Royal Dynasties of the Tamil country,
Drawida whose rule Cill bL traced to pre-historic lines, (A.D. 300.900) The numerous tribes and clai is of Dravicla had each - its own clief or tribal leader, aid although they were subordinatic to the "crowned kings' they never hesitated to Illal, e il bid for greater power whenever the opportunity presented itself. Song tribes, especially those which inhabited the hill-country, proved extremely difficult to control. These tribes acknowledged the El Lithority of the central OW Crs, only under compulsion. This resulted in cindless punitive wars will in the Tamil country, accounts of which fill the pages of Sangam literature (Pırım).
About the beginning of the 4th century one of these semi-independent LLLtLLS LLtaa LlLLLaLLLLLLLaLLLL LLL LLtlltLLaaLLLL LLLLLLLHHHSS agLLLL LLLL LL LLL LL The Kalabhra aid having overthrown the three alicient dynasties,
Dупаsty occupied the Talı Imil tlı rolles for a period of lıcılly tWC)
hundred years. Except Tondai-nadu or Kanchi, as it was
10W lknown the rest of the Tamil country came under the Sway of this new |
dynasty. Little or nothing is known of these Kalabhra kings, and it is still a latter of conjecture as to how they managed to upset the entire Tail land, No poets or minstrels have sung their praises probably because they were no patrons of learning. One solitary reference tells is that the thre: 'crowned lings of Dravida were held prisoners at the court of a Kalabhira king named Acyluta." This AcyLita has been identified as the "Ayutil Vikkanta of thc Kalabhra family“ mentioned by the great Buddl ist commentator Buddhadatta as ruling over the fair land of Chola with the ancient and beautiful city of Kavarippattinam as his capital, Buddhadatt El was himself a native of Chola, hailing from Uraiyur, and he visited Ceylon in the 5th century. Acyuta, thic only known ling of the Kalabhra family, must Elave tlherefore come to power about tlie latter part of Ille 5 till CentLil Ty', and froIn the reference in Tamil literature, we nilay assling tlh:lt he exercised suzerainty over the kingdoms of Chera and Pandya as well. Unfortunately nothing more is known about these will"-like kalabhras,
Almost simultaneously and perhaps talking alwantage of the Kalabhra success in tle South, another clin called the Pullivas Came to prolnilhelice
T Paya Tondai-niludu was so na mecl after Tondainan Illa Illri liyan, у the son of a Chola king by a Naga princess probably of
Manipallawann, capital of a Naga Kingdom in North Ceylon, Illai traiyan became the first sub-king of this district. Previous to this, this district remained a tribal flrea occupied by the Tiraiyas, a sea-faring cl:Ln of Tamils. Almost up to the end of the Singan period, Tondai was considered El Part of Chola and was ruled over by Chola viceroy's. From about the 5th century before Christ, Tonditi with Kaichi as the capital had become the
stronghold of the Brahmans, and as a result, the people of lis region

Page 28
RUINED CITY OF MAHA-BALPURAM A. I ), fiht)
 

( 33 )
lear to have come early under Aryan influence, and the local chieftains S LLLHHL LL LLLLSLLLHL LLL LmltLLLLLLL LLL LLLLHL LLLlL LLaS LLLLL LLLL LL LLLLaLLS great patiality to Satiscril studies. Perhaps these Pallavas were the
24! Scei clants of Illa Intraliyalı,
Alıcııt A. D. 335 Sıııııılır.agıp'ta, who is consicle I'd the greatest Aryan LLS aCaLLL LLaLa StLLLaS LLLLLL LLLL aaLLLL LLLLLLtO LLLLLLL LLaaLLLL LLL
Samudragupta \ဖူးဖူးဖူ ់ Emil; who y subjeણ eçl ਜ and the Tamils Il Li L yımı ILLIO . g_ 1 previous Ըt:Iլ uries. 1. Inarched right up to the Krishna river, conquering several Andhra lkingdons, but on the banks of the Krishia thuis Aryan invaller was defeated by a confederation of Tauntil kings LLI cler the leadership of a Pallava ling of Kincli. This shows that by about A.D. 335, the Pallavas had \ "...blished thenilselves as inclependent rulers of Tonclai, and their rule illicitly extended up to the river Krishna. The signal success of the Palla was JSa aLLLL LL LLLLLLL LLLL LLLLHLLLLLLL LLLLLLLLS aa0t LLLLLLLaaaaLLL LLLLLGtLLL LLLLLL ling cloin of Kanchi to great prominence, aid possibly this was the beginning il the great Palla va EImpire. Blut un fortunately notling furtler is known LLtaLLL LLLlS LSLS u00S LLLLLLa LLLLLL LLLLLLa LLLLLL LLL LlLlLLLSLLLLLL Liccided the throne of Kittichi, Simha-wishnu was a very war-like king and LL LLL LLLLLL LL LCHLCaLLa LL LLLLLLLgLLL 0LLLLLLLS LL LLLLLL aLLaLLLL ind vanquished the Kalabhri king who ruled over Chola. He also claims to II, we defeated the Kalabhrilling of Pandya and also the kings of Chera and Ceylon. No information is ; vailable on his conflict with Chera and Ceylon, lit it cents that took place in Pandya are known to some cxtent. In his W.I.'s against the Kalabiliras, Sinha-wishnu was helped by a member of the ill P, Inclyan Dynasty named Kadungol).
Kadungo71 who was perhaps ruling als a petty chief in Some Corner of SLLLLSS GrrL LLLLLaLLLL LL LLL LLLLLLLL LLLL LLLLLLL LLL LLLLLLLL LLL LL Pllidya, who was already losing against Simhawish II. On the fall of the Kalablras, Karlungon seized Pindyil. He was hailed by the Pandyans als thic "Restorer of old times” and perlılıps he well liser ved this title. The Pullivas however felt that they had been robbed of their spoils of war by Kadungol and thus began the enmity between the I'lli was and the Pandyans that lasted for nearly five centurics.
Kadungon Restores the Рапdyan Dynastу
The Gupta empire which came into existence about the beginning of | lie 411 century and which restored for a Lille the ancient glory of the E Aryans, was overthrown by the Huns (Hunas) about the A. Wents latter part of the 5th century and Aryavartha once again "Y' passed under foreign rule. The rule of the Huns lasted | || Out the middle of the 6th century when tlit.: Arya in Kingdoms united SKLLL LL LLCCLLaaLLLL LL LLLLLtLLL LLL LLLLL0 SLLL LL LLLLL LLLLLLLLS LLLL LLt | 1: El Lins who inv; «led Europe Linder Attila were later absorbel into tlac (cinnar people, even so, these Huns who invaded India, in course of time lectile one with the Indo-Arya is among whom they were forced to settle will. III A.D. (of a Biddhist prince Ilaimed Harsha became king of "I'liliesar, then the strongest of the Aryan kingdoms. Soon he became I'll cror of North India and like his ancestors made ill attempt to conquer | ',ilkbili II.

Page 29
( 3, )
About the time the e Impire of the Huius collapsiCd, a new dynasty||
called the Chalukiyas rose to power in the western part of the Andhra country. The kings of the Chalukiya Dynasty, whose Tಣ್ಣ ၃မ္ယမ္ပိ{s: ri le il I One of il flulence extellel from * Windhyas Deccam to the norther boundary of Chera, always identified themselves with the kings of the south, Therefore when Harshl attemptel to invil cle the South, his enterprise was nipped in the bid by Pulakesin II, the Chalukiyan Emperor, who defeated the Aryans on the banks of the Nalbada river, and thus rolled back the invasion cwen before it reached Dakshina. This Wils the last alticimpt inade by the Aryans to conquier the sottil.
The powerful Chalukiyas however did not love the Pallavas of the south whose power was also growing day by clay, and this soon led to hostilitics lect well Pulakes in 11 ind Malendra. ołys је vırılışırı I, tlı c sıccessor of Siılı:lvislııııı. Kadungon, 譬 now king of Pandyal, and even the ling of Chola who W was but a subordinate of the Pallavas, cast their lot with Pulakesin II no doubt with the purpose of checking the Pallavas. This helped the Pandyans to re-organise themselves, alld while the Chalukiyas LlLLLLLL LLLaL LLLLLLLHHL HLSHCLLa LL LaaLLLLLLL LLLLLLLLSLL aLLLLLLS LCLLLLaaH LLamLLHaLLLL LLL position by crushing petty rebellions and forcing Lithulent tribes into subminission. Kadıııııgon's ally, Pulakcsii, woim a substantial SL1ccess agains LaLLLLLLLS LLLLLLLLtLS LLLLL gaLcaLLLLLLL L CtaaLaL LLLL LHHLLLaC L LCaa L the east coast, between the Krishna and the Godavari. Wengi-lad was really a part of the Andhra country, but during this period formed part of tle Pallava Empire.
LLLLLL aLLLLLL LLLLaa LLLLLL C LLKCLaLLLLa LLLLLLLLS lLL LL LlL GLLLH LLLLLL LL LLLLLLLLS LL LLLLLSCLc LLLL LLLLLaL LLLLL LHHLLS LLaLLLLL LLLLLLa LLLL LLL LLLLHHL as El:Listerin Cılızıltılıiya:L,
Two years later in A.D. 62 however the Chalukiyas inct with serious reverses. Nar: simb:L-Varim: Il who is considered the grc:.test of the
kings became King of I.Kılıçlıi ılıcı alınost ilılıcclitely tle Pallavis began to recover lost ground. Pulakesiil, '''''''''ဦးချိုမှီး' great as lhe * nel his defeat at the hands of the yoլIIւլ: Pill;ւviւ, The Chalukiyas were coli pletely LGLLLLL LLL LLLLLLLLmmLLtttLSLHHLLLlLLL LLLLLLLlLLLLLL LL LLtLG LLLLLL LLLL LLLL LLmLLLL very capital Bilda imi, which was sacked without mercy. But I'll the S;lin e time, the Pallavas could 11ot re-capture Wengi, and they lhiacl to be satislied witlı the new territories captured from the Chalukiyas. The struggle with the Chali ukiyas did not eintl with this, lowever, ankl it cliragged on with w: Tyi Ing success, for several generations,
Narasimhil-Varman ruled till about A.D. 660. He was the most power
LL LLLLLL aLLLL LLLLLS LLL LLLLtLLLLLLLLS aLLL LL LLLLLL HLLLLLLL LLLL LalLmalLaL LLLL LLmCS new features i T.Lmil culture. He cinco irigel tlle
Narasimha
Narasimha
sire: cling of Aryan culture, and helped the Brill. Inails Varmಙ್ಗಲೆ his in this work. He did not will to keep Drawid:
separtit e from the rest of India, lind tlherefore ; clopted the custoins :Lind mian Iners of the Aryinins, Lim el liberally erudowed the S:LI1scrit institutions that already existed in Kanchi. It was chicfly cling this period that the Lucient arts and crafts of the Tamils began to lose their

Page 30

( 35 ) -
1: L'alcteristic features, "Kulttus" became "natyalıls” 11 di "i l-iszai” by CCL Lille || "Sangeetham' and standard works on such subjects began to he written | 11p1’e antl Ilmore in Sanscrit. The Pllavas were as a rule lowers of architec||re and sculpture just as their rivals, lic Cholas and the Pandy:Lns, were LLSLLLLHLS LL LLLLLLLLS LttLLLLLLL S LLLLLLL LLLS LL LLL LLLL LLLLL LLL | cliples of granite following no doubt the example of the Buddhists and |ins. III tille Field of art, Narasiııılı a-varman’s greatest Achiever 11eInt wils tlı C | 31 tilding of tlıcı temple city of Mahabalipu raum wlich now lic:s half bLlried it thic sands of the cilst coast. Its grillite tellples, covered with exquisite 4:... rings depicting scenes from the Hindu scriptures, have been considered the linest exilmples of Indian sculpture. The cultural influence of the SEESLSLLL LLLHLL LaLL LLLLL LL LLLLLLa LLLLLL LL LL LLLLL LLLL LaLLLLL maaCLLLLL LLLLLL still distant countrics is the East Indies and Ceylon, Tlic Pallavas were lso a great naval power Lind some believe that they even colonised certain Colli, Erics on the opposite coast of the Bay of Bengal.
About Llıis time il Sinılılese prince named Manavalınmızı, wlı o bcC:Lille king of Ceyloniil A.D. 676, was living as a refugee in thic court of Kanchi. He took part in the wars against the Chalukiyas and so distinguished himself as a soldier that the king of Kanchi helped him to Inale a bid for the throne of Ceyloil. It is written that the King of Kanchi gave Manaval Illil all ill Illy If well-traiñed soldiers and also sluips to carry filem to Ceylon. Milnavalınma Licled in Ceylon and marching on Anuradhapura captured it without much liticulty, but infortunately when the Tamil army returned to Kanchi, Mili law: Inilla was forced to quit Ceylon. Once again, In A.D., 676 the King of Kanchi once again sent an arily to restore Ceylon to Manavalnina. This was casily dollcastle Sinhalese too were without a proper leader, and were glid to accept Malawamma as king. It was about this time that SLLLLLLLL LLLLLLlLLLaHlLl LaLaLL LLL LLL LLLL L LLLLLLaS aLLLL LL LLLLLL LLtttLLLLLLLLG LLLLLL i sponsible for it, The ruins of Alluridlapura show clearly that during Illis period tle Sill:1lcse craftsIlen learnta good dc:1 froim tlic Pallalvas,
Mama wamma, King of Ceylon
Just as Main awam mina imale use of Tillmil a l'Imms to regin his kiingcloill, eye, so lic must lave made use of Tamil craftsmen to climbellish Lind | 1:1 || Lify llis capital.
About A.D., 62o Kildungon was succeeded by his son Maravarman Avanisulamani. He continued his father's good work of organizing the resources of Palidya and ruled over his kingdon for nearly twenty-five years. We have of Llrt lic ill for inition bout his ille,
Pandyan Marawarman Avanisularnani (A.D., 620-á15)
About A.D. 615 Sendan, the son of Avanisula Illani, ascended the throne o Pandya, and found himself at the head of a fairly well organised kingdom. 5епdап His thoughts naturally turned to foreign conquests, but unM.D. i-WO fortunately his war-like, activities had to be vety limited, (f.L. |owi ing to the presence of the powerful Pallava king, Narasimhayırıııııı, in the mortlı. Sendalı lı ad tlıcrefore to bc satisfied witlı pLnilive Wirfare against certain Cluera chieftains whose territories lle a III lexed.

Page 31
( 3 )
Arikesari Milravarman, the son of Sell clan, was crow led about A.D. (70. Like lis Father Arikesari possessel wir-like qualitics and Wis impatient to expand his kingdom. Narasim ha-VATImail, the gre:it Pallava, Maravarman ""; dead. The Pព្រៃផ្សៃ no longer feared ill {{!}; (A.D. 670-710) 111l 1llere startel i kecil competition between the two or supremacy over South India. Aritics:tri defeated the Pallavis twice, once At Pali, and again at Nelveli, These places have not been iden tillied yet for wat of full "ther particulars. There appears to hawe aaLa LLttC LLLLaa LLLLLaLLLLLLLaLLL LaLLLSS S LLLL LELSLLLLLLLL LL Laa LLLLLLaLa LLmLLL LLLLLL the people of Kuru-Inadu rose in revolt but Arikesari Supressed them with a LLLHma LLLLLLS LLLLLLLHL aL LtLLLLLLL LL alLLLaaG LaalmLLLLLLL LL LLLLL LLLLLLLHllLLLCCL and after willing a series of battles utterly crushed the Clera power by capturing the king and the Royal houselhold. Thustle reign of Atikcsili LLSLELLLLLLaL aaLLLLLL LLL LLLLLSL LHHLCLLLL LLL LLLLLLLLS LLL LLLLaL0a LLLLaLS nate to Pandya and parts of Chola previously held by the Pallavas also fell into the lands of the P. ndyans. What was more important tllai i the acquisition of territories was the fact tlıat the doni 1 al Int positio II SO long hield by tle Pallawas was very bąilly shakel,
Arike,Sari
IKoccacluya II, alia s Ramadhira, the next lking, succeedled his father about A.D. 7 Io. He too was a war-like ling and maintailed his hold on Chera Kocca dayan and parts of Chola. At Marudur, he put down a rebellion '' started by an Ay or Shepherd Chief. Koccadayan later (d. D. 70-740) ided the Kong I country and defeated the Maharattas who LC LaLLLLL GGSLa LLLL LaL LLLLLaS LLLLL LLL LLLLCS LLLLL LLtLLLLLaLLLL ( Mangalore as their capital. The Palih liya. Ils capitur ccl Mangalapiiriä III1 and borought tilne Kongu country ulı der tilheir rule. This Inew a cquisition-theLLLLaaaa LLLLLaLLLLSSSJSLLLLL LL LLLLL LL LaLaaaa LaLLLLL LLLL LL LSLLLLLLLL LLLLLL Koccalaya's successors were forced to reconquer at least parts of it before they could establish their sovereignty over this province,
Maraval'In:LIn Rajasimh:4, son of Koccaclayan, 5 et himself the task of aaLLLLlL LLLL LELLLLLLLLS LLLLLLaL LL LLLLHL cccLlLLL LLLLLLLgS aL LLLLLLCLtaS LLLLLLLLaS Mannikuricli, Tirumangai, Puvalur Kodumbalur i tid other Raisimha Pice. The Tinei tion of several by:L E Lles slow tlı zıt Rajasinılırl's #ಣ್ಣ WAO-65) campaign against the Pallavas was long and fierce, Ultimately a Kulumbir le brought the war to a glorios en el by gaining a decisive victory against NaInclivarman Pallavaillalla who, it is LLaaLLLlLLLLLLS LL LLLlllllL LLL LLLLaLSLLL LLLLttLLL LLLLLL LLLLLLLLLL elephants, horses and other war malerial. Udayaca Indra I, the Pallil a general, also LLL0 LLL SCCCL LLLLLSLLLLLLLL LLL LlLaLaHGH0L LLLLL LaLLLLL LLcmmLL0S LLLLL LLLLLL 0L aC doubt that the crld of the long struggle was in favolt Of Rajasimha.
Mara Warnman
LLLLLL LLL LLLLC LLLCLLL LLL LLLLOOOS LLLLLLttmLmLLL LLLL0L00LLLLL LL LLL LLLLLL LLtttLLLLLLLLaaaaS LLLLL LLLLLLL LLL LLGL CCCCSSLLLL LLL LLLLL LLL LLL LLLS GGaa LL LLLLaLac LLL LLT LLTLLLLLLLLS LL LLgaLa CCLCCLL LLLLL LaLLLLL LLLCLLL
CtLLL LLL LLLSLLLaSLLLL aHtLLL 0L LLtLLL LLL LLLLLrLLLLL LL LLL LLLLLLLltlCC LLLS S this time. Rajasimha tlhel'efore ca1 e i rito conflict with ttic Clalukiya power, and at Weillaia great battle was fought. The Pandya IIs cinerged victoriotis, LtLLL LLL LLLLLLLLD LLLLLLLa LalaLLaLL LLLLtL LmGLHHLLLLLCLLLS LLSL LLaaHHL euding to the war nglist the Gilgas, Prince Neljidilya, the So ni heir of Rajasimhi, Imarried a Git Inga princess,

( 37 )
Jatila Purantalia Nedun-jadayan alias Warugia succeeded his father alout A.D. 765. On the death of Rajasi IIlla, practically all lle SLilject
Parantaka ឍ ರಿಟ್ಟ! “ို{| ಇಂಗ್ಲd ಙ್ಗನ್ಡೇಟ್ಗ: foပ္ပါးဖူးူမျို Neduп-jadауап Will Williai histatiers tornel ellenes ellyel
"T" chiefs of tilne sou tlı staget El cleInconstratio II against tilhc new (...), 6.5-8.5) king, The war with the Pallavas was opened orice again. Nedun -ja dayan won atılı importatlıat victory Eat Pun II:liga dain, on the south LlLLa tLLL LLL LLLLCLSLLLLL LLLLL LLaaLL LLLLL LL LLL LLL LLLLLLLLS LLLLLLmTS Maran Eyinari, tle broller of Mara Ingari, was appointed chief minister.
The king of the Western Kongu country helped by the Pallavas and Cheras Ilow rose against the at thority of Nedun-jadayan, but their collbined army led by Adigll, a Kong chief, was badly defeated it the battles of Ayirur and Pugaliyut on the north bank of the Kilveri, The defeat of Adiga Il practically put all end to all rebellions in the Kong 1 country, and it is said that the King of Kongu was taken prisoner and sent to Madura. In commemoriation of this, Necluin-jadayan built al, temple at Kianjivinyopher Lur 1. Kongu, Five years later Kanchi too was forced to submit a Lld Nedunadayan found himself Emperor Ilot only of the entire Tamil country but ..lso of the extensive territory stretching as far as Milngalore. The chieftails of Wenad (South Travancorc) and those of the forested hill-country, lontinued to give trouble and about A.D. 788 a punitive war was started for the purpose of cruisling these turbulent tribes olce for all. Saclayall CtL LLLLLLLllL LL LLLLLLLLSLLLtLlLLL HLHHLLLL LLLLLLaS LGGLL LLLLL aLLLLL LLLL CCCLLCCLLLLSCLLLLLLL II clarii-Kottli are said to live been co1pletely destroyed. After the siression of these lill tribes, Ned Lin-jidityan was able to enjoy the fruits of his labours for about a quarter century without any further Wars,
About A.D. 815. Sri Marlil Wallahill; succeeded his father as Erperor i l)riwida, Again the Subject Lations rose im relellion. Arising i Wellid Sri had to be suppressed. The Pallavas led by Naldivarmill III ri Maran J lwalls luce c:lled "Tellaru, il til t Walla haba defeated the Pandyans at a place Cille I TIL 1 ISO
ly threw off the Paldwill wolke but even a part of Clola ...D.85-862) Yಇಗ್ದYOKE Dಣ್ಣಲ್ಡVen೩P
..). - was wrested from tle Palmcilya ns. Tlı is victo y loro Luglit to | lic sile of the 'alla was almost all the Northern powers who were witching | lie expansion of the Pinglyan Empire somewhat suspiciously. The LLLLaSSaa LLLLLL tlmaEL L LtLcC sLLLLLLL LLaaLLLL LLLLHHL LLLS LLLLL LL LLLLLL I'llicly:Lins, the Kalingas, the Chalukiyas and ever the Magadhills of North | 11 dia are said to lıawe: r; Liged themselves on the side of the Palla w:15. Sir Maran luovvever prove«l limself equal to Ele formidable combination a nel ck 11:lly defeated the allied army at Kumbakonam, This victory Imade | lic: Palliclya is supreme ill South India and ever the Chalukiya and Andhra lingdoms of the Deccan acknowlcdged the si Xerainty of Sri Mfaran.
Sri Marill low cast his eyes southwards across the narrow bit of sea, | ii | tlic l'e:autiful island of Lanka. So far except for adventurers from the Ta III il country, Tio Tal Inil lking had seriously thought of Ceylon.
Sri Miran invadett Ceylon with a powerful army and completely uted the Sinhalese at Mahatalita. Seila I, ruler of Ceylon, fled to the hills | Malayal-rata. Prince Mallincla and several other Sinhale5e chiefs LS LLLLLLL LLLLLL aHHL LL LLLLLL LLLLL LLLLLL LL LLL LLL LLLLg LLL LLL LSLLLLS LLLLLL LLLLLLaL GLLLLLLL CLLOLOCSK LHLHLLLLLLL LL LLLLLL aaLLLLSSSLL SLLLLL LLLLLLLLeLLLLL LL LLL LLLL LLLaLLLL aLLLLL LLLL CLLL LLL LLLLLLLLS L00L LaaLlLLLLLLL Wils the Pill dy:LL1 victory, Sri Mat':LI however restored the throic to

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( ჭ8 ]
Sena I on his acknowledging Pandyan suzerainty, and returned to Madurai flushed with victory and carrying away much booty. Sinhalesc historians say that in the reign of Seill II (A.D. 866-goI) the Sinhalese avenged themselves by invading Pandya and placing on the Pandyan thronic a king of their own choice, Tamil inscriptions however do not show any brical in the Pandyan succession during this period, and if what the Sillalese say is true, the pretender put on the Pandyall thronic by then must have hild al very short stay in deel, Sri Marain's glorious reigt) was however cloudct by military reverses towards the end, Nil indivarma I the king of Ranchi was succeeded by his soil Nrpatungavarillil I, about A.D. 854. He was a youthful king who was deter Illinoid to win back the 器 fortunes of his House. He waged a bitter war against Sri of Kanchi Maran, giving the latter no cliance to rest on his laurels, and finally defeated the Pandya is on thic bank of the river Aricit, a branch of the Kaveri. Sri Mara Il did not long survive this defeat and was succeeded by his son Waruganavarman about A.D. 862.
The new ling of Pandya had to recognise the strong position which the king of Kanchi had won for himself as victor of the battle of Aricit. He therefore lived in peace witl is neighbour till Yಖ್ಖan about A. D. 88). Nrpat Ligawa rillan was dead by this time a n dl lıis S011 Aparajita was lking of Kılıclı i. LLLTTaaCLaCCGGLLLLLLL CLLLLLL LLaaaa LLLL LL LLL LLL LLL LLLLLLLaaS LGLLL LLLLLL the Pallavas, but at the battle of Sri Purambian the Pandyans were tlı o'OLıgıly bic: EcI1. Apa "ajit: wils llıelped by Pritliivipti I, the king of the Western Gangas, who un fortunately lost his life in this battle.
During the period the Pandyans and the Pallavas were fighting eacli other for supremacy over the Tamil country, the descendants of the ancient Chola Dynasty were ruling as petty chiefs in Rise 5. ಙ್ಞhola rejote parts of tle country. Someyears pior to the у у defeat of the Pandyans at the battle of Sri Purambian, a prince of the Chola Dynasty named Wijayalayan who claims to be the descendant of Kirikalan captured the city of Tanjore from Wijayalауап a local chieftain and making this city his headquarters raised the Tiger Standard of the Cholas.
Warugal:Lw: Inlan king of Pandya died soon after his defeat at the hands of the Pallavas, He was succeeded by his brother Parantankan Wiranaraya
Il; in who had 11; tried a Cher: princess I; Lilled Will law;
v Mahadevi. He claims to have fought in the Kongu country (...) and at various places but unfortunately det lils about his carecr are not known. The Pandyan power was now . .ه definitely oil the Wilne and Wiranarayan; in Illust have done his bit to arrest thc decline of his kingdom.
About A.D. 900 Wiranurayanalı's son Marawarılınan Rajasiıııha II was Crowned king of Pandya. III his reign things took a definite turII for the
Worse. The danger did not conne from the Pallavas
but from the newly resurrected Chola Dynasty. Wille (1.L. 900-920) Adityan I Son of Wijayalayan ascended the throne of 'Tiljore, le slowed himself a very aggressive monarch. He defeated the Pallava king Apatajita in several battles and won back the ancient kingdon of Chola including the province of Tondai or Kalchi. This
Aparajita, King of Kanchi

39 ) rapid recovery of the Cholas took the Pandyans by surprise, aid soon they Istlici kleinselves at wir with this new pOWer.
With the rise of the Cholas of the House of Wijalayall we enter El new uld glorious phase of Tamil history, best described as the "Golden Age."

Page 33
CHAPTER IX
We have seen how the Last Sangam ceased to be an active botly Owing to the misfortune that overtook the Royal Dynasties of Dravida.
The History of 驚 the {ttဖူး Power ဖြုံ။
Tamil s ompaParಳ್ಳಿ 10 ಗ್ವಾಟ್ಜುಜ್ಜೀhmade to revve e Literature angain. The loss of Royal patronage was no doubt a great Set-back to poets and therefore the old type (Froy" A. D. 600-900) i poets completely disappeared and in their place there appeared those whom we lay call sages and saints, to whom Royal patronage, though welcome was by no means essential for success, Sangain poets wrote lallatls, odes and long descriptive poems. They never s touched upon plilosophy or clogmatic religion-except perhaps to describe | Some ancient religious custom that had becoille part and parcel of Tamil civilization. Even a work like the Kural steers clear of logi mas Littl doctriles. During the post-Sangam period-from about A.D. Óoo, Tamil literature entered a lew plulse in which religion began to play a greater
:: | tlhIn it liud lı itlhertC) colle.
It was during the Salgam period that the Tamil country canc under thc influence of the Imany religious sects such as Brahmans, Jains and Buddhists. Brahmanism possessed an advantage over the others, in that it arrived centuries earlier, and long before the advent of Jiliilisin and Buddhism, llad absorbed much of the local cults of the Tamils; so much so, that the Tamils never felt that they were LLLLLaL LL LLLLLLLlLLLLa LLLLLL LL CLSttLLSaLatLS LLLLLLLHHL LLL LLLLLLLLmaaL CCLa La LlLlLLLLLLL LL LLLLL LLaag LammmmLmmL aLLLL LLLLLL aLL LLrtLCCL aLLLLL LLLL CC religious nature in Tallil. They depended too much on their ritual aid aaLLLLlaaLLLLL LLL LLLLLL LLaaLL LLGLLL LLLL LLL LLLLHmaaLLL LaLLLLS CCL aLaaL LLLLLL LLLLLLaS LLLLL LLLLLa LLLLLaLLLLL LLL LLLL LLL SLLLL LLL LLLLGL LLLLLL the idea ot propagating thcir religious doctrinc5. These Works becan very popular among the Tamils, 50 much so, that Centuries later Saiva and LLLLLaLLLL LLLLLaLL LLL LLLLL LLLLLLLlLLLLLLL LLL LLL LLLLL LCLCC LSLCLLLLLLL their life recling Lhis "worthless literature of lleretical sects." It was little LLLHLLLAgL LLLCLLL LLL LLLLLL LL LLL LLL LLL LlaaL LLLLL LLLLCmLH LLL LtaLtm LLaaLLLL LLLLLL HLaaL LLL LLLLttLLLLLLL LLLLL HLLY 0LLCH LLL LLLLL LLaalm agan to openly embrace these religions. III spite of the fact that all these religio L15 sects wiedl with1 one :L [motiller, tlh cric Was grett religio 115 tolericic during the Singam period. Froll the beginning of the 4th centalry how ever a cer Laii il mount of rivalry and bitteriness becomes evide it. Th great success of Jainism and Buddhism, not only in the Tamil colli try but LL LLcCLL LLLLSSalLaLL LLL LLLLLL LLLLLLLLSLLL LLL C LLLHHLLC LLLkLLLLL00L LaCgLLLLS It was at this critical period of Hind history, that Sanlara, the savioli o Brahmanisin was born. He belonged to a northodox Brainian family of Kaladi, a village in Chera. He becaille a great Achariar or teacher, and gave Brahmanism a new lease of life with his clear exposition of th Vedānta philosophy, Sankara preached and Wrote in Sanscrit, an travelled all over Indil and succeeded in Counteracting the activities 0 LLLLLL tgaaLLLLL aLLLLL tlL LL CttLLLLLLL LLLL LLLLLl0S S LLL aLCLaLLGLgL LLL LaL religion and perhaps taking an example froIn the Buddhists altid Iains, LLLLLL LLLtLLLLLLLLS aLLL L LLLLL LL LLL LLLLL LLHLLLLLLL LLL LLLLLLL
Brahmanism

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MADURA TEMPE
 

( 41 )
civiclecil linçlial, The monastery which lle fot inclicci in Soutl Inclia, w:Lis located at Ka Inclui, wlicli long remained tille principal scat of Sanscrit learning. Owing to Sa Ilk; it's preachings and writings there roscil wave of enthusiasm in favour of Brall inclinist. His interpretation of the Wed: said other religious works, not only counteracted the growing godlessn.css of the India 1 peoples, but also illed out. Bralliniisi from its narrow orthodoxy and made it the religion known as Hinduism today, Since the revival of Flind Ilisill started in the Tamil country, there was no doubt a great deal of religious intolerance during this period, and often it ended in the tersecution of one sect by thic otlier, Br; hinails, Buddhists and Jains vied with onc another to gain the favour of the reigning kings. Opc1 debates were common all over tlig Tainil country, and it is clescribeck thilt logicials flcw their own flags i 1 froınt of their te als challenging otlhel's to
COı test, R .1 ܐܢܐ
The new enthusiasin in favour of Hinduism, resulted in the birth of the "Balktha cult." The Bakthas who were draw from all classes believed Illot in abstr:Lct philosophies but in reill spitit LLEIl experictice. The Bakthas In such close coln intinion with God alone they found real religion and tille Salvation. This spiritual state could be attained only ly clevotion to ; ; rticular aspect of God or ill other words to a , rticular Deity. It required not birth or brains, but only a pure heart, and it was within the reich of the most illiterate outcast. These lill, this caLime Eru III botlh tle Saival and Waislıınawa sects, and although they did not differ in principle they often showed as InLicli rivalry towards each other is they did towards Jainism and Buddhism, They wrote and sang soul inspiring and beautiful clevotional songs in Tamil,
Along the many Nayallars as the devotees of Siva were knowl, the most i II || Morti Ilıt are four in in Lu Limber-Appar, Sundlraıııurthi, Thir LignalinasampanLLLL LL LLLLLLLmmLlLLLLLLLmmmLLLLLL LLL LLLL LLLLL LLtaLmD LLL SLLLLLCLlLLLLLLLLS LLL LLLLLL collectical together into eight books known as the eight "Thiri-nolies." Of LLlLlaJ LLLLL LLLLL LLaa eLLLLL LL LLLLLLLLS LL LLLLaaLmllltlLCaaLLLaLLS LLLLL LL sixtli, the songs of Appar, seventh the songs of Sundramurthi, and the cighth the songs of Maniclvasilgar.
Of the Alvars or Waishinawa Bakt has there arc eleven namely, Peyalwar, LLLLLLLLHLS LCLtttLLLLLLL LLLLLLLLLLttGLS LtLHHLLLLLLL CLLggLLLLLLS LLtLLLLLLLLS LLLLaLLS LLLLLLaaLLLLLLLS LLaaClaCLLtLLL LLLL LLLLLLLlmLmmLLLtttLS The songs written by those saintly men, were collected together about A.D. 920 by a sage milmed Nathamulli and is now known is the 'Nalayera Prabandhan' or the Four Thousand Hymns.
Appar the earliest of the Bakthas, converted the king of KanchiM:Lhendra Wirillar I, froTI thic Jain faith to Saivism. Thirugnanasampanthat too is slid to have converted a Pandy: I king a 1ld likewise Perillvir is recorded to have converted Sri Maran Wallabha, king of Pandy; from LLLLLL LL LLL LLLLLLLLStEtSLL LLLLLS S LL LLLLLLLlL SaLLHHLmmLmLS LLaLH LLL LLLLLL and Buddhisin collitterl somc of the greatest intellectual giants of Dravidal among their adherents. We shall therefore see to what extcit Jain and Buddhist writers have contributed to Tamil literature during period, The epic or Kavyal style of poetry was first adopted Jain and Buddhist by i Arya Tis 器 of teaching for TrophilWriters gating Bral Inaric doctrics, as can be seen from the Sanscrit epics, "Mahabaratha" and "Ramayana," lin the Tal mil col Intry

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the same style was adopted mostly by Jains and Buddhists for the propagation of their own doctrines. In "Manimekalai' we have a very good example. The Jains and Buddhist of the post-Sangam period between A.D. 6oo and 9oo continued the same literary style, and produced the three great epics, 'Valayapathi,' 'Jeevika-sinthamani' and "Kundalakesi.’
There are also five other short epics which belong to the same post-Sangam period. They are "Chulamani,' 'Nilakesi,' 'Yasodra,' "Udayakumar' and "Nagakumar.”

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TMIRIIGI W of
V TOHO ŽIHL
비피리 şsaalgıww. ÅụeẶo(nyavayovn-vw)邻 \sqygoɔIN활NolÅBD| &to» onHlIwtwoŋso Åwnwgwayw:ol\th:1SHAÏQ\!})\'\,
 
 
 

PART
CHAPTER
The Chola Dynasty-the descendants of the great Karikalan-became almost extinct during the long centuries, when the Kalabhras, and after them, The Chola the Pallavas ruled over the fair land of the Kaveri. Nevertheless the Chola princes kept up their identity by intermarrying with the royal houses of Pandya and Chera, and many of them ruled as petty kings and chieftains in the Tanjore district. The endless wars between the Pandyans and the Pallavas had reduced this territory to a turbulent border country over which the bigger powers exercised but very little control. Even in these parts the Chola princes did not enjoy full independence. The real rulers of this border territory were the Muttarayan chiefs. These chieftains appear to have acknowledged the suzerainty of either Pandya or Kanchi, according to the political situation of the time. It was from one of these Muttarayan chiefs that Wijeyalayan captured Tanjore, possibly in the course of a local conflict. The defeat of the Muttarayan chiefs made Vijeyalayan king of all the territory stretching from Tanjore as far south as Pudukotta, comprising nearly half of the ancient kingdom of Chola.
Adityan I, known also as Rajakesari Varman, the son of Wijeyalayan became king of Tanjore about A.D. 88o, almost about the same time that Adityan l Aparajita succeeded to the throne of Kanchi. We have already
у seen how the Pandyans under Varugana-Varman, attacked the Pallavas and met with disaster at the battle of Sri Purambiam. During this war the Cholas were not really independent, but were subordinate to the Pallavas. There is difference of opinion among historians as to which side the Cholas took. However, sometime after this event Adityan I defeated Aparajita and crushed the Pallavas so completely that the whole of Tondaimandalam once more came under the sway of the Cholas. With the recovery of Tondainandalam the ancient kingdom of Karikalan lived again. Rajasimha II, who became king of Pandya about A.D. 9oo was an open enemy of the Cholas. He disliked the rapidity with which the Cholas began to recover themselves. It clearly showed that Pandya was in danger of an invasion in the near future. Before this happened, Rajasimha tried to check the growing power of his neighbour. War soon followed between the two Tamil kingdoms and it dragged on with varying results almost to the end of Adityan's reign.
The Chola Crown Prince Parantakan who had already distinguished himself as a capable leader, succeeded his father about A.D. 9o7. He already bore the title "Mathurakolida' (conqueror of
Parantakan Mä) which shows that he had taken an part in his father's campaign against Pandya. Parantakan intensified the assault on Pandya, with the result that Rajasimha found it impossible to withstand the Cholas any longer. He appealed to Kasyappa, king of Ceylon, for help. The Sinhalese king realising well that Ceylon had to be defended in Pandya, immediately despatched a strong army including many horses and elephants. This took place about A.D. 920. Rajasimha taking heart once again continued the war with the help of the Sinhalese. Tut the Cholas proved themselves more than a match for the allies. About A.D. 923 a
Empire

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great battle was fought at Welur. Inscriptions mellion that Paran talkin deseated the Pandyans als well is the mighty army sent by the Lord of Ilum (Ceylon) and seizcd a herit of clephants together with the city of Madura. The allies were completely routed and Rajasimha fled to Ceylon taking with him the crow in and other regalil. King Kasyappa did not live to see the inglorious defeat of his great army. Dappula who succeeded him was faced with milly internal troubles and could not offer any hel to Rajasimha. The unfortunate Pandyan king finding that there was little hope of obtaining help from Dappula, finally crossed over to Chera the ilative laid of his mother, leaving behind the crown and other jewels with tlıc Sinlı ılese king for safc-kceping. Rajasini ılına speInt tille rest of lılis dalys in Chicra, no doubt in siad conticilimrelation of his terrible misfortunic. PiarainLtttLLL HHGH LLtaLLLL LL LLLLLaLLLL LLLL LLLLL LLaaLLLL LL LLLLLLaltlLLL aLLaLLLLSL ttLLL LLLLLL jewels by friendly negotiation, But Dappula refused to give them up. Parantakan thereupon declared war on Ceylon and invaded the island in the reign of Udaya III about A.D. 95. The Sinhalese king who was not strong enough to face the invader, adopting past tactics, abandoned All Iradlhapura and fled to the south. However he took care to reill ove LLL LLLLtttLLL LLLLaLLLL LLLL LLgLLLaLLS LLLL LL LLLLLLaS LLLLLLLL GLLL LLLL LLLLLLLLS LLHKS LLLL CLtLLLLLLLtttLLL LLLL LLLaLLLLLLLaaHSaS LLL LLLLLL HLLL LLaLL LLLLLL purpose. Before hig could lecicle on Further action against the Sinhalesc LLLLLLLLSC ELLLLaLLLL LLL LLLGLL LLL LLSL LLLlLCCLS S L HLHHLLLL LLLLLLLL LLLLCLLL LLL S
bandon the coil cuest of Ceylon ind returi to Chola.
The R; shtrikut as willo like the Chalukiyas lind t le M, harattins were one of the fiew Dynastics that had sprung up in the Deccan after the fall of LL ttLLL LLLaLL LLLLLL LLSLLS rrrS LLLLL LLL LLLGGGLLLLL LLLLLL CC LLGLLL LLLLLLLLS They fought the Chalukiyas incelsingly and reduced their power il great deal. About this time Kalıntılara Dewa (Krishna II 1), tle Ralslutral: Lıta kiing, made up his Illind to check thic growing power of the Cholas, and when Parantalian was away it Ceylon invaded Clola it great force. The Cholas LLGL LL LLLCLLL LL CCLCmLLL LLLLLL aaLLC LLLLLLLL LLL LLLLL LLaaLLLSS SS LLLL LLLCL LLLLLL LLLL LLLC LLLLLL LL LLLLLLLLSL LLL LLL LLLLLL LL LLLLGLLL LLL clained by both parties ils : victory, But unfortuilately the Cliola Crown Prince, Raja-Aditya in who was in command of Llic Chola army dicd of his wounds a few days after the battle. When the Rashtrakutas heard this 11ews they biecame bolder and actually penetrated into Chola is far als the capital, Tanjore. Tlus the great warrior Paran tak Lin lost Illot only liis son and heir but also his empire and even part of his kingdom. The Palicly; in taking advantage of his defeat refused to icki howledge his suze: inty. The Sinhalese too returncod to Atluradhapura without any fear of the Cholas, Though Parantakan bore the title "Mathiraiyum Ilumuli Ronda" (conqueror of Madura and Ceylon) fate had decreed that this should be but an empty bolist at tille time of lis death.
The position of the Cholas, fron lic time they sustained deficit it the hands of the Risltraliutius up to A. D. 985 was solic what precirills, Gandar-Adityan tantibus ty9 ¥ Sans, it. Aisi
Ariпјауап ruled ovel Chola 1'. less ira, partnership, Parantakan II Aftet them, Arinjayan's son Paranlakan II became king, Uttama Chola The new king tried recover the lost empire, ;ılıqlı (A.D. 947-935) invaded Pandya and Ceylon. This no doubt was a very rash Lct. In Ceylon lie was clef cated by Mahindu IW , اسة. ثم ا LLLLLL L LSLLLLS S LLLLLLa LLLLS SLLLLL LLSS LLLLSLSLLLLLtttLL LLL LSLLLLLL

45 )
ruler was il very warlike monarclı alıntıl ye:Ll'Enel to til e! I' : Yellige for pilst inlignities. At Chevur le won il gre:alt victory over til L. Clı olas :ltid hi e filrther cl:Litlls to have killed the Chola king, who has low lice identified SS LL SLLLLLLLL LLLLLLLLS S LLLLLLLLtC LLtttLL aLLLLLtlL LLLLLLaL LLLLLL became king and ruled till A. D. 85. Wery little is known about him except tlıat botlı, lle: all luis 111 other, Si:Illini: 1. M:Ll: cliciwi, were: gre;lt levotees of Siwa and lot only renovated several tellples but also built new
5.
Uttaııımıza Clı ola II was succeeded by Artırılımoli- warmalı better known as Raja. Rajan the Great. Raja-Rajan was every inch a le:Liller. Under his Raia- Rai guidance the Cholas grew it ito a miglity power once again. The aja-Rajan ĪRaslı tralkutas, who huatl clicckcl Lle expr: IsiCoin Of Clı Col: tlu. Tilig A.C.985-02) ဒုၿ. al c tlcckct.I LI li c cwib, t I 151311 1 Col: LILI T'ı | ig the early part of the century, littl been defeated and crushed by the Western Chalukiyas, Raja-Rajan therefore paid his attetition to Pandyn first. To found zu Tammil Empire it w:Us leccssary first to bring lie three Tamil lkingdoms u indler a single mona rcli. Tliis was willa lil Raja-Rajall ; Lccomplished first. A matablıojana, tlhe ilking of Pantly was cleic::Lt etl, al II til Pandya was re-named Raja-Raja mandalam or Raja-Raja-randli-Inaclul. Chera was attacked hoth by lald Lindset. Willinai, Kucial IT, Salai inal other Chcra towns fell one after anotlier and soon Chera too was forced to acklowledge the suzerailty of Raja-Rajan.
Northwards, the Cholas won victory after victory, and having forced Wengi or Eastern Chiallkiyat to stubimit, Raja-Raja Il crossel | lle Godzi wari a Tcl enterel Kalinga. Kaling which even Asolka follIl 5o di flictilt to COCl, low fell an easy prey to thic Cholas. Unlike his predecessor's Rijil-Rajail Look carc to see that lis government was cstallished iTilly in the coIIquered countries. All these he accomplished before the 17th yell of his reign, that is, before A. LO. I oco2, After the conquest of Kaling;l, hic turneel southwards a Tcl invaded Ceyloil. Sinhalese historials tell is that RajaRajan tool advantage of the strained feeling that existe«l between le Silılıalese kilig Malıitıclu W, and hisarımy, atıd invaded Ceylorıat il time the LLtLLLla LLLLLL LltLLL LLLL LL LLLLL LLtttLLLLLLLLS LLLLLLa LLLLLLLLtLLLLLLL was deficated by the Sinhalese, the political situation of Ceylon had been getting worse it lid worse ever since the invasion of Plaintakan I, For raLL AaaLLLLlllLS HHtaS LLLLL LLLLLLaS LLLLL LLL LLLLLLLmmLLgaLLL LLaaTAL AA mercenary troops, chiefly Tallils. This Tilinil army in the service of the Sinhalese, often found itself in it position to control the political affairs of Ceylol,
In addition to this great drawback, the Sinhalese were faced with :11 other great probleII. The population of North Ceylon had by this time | ccome preclominantly Tallil. These Tamil settlers refused to be absorbed into the Sinhalese nation and remailed separate raintailing close relationship will their kinsmen across the narrow stritis, Tlic Nortlier II peninsula LLLLLL LS CtatLLLLLLL LLL LLL GLlLlLLLLLLL LlLLLLLL LLLL C mKCmmLLL LLLLgLLL S LLLaL over by kings of Naga-Tanil descent. After the invasion of '11 lit:kt. In 1, the territory north of Anuradhapura ceased to belong to the Sinhalese, except occasionally during the rule of il Powerful 11 CInarch. III tilles of invasion from the mainland, these Ceylon Tamils usually helped their killsmen, and thus considerably weakened the resistive lower of the Sill; lese,

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King Mahindu W the contemporary of Raja-Rajail, and before hill his brother Sena W, were both forced to fee to the south for safety as a result of mutiny in the Tamil mercenary army. It is said that these kings were unable to pay the troops, and ap; it from this there is also reason to believe that these mercenary soldiers were unwilling to light the Cholas who were daily threatening the island, Sena W (A.D. 972-98) found it impossiblic to rule from Anuradhapura owing to the great influence wielded by the Tamils, and had to remove luis capital to Polonnaruva, leaving Anuradhapura and lic northern territory in the lands of the Tamils, Hís successor Mahind W trical to establish his government at the old capital, but when the mercenary army Illutinied, he found himself so helpless, that he lild to flee to the south to save lis lific. Thus the Tilmil mercenaries, by their frequent mutinies and the consequent collapse of the Sinhalese government, ılı Orc: Or lc55 prep:1'ecl the Way for Ilıcir kirısınen, the Chol:ıs,
When Raja-Rajan the Great invaded the island about A.D. Ioo2 he inct with hiltdly any resistance, He captured Polonnaruwa and having established his government firmly, set sail westward towards the ten-thousand Isles, now known as the Maldives. He brought these islands as well as ille Liccaldiwes u nder his suzerainty, Sinhalese historians usually give the date of the Chola conquest of Ceylon as A. D. IoI7- the year in which Mahindu W was captured and taken to Chola. But long before this event, about Ioo2 Raja-lRajan had establisled his government at Polonna Tuwa, and from his inscriptions we learn that he had even donal cd the revenue from certain villages in Ceylon towards the maintenance of the great temple which he built at Tanjore,
Tamil monarchs, from the time of the Palkavis, spent much of their wealth in building magnificient temples of granite, with lofty gopurams, decorated with exquisite sculptures and paintings, which have carned for the Tamil races the name-"The greatest tellple builders of the world.' A good many of these great edifices, no doubt considerably tLLLLLLL LLLLL LCLHHLLLLLLL LLL 0LLLLLlLGHL LCCCLLLLLLL0 LL LLLLaLLLL LLLLLLLLS LLL LL aaa to tlis day int Rameswaralm, Milclura, Conjeewaram, Sri-rangan, and numerous other places, scatt cred practically throughout South India. While the early Pandyals were lovcrs of literature and the Pallavas, lovers of architecturc, the Cholas loved and encouraged both. The great temple built by Raja-Rajan even in its half-ruined state and robbed of its ancient glory, as it exists today is a thing of great architectural beauty. Its Winnilla rises 216 feet, tier upon tier of grillite sculpture, wonderful to behold. The top of the Wimana is crowned with a cupola weighing 80 tons, carved out of a single piece of granite, The crowning of the Sull Init with such a heavy granite cupola, would be considered a feat of great engineering skill even in modern times. The bronze statues of this picriod arc also considered the best of Lleir kind ever cast in India. The Tamils of this period lot only displayed skill in sculpture and architecture but were also great painters, and examples of their work can be seen in some parts of the Tanjore templc. It is bclieved that Raja-Rajan started work oli tlhis temple in A, D. Ioos after the conquest of Ceylon and silished the work before A.D. oo7, for his inscriptions state that he celebrated lais victory over the Westeril Chalukiyas, by making valuable prescials to this temple, The war with the Western Chalukiyas, who ruled over the greater part of thic
Decca Ll, was brought to a decisive end in the 22nd year of his reign, that

13 JYJ JY-RN JY'S TIEM!". E T', Nj.) RE

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is about A.D. Ioo7. With the defeat of the Chalukiyas the whole of Dakshina, from the Windhyas to Ceylon, came under the sway of a single Dravidian monarch, perhaps for the first time since Ravanna. Raja-Rajan
lavished his wealth not only on Hindu temples, but also built a Buddhist
vihare at Nagapatnam, and richly endowed it. This vihare was built on
the request of King Chulamanivarman of Kedah in Malaya, for the benefit of the Buddhists from Malaya who were resident at Nagapatnam during this time. This shows that the Tamils were in close touch with the kingdoms of Further India, and inscriptions discovered in various parts of Malaya, show that Tamil merchants resided there in large numbers. After his victory over the Chalukiyas, Raja-Rajan handed over the reins of his government to his able son and heir Rajendran, who was crowned in IoI2, during the life-time of his father.
The new Emperor was a warrior of great repute. In fact most of the campaigns in which Raja-Rajan won fame and success, were, it is believed, Raiendran planned and carried out by his illustrious son Rajendran. In ( 12-1042) the sixth year of his reign, that is, about IoI7 he crossed over to Ceylon with the purpose of mopping up the rebels and guerillas who were still giving trouble, from their secure position among the hills and swamps of South Ceylon. In this campaign, Rajendran crushed all opposition, and eventually took Mahindu V prisoner, and further recovered the Pandyan crown and regalia, which had brought so much trouble and calamity on Ceylon. Rajendran changed the name of Polonnaruva into Jananathapuram and reduced Ceylon to a mere province of the great Chola Empire.
Rajendran brought Pandya too under his direct rule, by driving out the Pandyan king who, though subordinate to the Cholas had attempted to give trouble. To avoid further trouble in Pandya, he appointed his son as Viceroy with the title Chola-Pandyan. From his inscriptions we learn that he built for his Viceroy, a great palace at Madura “by whose weight even the earth became unsteady.' Unfortunately even its site cannot be traced today.
Having thus consolidated the Empire which he inherited from his father, Rajendran started on a campaign of further conquests, in the tenth year of his reign (about I O2 I). From Kalinga, he over. ran Orissa, and defeated the Pala king of Bengal whose suzerainty at one time extended up to Kanauj (United Provinces). As a result this part of Aryavartha came under Chola rule. About this time Aryavartha was in a wretched condition. Between A.D. looo and Io3o the Afghan prince Mahmed made at least seventeen successful raids into Western Aryavartha. About Ioos he
marched up to the river Jhelum. In Ioo8 he conquered Punjab. In IoI8
he sacked the town of Mathura (Muttra) and Kanauj.
We notice therefore, that the Tamil invasion of Bengal and other parts of North India, took place about the same time as the Muslim invasion of India. The Muslims restricted themselves to the Punjab, Sind and other parts of the west, and did not reach Bengal till after the fall of the Chola Empire. Although the Cholas were Hindus the idea of a. “Hindu Nation' did not then exist. The Tamils did not therefore go to the help of the Hindu kings of North India, in their wars against the Muslim invaders. On the other hand they proved themselves as much the cnemies of the

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Arya Lls as the Muslim invaders were. In an inscription datcd thc twelth year of Rajendran's reign (A.D. 1023) he claims to have conquered Mathuramandalatin. Sotile think that this refers to the conquest of Pandya. We kilow however that Pandya was conquered by Raja-Rajan 0LLLL LLL L LL LLLLLL CCLLL LLL LLL LLLLLLaS LLLaLLLLL LL LCaatLLLLLLL LLLS LLL LL Viceroy CË Pallçiya, afte driving the Pali dy: 11 king out of the kingdom. Altlough petty rebellions may have Occurred, even after this, the Suppression of tlesc could Ilcyc1 lawc warranted i record SLIch as tle inscription referred to alre:Lily. Further, Pandya was known as Raja-raja-paladi-nadu, and not as Matlı tırarının dalam. It is also known for certair tlıat Rajendrinn started his invasion of North India in the tenth year of his reign, after strongly establisling lis position in the Elpire which he inherited froll his father. Therefore in the twelth year of his reign, he would have been Cilin:ligiling soillewhere in the north, For these reasons the eminent scholar Dr. Hultzsch las recognized Mathuramai dalam as the territory ilround the city of Mathura (Multra) on the Jumma in North India. A few years before Rajendran's invasion and conquest of this region, the Muslim invaders had laid was te this district and therefore its conquest could mot havele very dificult,
After his victorics in North India, Rajendrain built a new capital and named it Giga-kodil Cholapuri II, in collillcloration of his conquests right up to the banks of lie Ganges. This city is now in ruins and only th: Temple built by Rajc drin Ilow stands. It is Ilentioned that the Clola Emperor forced the vanquished kings of the North, to carry water from tle Ganges ill tle wily to the Imperial capital, wlerc tle sacrel witer LL CaLLL LaLaL LL LLL LLL LLL LLLLLL CaaLLLL LL LLLLS LLLLLLLLS LLaL LLLLLaLLLL LCGCL invincible lot only on land but even carried their victorious Tiger Flag far across the sea. The Chola Fleet of this period was perlaps the largest ever possessed by ai IIldian II:ltion. Tle vlole co:.slline Iron Mangalore to Bengal low belong cd to the Til Illils. We know th:lt from pre-historic times the Dravidiau Ins were all in i Intrepicl Sea-fil ring Irance. It is little wonder therefore lilt with nearly three-fourth of India's coilst in their hands, the Tainils became a maritine power greatly feared by all neighbouring countries. It is not known why and when hostilities broke out between Chola and Kedah. Maravijayottling, the son of Ch Llanll Liivarman remained a friencil of tlıc: Clı olas. But insici i tions well slupportel by l:a ter writings tell is that Rajendran defeated Sangarama Wijeyotliga the son of Maravijayot Lligal antil halving capit ti'cid several cities al Ind ports between Mapapalam in Lower B trima, al Idl Sri-Wijeyi ılım (Palembang) in Soutlı Sultanatra, brought this vast territory Linder his rule. Several islands bclonging to the Malay Archipelago, including Ma-IIaca war:Lim (Nicobars) also became part of the Chola Empire. Chinese records tell is that Sri-Wijeyam was a vast empire LL LLaLLLLLLL LL LLSLLLS LLLaLLS aLLL gaLSLLL LLLLLLLg LLL gLmLLL LtLL aLLLLLLL India. The capture of its capital Sri-Wijeyam must have made the Cholas mastels of the East Indies, Although the times of the conquered collntries and captured cities are given, the identity of these Tamilized names is very doubtful, but there is no doubt whatever, that Rajendrain brought the principal states of Furtler Indi: u ntler TinTinil rule.
During the reigns of Raja. Rajan Lild Rajendran, there was a great influx of Brahmins from North India into the Tamil country. Ever eager to win the favour of the most powerful mimilarch of the day, these Brahmans LL LLLLL LaLLLLL LLL LLGLCCCaLLLLL LL LLLLLL aLLLLLLLaa LLLL a LLLLLL LLLLLL CaaaaLLS
 

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The Chol:L Emperors following the example of the Pallavas, encouragexl thc study of Sanscrit.
This classical language of the Aryans had now become the religious language of the Hindus, and besides, it was perhaps the only medium of communication between Chola and the subject nations of the north, l'herefore the study of Sanscrit received much prominencc during this criod, so much so, it is said that once the Queen Mother Tclbuked Raja|Rajan for 'showing so muclı savour to Sanscrit instead of to his own 1: Illil.”
The Chola Emperor's also did much to improve the agricultural resources of the country, Many huge irrigation tails and Illinnerous clılarını els and dan 11s werc built. The Pommeri Talk, built dulring this "criod, cwell in its present ruinct state, has a lot IId over sixteel Imiles in length and is now used as a country road, Perhaps the ancient glory of the Tamil race reached its zenith during the eign of Rajendran I, and his LLLCCLaL LLLL LLLrL HHHL HLLLS LLLLL LLLLCL LLLLLL LLL LLL LLLL LESCT LHHaLLLmS by constantly suppressing risings and rebellions.
Titls when Rajendran's son, Rajadhirajan ascended the throne rebellions broke out in various parts of the empire. He had to fight
Several battles in Clera and Pandya, before he could establish himself as Emperor. He claims to have I defeated aid killed Manabharana, a Pandy ELI1 prince, and Wiril-lzerillan. He also drove out Sundera-Pandyan from Pandya. In Ceylon too there were risings and Rajadhirajan had to visit the island to ittend to the rebellioLIs Sinhalese. In the remote parts of the south, some pretentlet's to the Sinhalesc throne were staging demonstrations against Chola rule, Rajadhirajan illentions for of them one a Paladyan prince, ind another, a refugee from distant Kanauj-Vikramabahu, the chief rebel Lnd son of Mahidul W. and Inost of his accomplices were defeated aid slain. Rajadhirajail then returned to Chola only to find that Western Chalukiya wills Lipi in a Tins. In the war that followed, Rajadhirajan Illet With an Intimely clid.
His brother Rajendran then inscended the throne. The new king had |Jught by his brother's side in all his campaigns, and therefore the change in rulership did not affect the policy of the Cholas. łI Carried con Lle E. with the rebellious - Chalukiyas with varying results. The Chalukiyas kept the Tunils so bLsy, that the empire began to slow signs of decline. In Ceylon rebellions broke out a fresh. On the death of Rajadhirajan in 1052 A Sinhalese ailed Lokeswara raised the standard of revolt in the South ind established himself at Kataragama. Another alled Kirti, believed to be of royal descent, rallied the Sinhalese among the wild hills of Cell|ral Ceylon. Kirti who appears to have had the larger following succeeded it winning over the southern rebels, after defeating Lokeswara's successor Kasyapa. IXirti who now possessed the status of a petty king called hinsclf Wijayabahu, and declaring himself the rightful heir to the Sinhalese throle, tried to start a war against the Cola rulers.
All these risings were confined to the inaccessible and remote firls of the island and the Cholas could have done little to suppress them. Occasionally a powerful and well-armed expeditionary foi ce W0 till II hai 'clı,

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to the south to quell these disturbances, but the enemy would disappear into the hills and thus gave no chance for an open battle. This was exactly what happened when Wijeyabahu tried to organise a campaign. The Chola troops who went to crush the rebellion in the south found that Vijeyabahu had escaped into the hills. However when the Cholas with. drew to Polonnaruva, Vijeyabahu went back to the south, and remained in an out-of-the-way place called Tambalagama. The Chola troops however hunted him down, and he fied eastward beyond Tissamaharama, and took refuge in a rock fortress. Aided by the natural protection this fortress gave him, Vijeyabahu gained some success against his enemies, and emboldened by it, tried to carry the fight into Rajarata. His army however sustained a severe defeat, and he fled once again to a rock fortress called Vakirigala, and remained in hiding waiting for a better opportunity.
When Rajendran II died in A.D. Io64 the empire passed to WiraRajendran, the youngest son of Rajendran I. The new emperor was e determined to bring the Chalukiya war to a close. At Virಸ್ಠ? Kudalam he defeated the Chalukiyas, led by Prince
.Vikrama-Adityan, the second son of the Chalukiya king ' . س. The Western Chalukiyas were thus subdued once again. As a happy end to the conflict, Vira-Rajendran gave his daughter in marriage to the defeated prince and made him the governor of a province of Chola.
About this time a young prince named Parakesari Rajendra Chola Deva, was king of Vengi. Although he appears to have been a favourite of the Chola chieftains, for some unknown reason the Emperor deprived him of his kingdom. This ex-king of Vengi was the son of Princess Kundavi, the daughter of Rajendran I. His father was Vimaladityan, king of Eastern Chalukiya or Vengi-nad. When Vira-Rajendran died in Io69, this prince, backed by Somesvara II, king of Western Chalukiya, and brother of Vikrama-Adityan, claimed the Imperial throne of Chola. In this he was also encouraged by certain Chola chieftains who perhaps found AdiRajendran the rightful heir a weakling. Vikrama-Adityan, however took the side of his brother-in-law, and Adi-Rajendran was crowned Emperor in Io69. Immediately civil war broke out between the two factions. Somesvara, king of Western Chalukiya who was anxious to throw off the Chola yoke, actively supported Parakesari. The ill-starred emperor Adi-Rajendran, met with defeat and death at the hands of the ambitious Parakesari, and in Io7o the victorious prince crowned himself as Kulottunga I.
Vikrama-Adityan however continued the war against his own brother Somesvara. Under Kulottunga he could not have remained governor of a Chola province and furthermore, he hated his brother for helping an usurper to the throne of Chola,
Two years later he defeated Somesvara, and became king of Western Chalukiya. To the last he remained an enemy of Kulottunga and found himself strong enough to keep the Cholas out of Chalukiya. Likewise during the five years Chola was plunged in civil war, the other subject nations, the Pandyans, the Cheras and the Sinhalese in the south, the Kalingas and others in the north, all succeeded in throwing off the Chola yoke. In Ceylon we saw how a prince named Kirti or Wijeyabahu, attempted to recover the Sinhalese throne but failed. This prince did not however give up hopes, but waited patiently for a better opportunity. When in Io69 civil war broke out in Chola, and as a consequence the central power lost

( 5 I )
its hold on the empire countries, Wijeyabahu took the field once again. There is reason to believe that the Chola garrisons at Polonnaruva and Anuradhapura, were themselves engaged in evacuating the island possibly under orders from Adi-Rajendran who was being hard-pressed by his rival Kulottunga. The Sinhalese appear to have pursued the retreating Cholas as far as Anuradhapura which was occupied without much difficulty. In evacuating the Island a small section of the Chola garrison, called the Velaikkaras, was left behind, and Wijeyabahu was glad to engage these soldiers as mercenaries. However when the Sinhalese attempted to invade Chola in retaliation the Velaikkaras refused to obey orders, and the mutiny became so serious, that Wijeyabahu, who claims to have expelled the Cholas, had to leave his capital in a hurry and seek refuge once again in the rock fortress of Vakirigala. His inability to control the Velaikkaras who formed but a very small section of the Chola garrison, clearly shows that the Cholas were forced to leave the island owing to the unfortunate political situation at home, and not because of the military strength of the Sinhalese patriots. The Pandyans and the Kalingas too gained their independence during the period of the Civil War and it is interesting to note that these three countries, Ceylon, Pandya and Kalinga, became friends and allies no doubt for mutual protection against Chola, Vijeyabahu, king of Ceylon, married a princess from Kalinga, and also gave his sister Mitta in marriage to a Pandyan prince,
We know hardly anything about the fate of the Chola possessions in North India and Malaya. We have to assume that they lost all these countries during the Civil War and thus the far-flung empire, built by Raja-Rajan and Rajendran I finally collapsed for want of a strong ruler. With the defeat and death of Adi-Rajendran, the House of Wijeyalayan came to an end, and with it, the most glorious period of Tamil History.

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CHAPTER
When Rajendra alias Kulottunga I became king of Chola, he found that the great empire over which he longed to rule had vanished. However he was not dismayed. He made up his mind to Tಳ್ಗಿ oggad recover all the lost imperial possessions, and almost у from the day of his coronation he was at war with (AD. IO70-1216)
all his neighbours. Vengi-nad or Eastern Chalukiya was his by right; and he therefore seized it and placed his Sಳ್ಗು Raja-Rajan on the throne. He also brought parts of the tribal area around Chola under his Kಳ್ಲ! direct administration. Then like all Tamil kings who aspired to be emperors, he was faced with the task of re-conquering the sister kingdoms of Pandya and Chera.
During the long period of Chola ascendency, just as it happened in Ceylon, in Pandya too there appeared several claimants to the throne, but unfortunately all attempts to recover Pandya from Chola domination had ended in disaster. Members of the Pandyan Royal family had established themselves in remote parts of the country, out of reach of the imperial troops of Chola, and thus kept alive the spirit of revolt. Sometimes, as it happened during the reign of Rajadhirajan, two or more of them would unite together in attempting to overthrow the Cholas. The civil war no doubt gave them the longed-for opportunity and like the other subject countries, Pandya too succeeded in winning back her independence. Nothing further is known about the struggle which the Pandyans had to put up before they overthrew Chola rule. But the names of two princes Parakrama Pandyan and Vira Pandyan-are mentioned in connection with the re-establishment of order and justice in Pandya.
Pandyan independence was however only short-lived for in Io75 Kulottunga attacked Pandya and won an important victory as a result of which the king of Pandya was taken prisoner and beheaded. The struggle however continued for nearly a decade. In Io94. Kulottunga finally crushed all resistance in Pandya. He claims to have driven five Pandyan princes who opposed him into the forest, and brought the whole of Pandya under his direct rule.
A Pandyan prince named Jatavarman Srivallabha, who was a junior contemporary of Kulottunga, has left numerous inscriptions scattered all over Tinnewelly and Madura districts. This shows that towards the latter part of his reign Kulottunga had considerably changed his policy towards Pandya and even granted ruling powers to some of the disinherited Pandyan princes.
Kulottunga also invaded Chera by sea and claims to have captured several ports. He sacked Salai on two occasions and forced certain Chera chieftains to pay tribute. It is not known however to what extent the sturdy mountaineers of Chera acknowledged Chola supremacy.
Kulottunga's greatest achievement was the conquest of Kalinga. The Kalinga war is described in great detail in the poem called “Kalingattuparani.” It is said that Kulottunga demanded tribute of Kalinga. The

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king of Kalinga who had also recovered his kingdom during the civil war, refused to acknowledge Chola supremacy. Kulottunga therefore invaded Kalinga and devastated the country. The Kalingas were beaten in every battle and finally forced to submit once more to Chola suzerainty.
Towards the end of Kulottunga's reign the Kalingas gave trouble again, and Vikrama Cholan, the Crown Prince, assisted by Parantaka Pandyan, possibly the successor of Srivallabha, invaded the Telugu country. They defeated a Telugu chief named Bhima of Kulam, and also quelled all disturbances in Kalinga.
Kulottunga died about I LI8 having reigned for 49 years. To some extent he succeeded in re-establishing the Chola empire.
Vikrama Cholan who succeeded his father, had shown great promise as a prince. But unfortunately in the sixth year of his reign a terrible pestilence swept over the kingdom. This appears to Y;ဏ္ဏမွး }င့္မ္ယ။ have considerably reduced the strength of the Cholas.
Besides, Vishnuvardena, the Hoysala king, marched southwards and devastated the Tamil country. Possibly taking advantage of this, a Pandyan prince named Maravarman Srivallabha Succeeded in putting an end to Chola suzerainty.
Vikrama Cholan was succeeded by his son Kulottunga II about II 35,
and after him Kulottunga's son, Raja-Rajan II,
*ဝှိ nd ruled till about II62. Nothing is known about the
J Ја political activities of these two monarchs.
The next king Rajakesarivarman Rajadhirajan's relation to his predecessor, is not known. During the latter part of his reign, ಙ್ಗ! about I 168 or II69 civil war broke out in Pandya, and (A.D. both Chola and Ceylon became involved in this struggle.
Maravarman Srivallabha who began to rule over Pandya about II 32, proved a strong ruler. He made Tinnevelly his capital and even exercised suzerainty over South Chera, now known as Travancore.
On the death of Srivallabha about I I69, his son Kulasekhara, became king. The new king decided that he should rule from the ancient capital Madura. But this city was at this time occupied and ပ္ဗူး Panಿಟ್ಟ |{{{ို paဗု႕ ဖြိုးဝှိ who ruled over North Pandwa. POSSI a1a KKulasekhara Pandyan rama was in occupation of ိုရီdulfi ်လုံငို during the reign of Srivallabha. Whether he was an independent king or was subordinate to Srivallabha, is not clear. But when Kulasekhara attempted to take Madura, Parakrama resisted and appealed to the king of Ceylon for help.
The King of Ceylon during this period was Parakrama the Great. He was the grand-son of the Pandyan prince who married the Sinhalese princess Mitta. He had defeated the rightful heir to the Sinhalese throne, and become king by sheer might. He was the first Sinhalese king to possess a fleet, and like his Tamil ancestors he longed to conquer foreign lands. He was probably a near kinsman of Parakrama Pandyan, and therefore on receiving the appeal, he immediately despatched a lowerful army to Pandya. But in the meantime Kulasekhara had defeated and killed Parakrama Pandyan, and occupied Madura. Undauitcd by these
Parakrama Pandyan

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events, the Sinlı alese army marched to Madlı ra. On the way they gathCred together all the supporters of Wira Pandyan, the Son of the Linfortunate Prakrain. It is said that the Sillalese generals Linkel plural lind agill Wijaya, gave presents to many Plildyan chiefs, possibly in canvassing their SLuppOrt.
The combinecl armies of Parakrama Balı Lı ancl Wira Pandyan succcelel in capturing Madura but Kuulasicklılara escaped and foLıglut luis emenlies Ill10st gallantly. However he lost battle after battle and was finally forced to leave Pandya and sceli refuge in Chola. The Sirillalese say that Lil Ilk:lutil placed Wira Pandyan on tille throne and returned home Flushed with victory. But from Chola inscriptions we learn that the war did not end with the crowning of Wira Pantlyan. Kulasekhara fled to Chola, and sought the help of Rajadhiraja. The king of Chola fearing that the war might spread into hiss owlin ilkingdonmı, assisted Kula selikhartal witlı alını army, which hıc despatched under the command of a young general named Pallawarilyar. If the Sinhalese, as mentioned in the Mahava.Insa, had really returned to Ceylon, tlhe new development must have brouglıt tilhelm back in a hul Try. Pallavarayar forced his way to Madura, and in the battle that followed the Sinhalese generals Lankapura and others were taken prisoners and put to cleath alıcl tlıcir lı eads II ailed to the gateway of Maclır. Clı the clefcat of his Sinhalese allies Wira Pandyan must have fled from his capital, and Kulasekhara once again entered the city as king of Pandya,
Paral; rain: Bahu Ino doubt felt keenly the defeat his army had sustained in P.Lindya and prepared to take revenge by invading Chola. He Kulottunga ill therefore collected troops at Isayts, Maintai, and other (A.D #ಣ್ಣಿ; northern ports, and Ilhade ill arrangements to attack L Chola by sea. At this time there lived a refugee Sinhalese prince named Srivallabha, in Chola. He was all cinemy of Parakralııııııı Bahu, und Raja dhirajan therefore sent himl with a powerful fleet to attack the Sinhalese in their home waters, Srivallabha Ettacked the invasion ports, destroyed many coastal villages, and carried away Illuch booty to Chola.
On the death of Rajadhirajun about II78, Kulottunga III was crowned king of Chola. Two years later, about II So, Kulasekhara, king of Pandya died, and Wira Pandyan again attempted to seize the kingdom. Par:ll. Tall Bahu was still ready to help him, and with the help of his Sinhalese friends he appears to have met with solic success, Kulasekhara's son Wikrama Pandyan thereupon sought the help of Kulottunga III, and thus the old struggle was renewed,
Wira Pandyan and his allies were unable to face thic Chola troops who captured Madura and forced the Sinhalese to leave Pandya for good. After thic defeat of Wira Pandyan, Kulottu Inga placed Wilkrama Pandyan On the throne. Wira Pantlyan triecl once more to regain tlıle kingdom), but at the battle of Nettur, he was loadly clefc:.tc.cl antl talken prisoner. Kulott L1 Ingal however showed mercy to his troublesome enemy and permitted him to spend the rest of his days in Cheral, no doubt as an exile,
This brought the Pandyan civil War to a close. During Kulottunga III's reign Chola appears to have won back Illuch of her for Iner glory. Inscriptions (90 of Igo7) cliscovered in the Tribhuvanan temple show that he won several battles against his "northern' enemies and also claimed to have conquered Ceylon. He built two great temples, one at Tribhuva

- He
TANJORE TEMI''LE

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nam and the other at Darasuram, fashioned after the Tanjore temple of Raja-Raja. These temples were perhaps the last great edifices built by the Imperial Cholas and can be seen to this day. Kulottunga III was also the last of the great Cholas, for after him, the rulers of Chola were weaklings who allowed the kingdom to decline and finally disappear from the pages of history.

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CHAPTER
The Pandyan Empire 26-30.
The year A.D. I2 I6 witnessed the sad deaths of the two monarchs, Kulottunga III and Kulasekhara. The former was succeeded by his son O Raja-Rajan III, who proved to be a weakling, while ಙ್ಗ the latter was succeeded by his brother, Sundara ( − ) Pandyan-a very ambitious and aggressive prince. The new king of Pandya soon forgot the help his Sunಳ್ಗಿ೩n predecessor had received at the hands of the Cholas, - ) and about I 222 invaded this sister-kingdom. He set fire to Tanjore and Uraiyur, and devastated South Chola. Raja-Rajan fled from his capital and while retreating northwards fell into the hands of Kopperunjinga, a Pallava feudatory ruling over Sendamangalam (South Arcot district) and who appears to have suddenly turned traitor.
and
Both Raja-Rajan and Sundara Pandyan were related to the royal Family of Hoyasala, a comparatively new kingdom that had sprung up in modern Mysore. Raja-Rajan therefore appealed to the Hoyasala king Vira Narasimha II for help. The Hoyasala army under the command of Appana and Samudragopaya, invaded Sendamangalam and compelled Kopperunjinga to release his royal prisoner. Narasimha next determined to check the growing power of the Pandyans, marched southwards and captured Srirangam, and even claims to have set up a pillar of victory at Ramesvaram. It is difficult to know what exactly took place. However it is more than certain that the Pandyans and the Hoyasalas came to some agreement regarding the future of Chola. Narasimha styled himself 'the establisher of the Chola kingdom' and about the same time Sundara Pandyan's inscriptions tell us that he restored Chola to Raja-Rajan.
For his services however Narasinha annexed a portion of Chola and put his son Vira Somesvara as viceroy.
Sundara Pandyan also interfered in the affairs of Kongu, and as a result a portion of this kingdom came under Pandyan rule.
Towards the end of Sundara Pandyan's reign the Cholas rebelled and refused to pay tribute. This time the Hoyasalas did not come to their aid, and Sundara Pandyan inflicted a crushing defeat and forced Raja-Rajan to acknowledge Pandyan supremacy. To commemorate his victories the Pandyan Emperor issued coins, built tennples and gave much encouragement to learning. Special mention is made of his minister Gurukulattarayan and two other chiefs named Malavar Manikkam and Kandan Udayan jeydan Gangeyan who like the king spent their wealth for the good of the nation. About 1238, after an eventful reign of 22 years, Sundara Pandyan wished to retire from public life, and handed over the government to a prince named Kulasekhara.
Jatavarman Kulasekhara II as he is known did not rule long. About December of the same year, he was forced to share the kingdom with another prince named Maravarman Sundara Pandyan.

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From about the beginning of 1239 this prince became the real ruler. During his reign however, there existed a close relationship between the Hoyasala, Chola and Pandyan Royal Families. Chiefly on account of this, war and bloodshed was Sundಣ್ಣႏွင့္အyan notably absent, However Pandya had to put up with much interference from Hoyasala. Vira Somesvara the Hoyasala king was “mamadi” or uncle to Sundara Pandyan and he appears to have used his relationship as an excuse for interfering too often in the affairs of Pandya.
Maravarman
Although Maravarman Sundara Pandyan ruled till about I 253, a prince
named Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan joined him in administering the
government as from April, 125 I. This prince was
su# an WooY ambitious and soon started on a round of con
ಙ್ಗಙ್ಗy quests. He invaded Chera and ravaged Malai-nadu
(Malayalam) and ultimately forced the Chera king to acknowledge his supremacy.
About I258 the Hoyasalas were driven out of the Tamil district which they had stolen from Raja-Rajan. In the region of the Kaveri, their commander Singana was defeated and killed. The struggle with the Hoyasalas appears to have gone on till I 262 about which time Vira Somesvara himself met with his death. About 1267 Vira Somesvara's son Ramanatha invaded Chola again and succeeded in occupying Kannanur and Srirangam till about I27I.
After the death of Vira Somesvara, Sundara Pandyan had to suppress a rebellion in Sendamangalam. The Pallava chieftain Kopperunjinga, who at one time rebelled against his Chola overlord, now showed himself antagonistic to Sundara Pandyan. However, when the Pandyans invaded his territory, Kopperunjinga appears to have lost heart and sent tribute suing for peace. Sundara Pandyan, knowing well that he was backed by stronger forces from the Telugu and Kannada countries, rejected his tribute and proceeded to punish the rebel chief. Kopperunjinga was later restored to his former position no doubt on his promising to be loyal in future.
After this the Pandyan emperor attacked Kanchi. This district was at the time under the rule of a Telugu prince named Gandagopala. Sundara Pandyan killed Gandagopala, and took Kanchi. In this campaign he came to a clash with several Telugu princes who appear to have been helped by certain Aryan kings. According to inscriptions found at Chidambaram, he "inflicted a severe defeat on the Telungas slaughtering them and their allies the Aryans, right up to the banks of Peraru, and driving the Bana chief into the forest.’ Thus at the end of this campaign, Sundara Pandyan found himself master of the entire Tamil-land, and he also exercised suzerainty over the Telugu country as far as Nellore. Kongu and a part of the Kannada country were also under his rule.
In all his campaigns Sundara Pandyan was ably helped by two subordinate princes named Vira-Pandyan and Kulasekhara, Vira- Pandyan • who might have been a close relative of the king led in person the armies that conquered Chola, Kongu and other countries. About I 255 he invaded Ceylon. His record tells us that there were two independent kings in Ceylon. One of them was killed in battle, while the other was forced to

Page 46
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play a tribute of j:wels and elephants, Wira-Pandyan claims to have planted his victorious stilindard on the top of Konamalai and on the high peak of TrikLıntagiri.
The two kingdoms referred to were no doubt the Tamil kingdom of North Ceylon and the Sinhalese kingdom of the south. Ever since the time of the Chola conquest, North Ceylon had remained in Thಙ್ಗm Tamil hands. in Bahu thıc (Grcat tıııiited Ceylorı including the north into oilc strong nation, but his successors failed to keep it up. The Tamils of Ceylon therefore, drifted apart again and formed themselves into a separate kingdom. The kings of Jaffna call themselves Aryans. They cannot therefore belong to the Tamil dynasties of Clholl, Chera and Pandya. Their origin is indeed very obscure. Wijeya Bahu who boccane king of Ceylon after the fall of the Chola Empire married a princess of lalinga. As was usual in those days this alliance by marriage would have brought to the island many Kalinga nobles as brothersin-law of the king, Kalinga influence no doubt grew more and more as time passed until it culininated in the crowning of Kalinga Maha as king of Ceylon. It is possible that the kings of this Singai or Singapura Aryan Dynasty of Jasfna were really Lryanized Kllings–kinsmen of Kalillga Maha. Jaffna soon became powerful and succeeded in driving thc Sinhalesc out of Rajarata, Even a portion of Ruhan: north of Bibile, became part of Jaffna kingdom. The Sinhalese kings, thus harassed by Tamils from Jaffna and Pandya, shifted their capital to fortresses in the central and western parts of the island. Of the two places mentioned by Wira-Pandyan, Konamalaia Tamil name-is no doubt Thiru-Konamalai (Trincomalie). The other, Trilkutagiri (a Sinhalese name) is believed to refer to a three-peaked mountain in the Kandyan district.
Towards the end of Sundara Pandyan's reign, Maravarman Kulasekhara, who was perhaps a sub-king, became the real ruler. He opened his reign by putting down rebellions in Chera. Kulasekhara had Moუჭულ four brothers all of wholl ruled over yarious parts of the (263-370) is co-regents. There was much unity among the brothers and als a result the empire reached the zenith of its prosperity during this period.
In I:284, it beca Inne necessary to re-Conquer Ceylon. In fact tlılere was so much trouble-riots, famine and pestilence in the island, that the Sinhalese king was barely able to look after himself. Bhuvanel, a Bahu I ruled from a fortress called Yapalluva, thinking that he would be safe from Talnil invasions, Kulasekhara sent a powerful army under thic command of an able general named Arya Chakkaravarty. The Sinhalesc were utterly defeated and Arya Chakkaravarty captured the capital and cairied away the tooth. I'clic to Pandya. The carrying away of the sacred relic, which for over twelve centuries the Sinhalese had guarded jealously, cast a great gloom over the country, and for the next twenty years or so Ceylon was ruled direct from Pandya. About 1302 a Sinhalese prince named Parakrama Bahu, went to Pandya and i Luter wicwcd the enimpic1'or on belhalf of the Sinhalese. He begged for the restoration of the tooth-relic and Kulasekhara showed his generosity by returning the relic,
This Arya Chakkaravarty may be identical with Jeyavira Singai Aryan, king of Jaffna, who according to the Yalpana Waipava Malai, defeated Bhuvaneka Bahu and brought the whole island under lis own flag. Per
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

( 59 )
haps he did so on behalf of the Pandyan Emperor, for it is further mefltion cd that at the end of twelve years Singai Aryan restored the Sinhalese throne to one Parakrama Baliu on tle intervention of the Pandyan who personally guaranteed the payment of the customary tribute.
Kulasckhara's reign was long and prosperous, The wealtl of the conquered countries poured into Pandya. Marco Polo the Wenetian travellar who wisi tcd the Court of Kulasekhara las given an glowinig account of thc illnlense wealth the eneror possessed. He describes how much of this wealth was wasted in purchasing horses brought by Arab merchants, It is s:id that Kulasckhara purchased Io, ooo horses an year, no doubt for his great and powerful army. The Tamil horsenen rocle their steeds like demons even witlhout stirTups, says Marco Polo, But he was not inpressed with the collmoil soldier, who according to him was a vegetarian and would not kill any living thing! Although Tanils Luled over a great part of the Deccan and Ceylon, the soldiers appear to lave been very poorly armed, only spears and swords being in use. Much false beliefs and superstitions were also current unong the people and Marco Polo describes how fishes - no doubt Inn-ciling sharks-vere clarmed by BrlīImans cacl morning before earl divers went to work and how these Brillillains were paid one-twentieth of the total catch for their services From the writings of another traveller Ila Inc.d Wassif we also learn that Pandya carried on a vast trade with foreign countries. He describes how ships from China and Malaya in the East, Hind and Sind in the North, Irak and Khursan in the West and even ships from Europcan countrics all brought their illerchandise to Kayal, the chief port of Pandya. Such was the fame and prosperity of thc Tamil country barely six hundred years ago,

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CHAPTER IV
The Declino and Fall of the Tami
Kulasekhara had two sons, one by his lawful queen and the other by a lady-in-waiting. Wiral Pandyan, the illegitimate son was the elder of the Wo. He was also a bold and intrepid youth and was therefore allowed to associate hillself with the government of his country from about 1296. Sundara Pandyan, his legitinate oft-spring, though allowed to take part in the governincnt from 1303, was not given so prominent it place ils Wi': Pandyan. Between 13 to and 13 II, Kulasekhara wished to hand over the Crown to one of his sons, lind nominited the elder but ilegitimit te Virit Pandyan. This naturally enraged Sundara and in a fit of Linger le murdered his royal father, and with the hclp of the army, crowned himself Ellperor.
Kulasekhara who had ruled for 44 years was greatly loved by his People, Lild whleil the news of his Illurder spread throughout the empire there Wils litter confilsion every where. Wiral Patidyal determined to take rewellige and collected an army to oppose the patricidc. He received in Lich llclp from the chieftains, and practically the whole country was at his back. Nevertheless Wira Piltdyan was defeated at first, but in a second attempt he captured Madura, and forced his broller to acknowledge defeat, Sui clara Pandyan, descated and disgraced, fled from the kingdom and just as rashly as he had killed his father betrayed his motherland to the Molhaul IIledans.
The last occasion wc heard of the Muslim invaders was in the reign of Rajendra Cholan. While Rajendran was busy collering Bengal and otlier parts of Easter in Aryavarthil, Llic Muslims were trying to consolidate their losiliol in the North-west, alreadly iller their sway. During the three-hit Indred yeill's that follow cil, wave upon wave of Muslim invaders hild swept over North India. With the fall of the Chola Empire illey spread southwards into the Deccan.
Alillost all the Hindul Kings were either overthrown or reduced in Tower. About the beginning of the fourteech century, it was only in South India that Hindu Raj still Inaintained power. In their southward drive tile Muslims first came into conflict with the Hoyasalas, whoIn Sundara Paintly: 1, in 1262 had expelled from the northern Tamil districts. With Halimpi as their capital, the Hoyasalas appear to have recovered thcInsclves after Sundara Pandyan's death.
The Hoyasillas strengthened themselves by conquering and annexing tle Kannada and Telugu districts immediately to the north of Tamil-nadu. Tle stout Tesistą lice oferci by tlenu tempor:Lrily arested tle narch of Lille Muslims, and it was at this critical period that Sundara, the patricide, sought tlie help of Malik Kafur, tlie Muslinn general. Wira Pandyan inlinediately sell in it rmy of horse and foot to aid the Hoyasalas in their LLLLaLLma gmgmaC LLL aLLLLLLLmmLLLL LLLGLSS LL LLLCLLm0S LaE LLLLLLLLS LL LaLLLLLLL iaitlicil by Llic tr:LilŪT Sul II dari Succeeded in awoidlig tillic I Loyasala army, illn(l SWell into lic Til Illil colntry. Wassaf, the Musliili writer, tells us that several towns were captured chiefly because of the animosity that existed
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

( ó I )
between the two royal brothers. When Malik Kafur reached Madura, lic found that the city had been abandoned, although a few elephants still remained in the temple premises. The Muslims plundered the temple and Collected much booty, for they had 110 intention of staying long in Pandya.
Wira Pandyan, who ladl abandoned Madura and judiciously retreatcd southwards, suddenly appeared with a large and powerful a Tiny including numerous clephants, and Milik Kafur was forced to clear out of Panclya. But of course hc carried away all the booty he had collected, which in gold lone must li:lve Lee innense.
Allough the first Musliin invision of the Timilmadin lius ended in smoke, its immediate result was the collapse of the Pandyan Empire. Talking advantage of the civil war and the Musliill invasion that followed, the Telugu, as well as Chola feudatories threw off tille Panicilyan yolke. Wira Pandyan busy with home troubles, could have done nothing to prevent it.
ttl LaLG LLL LLL LLLLLL aLLLLL LLL LLL LLL LLLS S LLLLL LLLLLLLLLL Kulaselchara of Chera thought it a fine opportunity to take revenge on Pandiyalı, HI c ilin vadell the lkingdo[ını, defeated lootlı Wir:ı Palındyalımı alırıd Sundara PLinclyan, End proceedleclas far als KLInchi, and finally crowned himself Emperor. But alas his glory was short-lived. The Telugu king who held sway north of Kanchi, sent his general Muppidi Nayakan against Kılı selılır. Muppili Niyakalı forccd the Clıcı’a Emperor to give tıp the conquered territories and return home empty-handed. He brought the northern Tamil country consisting of Kanchi and Chola, under his direct rule and reduced Sundara Pandyan who was ruling over North Pandya to the position of a feudatory. Sundara Pandyan died about 3 19 and after his death, Wiril Pandyan set himself the difficult task of restoring the kingdom to its former position. He had barely succeeded in restoring sonic ortler and prosperity in the colli try when a second Muslim invasion overwhelmed him. This second expedition was sent by the Sultan of Delhi, mainly for the purpose of plunder. Kliusru Khali, the general, did not spare any temple lat stood oli his Way. He ravaged the country and cal Tried away as much booty als possible.
About 1330, this bled and weakened, the Tamils had to face the third Muslin invasion. The new Elliperor of Delhi, Mohanned-Bin-Tughlali, LLLLLL LLLLL HLLLLHHL LLL LLLLGLLLLLLL LLLLLLLlL aaLLLL LLLaLLLCMSLLtLLSLLSLLS his general, to coligue 1 Pandya. The Muslim at my easily overcame the Tamils, and captured Maclura, Jalaluddin appointed the first Muslin governor of Madura, soon set himself up as an independent Sultan, and little by little brought the country around Madura under his sway.
The Sultans of Madura were able to enforce their :Luthority only in the Lurban areas, while in the interior Pandyan prices continued to rule more or less as independent monarchs. Thus the country became split up, with kLLLLLL LLLLL L La CTTLLL LLLLL LaLHlLltLL LLL LLa aaLaLLL LaLLLLLLLS LLLLG LLLLLL order were therefore difficult to Ilaintain, and this, added to the religious persecution started by the Muslims, turned lic Tamil country into a veritable clıEL0s.
The short but terrible mis-rule of the Muslim Sultans is well portrayed in the Sanscrit poem "Mathuravijayam” by the wife of tille hero who ultimately forced the Muslims out of Pandya. It describes how the temples were leglected and jackals howled within the temple pric

Page 48
6.2 )
mises. Even Kaveri had joined in the destruction of the Tamil country her frequent floods. The villages were filled with the foul smell of roasted flesh and the noise Illade by these Muslim russians. There was no order or justice and despair was evident in the faces of the unfortunate Dravidians.
However the Pandyan princes did not give up the struggle against the hated Muslills, Lild often acted in unity with the Hoyasalas,
About 39 the Hoysala king Vira Ballala III, was badly beaten by the Sultan of Madura alt the battle of Kannallur Koppam. For the Inext | twenty years all hopes of redeeming Pandya from the Muslim yoke had to be alba Indo Ihecil.
All this title the Telugu kingdom of Vijayanagar, situated on the bank of the river Tungabhadra, had been spreading southwards, by uniting together the smaller Kannada and Telugu kingdoms, against the common elemy-the Muslims. About A.D. 1364 the Tamil district of Kanchi or Tondai, had also become part of the Wijeyanagar Empire. The Pandyans unable to bear Muslim rule any longer, appealed to the Wijeyanagar chief, Kumara Kampana, who was then at Kalnclui. A prince named Wira Pandyan was then ruling in South Pandya and a temple record in the 31st year of his reign describes the invasion of Kumaril Kampana and the ultimate suppression of the Maclura Sultanate. The inscription says "The times Were Tulukkili (Muslim) times, the templc lands were taxed, however pujas had to be conducted without reduction; the cultivation of the temple lands was done by turns by the tenants of the village; at this juncture Kampana Udaiyat caille, destroyed the Tulukkan, established orderly government throughout the country and appointed many Nayakars (Chiefs) for inspection and supervision in order that the worship in all temples might be revived and conducted regularly as before." The struggle appears to have continued for about eight long years, and it was only about 378 that Madura was taken, and the Muslims forced to quit Dravidian country altogetler,
We have already seen how the northern part of Ceylon became an independent Tamil kingdom. From about 1310 the two ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa were in the hands of the Tamils, and Jaffna was really the more powerful of the two Ceylon kingdoms, Possibly the fall of Madura, and the occupation of the Tamil country by the Muslims brought many refugees to the Island. Some took service under the Sinha. lese kings of the south, while many no doubt settled down among their kinsmen of Jaffna. By about I34o the kingdom of Jaffna extended as far South as Puttalam, and even Adam's Peak appears to have been well within Jaffna's jurisdiction. The Sinhalese kings were reduced to the position of fcludatorics, Lild Orle of them-Wikrama Bahu III (I3óo. I 374) is recorded to hawe paid tribute to Jaffna,
About 1385 however the Sinhalese succeeded in getting rid of Jaffna's slizerainty. A general Ilaimed Alagakkonar built a fort in the marshy land east of Colombo and defied the power of Jaffna. He actually seized the emissaries of the ling of Jaffna who had come to collect the usual tribute, and hanged them. This no doubt resulted in war. The Jaffna forces came both by land and sea. The land army reached Matale and the Sinhalese king fled from his capital Gampola. The forces that came by seil blowever Illet with a different fate at the hands of Alagakkonar who met
Wijeyanagar and Jafna
 
 
 
 
 

( s.3 )
and defeated them at Colombo and Panadure. This put an cnd to Jafinl's suzerainty over the rest of the island-a position she hild enjoyed almost from the time of Jeyavira Singai Ary: Il, who defeated Bluval cka Bill.
Alagakkonair's neplic w Wira Alakeswara who became king of the Sinhalese, and was carried away to China in 14 Io, has been described by the Chinese as a native of Chola and of Hinclu. faith, This is further confirmed by the Sinhalese work "Mayura Sandesa' where he is inciationed as the friend of Maheswara (Siva). As the name suggests this famoils Sinhalese family belonged to the "Konar' caste of South India, and according to inscriptions hail from Wanjipura in Malabar.
About 1385 Jaffna was invaded by Wirupakhil the son of the Wijeyanagar EII peror. Hic claims to have conquered Ceylon, altlı ÖLıglı itill It'll tlı it was tle kingdom of Jaffna that he invaded. In all probability Jaffna was still the more prominent of the two kingdoms. The submission of Jaffna to Wijeyanagar brought all the l) ravidian kingdoms under the aullhority of a single heatl, all this clipsire which Wils in reality il great federation of Dravidian Hindu nations, successfully withstood the oilslaugllts of the war-like Muslims for nearly two all a lalf centuries.

Page 49
CHAPTER V
Tamil Literature Under the Later Cholas and Pandyans.
The Saiva and Vaishnava saints who gave Tamil a new form of devotional literature, were followed by others of similar temperament, such as Sathanar, Thirumular, Nakkirar, Nambiandir-Nambi and others. Of these the last named lived during the reign of Raja-Rajan I. Their works collected together under the titles, "Thiruvisapa,” “Thirumantaram' and "Thirumurai' must be classed with the devotional literature of an earlier period.
The Chola Emperors after Raja-Rajan appear to have been too busy with their empire-building programme for until we come to the reign of Kulottunga I we cannot find any literary work of merit. However, we should remember that Rajendran who conquered parts of North India, brought many learned Brahmans from the North and settled them in various parts of the Tamil country.
These Brahmans did much to accelerate the sanscritizing of Tamil,
and its result can be seen in the literature of Kulottunga's time.
The best known of the post-Sangam poets-Kambar-lived during this period. He took the plot for his work-the Ramayanam-from the original Sanscrit. Other works such as “Paratha-venba” by Perundevanar, “Nalavenba’ by Pukalandi and 'Thakayakaparani' by Oddakkuthar, are all based on the Sanscrit Epics and Puranas, and betray to what extent Tamil poets had become dependent on Sanscrit,
The only exception perhaps was Poet Jayamkondar, whose poem "Kalingattu-parani' describes the famous victory of Kulot tunga I. over the Kalingas. This is of great historical value and beautifully portrays the martial age of the Tamils.
From a religious point of view however, the most important work of this period is the "Peria-puranam' by Sekkilar. The exaggerated descriptions peculiar to the Sanscrit Puranas, now came to be imported into Tamil. The "Peria-puranam' however deals with the wonderful lives of the Nayanars, and in spite of its "puranic' language, it is the only authentic record we possess of our great poet-saints.
Apart from these, several grammatical works also appeared during this period. “Nan-nool’ perhaps the best known of these, though based on the Tolkkapiam, is a concise work suitable for students. With the fall of the Tamil Dynasties, Tamil had to take a subordinate position giving place to Telugu, Kannada and Sanscrit. Religious poets usually made use of Telugu, and it was in this language that "Carnatic' musical compositions, as distinct from the earlier Tamil poetry, began to appear.
Nevertheless, numerous Tamil poets and saints, including some Pandyan princes of Tinnevelly, lived during the regime of Wijeyanagar and after. These failed to receive the prominence they deserved. Lately an attempt has been made to bring them to the limelight, through the help of benefactors such as Zamindar Pandithurai Thevar, who inaugurated the Fourth Tamil Sangam, and Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiar who founded the Annamalai University, destined to be the centre of Tamil learning and culture of the future. However, the classical age of Tamil literature really came to an end with the ancient Tamil Dynasties-the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyans.

Page 50
鹽。
انقلاب h
Si Hir
‚ኒ Š ̇| ̇ ነ'
[ } ነ‛ N
NA, "KA,
"l
" | HE
P.L. C.
 

CHAPTER WI
The Nayaka Dynasty and the British,
The expulsion of the Muslims from Solith India and the establishment of the Wijeyanagar empire greatly enhanced the reputation of the Drawiclians in the eyes of the rest of Hindu Indial. Nevertleless, to the T: Tils as a separate unit, this was the beginning of their eld, it was the Telugu and Kannada sections of the Dr; widian race, who tools an active part in lic great struggle against tlie Muslimu invader. Tlocrefore the Ta II, ils llad to be satisfied with a subordinate position. Under the Wiicy; iiilgar Eli pire, the ancient dynasties of Chola and Pandya were restored to lower. Once Egain, But their former glory was gone and they were Imere vassals of El wellorgariscci empire. Possibly as a precauticol, against tlie CIII pire breaking Lup into will ring states, Telugu and Kan illdal chieftains were made to settle down it various parts of the Tamil country. In Madura El Tclugu clief was appointed as adviser to the king, with more or less silnil T Flowers is enjoyed by British residents in the Native States of India today. These chiefs little by little arrogated to themselves much of the Kings' powers, and by I. 183 began to style the Ilselves :15 Matlli rapLiri-Maha-Nilyakas.
Practically nothing is known about the Tamil Kings of Chola and Pandya who ruled as subordinatics of the Wijeya Lagar Emperor. No doubt the politics of the Tamil-lad were overshadowed by those of the Empire,
South Pandy; had become the stronghold of rebellious princes during LLLLSLLLLLLLL LL SLLLaL LL LLLLL LLL LLLL LLLLLLLLS aLLLHH LLLLLL LGLlLCCmClmLLLLLLLS LL Pandyans of kitig na med Jaatava tri II:LI) Wilkirja III : l’alıdly in Tuled over
пау I:lmiial and other parts of the extreine south froIII A.D.
Tin nevelly Iloi-1122. The most successful rebellion was led by a
prince na ined Arkestri Parakrama whe ruled over South Pandya from A.D. 122 to A.D. 162. He successfully pitted himself against the Inight of Wijeyangar, captured Madura and held it for soille years. He was also LLGLGLL LLL LLLLLLLLSLLLLLLLS LLLLL LCLLLSLLL LLLL LL LL0L LLL LLLL LL a southern sea board comprising the Railnad and Tiniewcly districts. He was aLLLLLLLLlLLLLLLL LLLLLLL LL LLLLLL aLLL LL LLr LlLCCCaLa LaLLLLL LLtttLLtmCma LLLLLL LLLLLL to return to his original stronghold in the Tilne welly district.
Parakraina Pandyan was a pious king auci despite the limited fortune of his dynasty hc built the great templc at Tenkasi and also improved many
tlers.
This branch of the Pandyan Dynasty Illade Tinlevelly their capital and ruled over the south till about 652, and thcreafter disappeared froll lic pages of history. They were by Ino means independent although they often pretended to be so in their inscriptions; time and again, the Empel or had to interfer in their affairs. For example in 1534 the ruler of Travancore, who was also a feudatory of Wijeya Tagar, attacked Sri Wallabha, king of South Pandya and the Emperor Achyutaraya hild to intervene by leading an expedition to the extreme South. This also resulted in the Im:Lrriage of the Emperor to a Pandyan princess.
The successors of Parakrama Pandy all enjoyed little or no political power but they spent their time and wealth in building temples and other

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( ნრ )
public edifices. They were also men of learning and encouraged poets. And thus for a time Tin nevelly and not Madura, became the centre of T:LILıil cultLITe.
About I559 Wirasekhara, king of Chola, attacked his Pandyn contemporary and drove him out of Madura. The Emperor thereupon sent his general NaIIlala Nayakar to punish the aggressive ruler
Tಣ್ಣ ಕ್ತೀar of Clola. Nanaka Nayakar captured Madura and inу у stead of re-instaling the Pandyan as ordered attempted
to becomic king himself.
This resulted in the Emperor sending an a 1 my Linder the command of NLIllika's own son Wiswanatha, with orders to bring his disloyal father dead or alive to Wijeyanagar. It is said that Wisva Flatla Nayakar himself volunteered to do so, seeing tlıat IloI le clse would Lu Indlertillke the ta slk. Wiswanathil defeated his father, and took linn prisoner to the illipcial capital. On his son's request Namaka was pardoned, while Wiswanatha himself was Lippointed to the governership of Madura witlı tlıc hercditary right of 8LIUCCE881[]II.
Wiswanatha Nayakar was much more than a governor. In fact he was the real ruler of Pandya, This arrangement did not suit the Pandyan prices of Tinnewelly, and five of them joined hands in opposing Wiswanatha Nayakar. All cxpedition to the south resulted in heavy loss to the Madura troops as the rebels adopted guerilla tactics. Thus frustrated, it is said Wiswanatha Nayakar challenged the Pandyans to single combat, and defeated them one by one. This led to the pacification of the south, and Wiswanatha was able to establish some sort of order throughout the entire kingdom. He divided Pandya into 72 sub-divisions or "palayams' and placed the administration of etch palay: in in the clarge of a chief or Palaya - karan (polgar). A good Illany of these chiefs were no doubt Telugu and Kannada soldiers who had accompanied Wisvanatha to Pandya, and who had now to be suitably rcwarded. In the extreme solith however Visvanatha had to depend on the good will of the war-like and semi-independent Marilwa cluicís.
Wiswanatha ruled till I 563 and after hinn his som Krishnappa Nayakar became king. Two years later, the city of Wijeyanagar was sacked by the Muslims, and the Emperor was forced to shift his capital to Chandragiri. The kings of Mysore, Tanjore and Madura however remained loyal to the Emperor. Krishnappa claims to have invaded Ceylon and defeated the kin of Kandy at a placc named Pattalam (Puttalam?).
From 1573, Krishnappa's two sons, Krishnappa and Wisvanatha, jointly ruled over Pandya. In 1595 the two sons of Krishnappa, Elingia Nayakar, Wiswappa Nayakar, became joint rulers and carried on the government till п бо2.
In Iốo2 Elingia Nayalkar's son Muthu Krishnappa Nayakar became king. He gave Rameswaram and the adjoining mainland known as Sethu. nad to a descendant of the old Pandyan Dynasty with the title Sethupath and also made hill chief of the 72 Playakaras. He died in I609 leavin three sons, Muthu Wecrappa, Thirumalai and Kumara Muthu Wecrappa. O these, the claiest, Muthu Weerappa Nayakar ruled till 1623. During his rei the king of Mysore attempted to conquer Madura, but the Palayakaras uni
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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TANK AND PLEASURE GARDEN MAIŅ[JR Å
 

( 67 )
ed together and drove back the invader with heavy loss. The Muslims began to make further in roads into the now tottering Wijeyanagar Empire.
Thus when Thirumalai Nayakar came to the throne the power of the Emperor had declined so much that hic thouglat it un necessary to continue as a subordinate of Wijeyanagar, Pandya had now recovered much of her ancient prosperity, and Thirumalai started to Tule as an independent sovereign. Nevertheless the Muslim Ilhenace still demanded unity among the Hindu nations and the existence of a paramount power such as an emperor had its great advantage, as we shall soon sce, The Nayakars of Tanjore and Senchi also followed thc example of Thirumalai, ind declared thenselves independent rulers. Mysore however remained loyal to the emperor and even attempted to punish the rulers of the Tamil country. The Mysore alt'niny marched soLuthwards als far as Dindigul, Thiru mallai Nayakar sent his general Rainappa Iyer with a powerful army, to meet the invaders. At the battle of Dindigul tilic Mysorians were badly beaten and drive back into tlıcı hills of their lo clant.
Some years later the Emperor wishing to subdue the rulers of the Tamil country attacked Madura. Thirumalai had for his allies the Nayakars of Taijore and Senchi, but was yet unable to prevent the Emperor from gaining some initial success. Seeing the danger that threatened Pandya, Thirumalai urged the Sultan of Golconda (now part of Hydrabad) to attack the Emperor, The Sultan not only did so but, after ravaging il part of ille Andhra or Telugu country, marched southwards into Pandya. To counteract this Inovc, Thiru III lalii Lurgecil the Sultan of Bijapur (also part of Hydrabad) to attack Golconda, However instead of attacking Golconda, Bijapur actually joined hands with the sister Muslim state, and their combined army suddenly appeared before Madura. Thirlmalai was at his wit's ends, but the Emperor, seeing the unity of the Muslims, forgot the past, and immediately came to the rescue of Pandya, Nevertheless the Muslims were too strong even for the allied Hindu army and Thirumalai was forced to pay tribute and acknowledge the suzerainty of Bijapur. As soon as the Muslim menace was thus averted, the Emperor attempted to punish Thirumalai, with the aid of Mysore. Once again. Thirumalai urged Bijapur to attack Mysore, and the Muslims after devastating Mysore, marched on Madura. Again Thirumalai had to pacify thcin with a large sum of money. Some years later Mysore for the third tine invaded Pandya. This time, Thirumalai did not ask for Muslin help which had been very costly.
Earlier in his reign Thirumalai had some misunderstanding with the Sethupathy, who was also the chief of the Palayakaras, Therefore it is said he urged his queen to write to the Sethupathy appealing for help. When the Sethupathy received the queen's letter, he immediately collected a large army, and went to the king's aid. As a conscquence the Mysore army was deficated and driven back into the hills. Later Thirumalai's brother Kumara Muthu Weerappa led an expedition to Mysore and ravaged the hill-country. Before the victorious army returned to Madura, ThiruIlalai Nayalar died at the age of 75. In spite of the incess: It wars, Thirumalai's reign saw the city of Madura improve a great deal. He built the magnificent palace a portion of which stands to this day. He also built the "puthu Inandapam' extension to the Meenachi Temple. The beautiful talk all several other Linenities are also ascribed to hill.

Page 53
68 )
The next ruler was Muthu Alakaihali Nayakar, the son of Thirumalai. He fortified Trichnopoly as a protection against the Muslims. A few years later the Muslims actually attacked Trichnopoly, but finding it well fortified, Illarched oil Tanjore and captured that city. Afterwards they returned to Trichnopoly, but owing to fainine aid sick icss were obliged to leave Pandya Efter obtaining a small tribute.
Thus, as title went oil, the Muslim menace grew more and IIlore deadly, while the solidarity of the Hindu nations broke up by petty quit Irels and wars,
Alakandi clied in 1662, and his son Sokanatha became king. The Incw king it his auxiety to stem the Muslim infiltration quarrelled with his eighlour the king of Tanjure, and also with the Sethupatly. He had to pay large sums of money again and again to the Muslims to keep them froll attacking Pandya. Attributing this humiliatiot to the refusal of help by the king of Tanjore, Sokanatha Nayakar attacked Taijore and criptured the city after a cruel light in which the king of Tanjore and his whole household perisled.
Tanjore however appealed to Bijapur for aid and the Muslims, only too glad to interfere in the affairs of the Tamil kingdoms, imilcdiately desp;tt Clied in Lr:1y under the command of a Mallarat ta general Inained Ekoji.
Ekoji captured Tanjore, and began to rule thic kingdom himself. In the south the Maravas rose up it rebellion, while in the north Mysore got bLisy again. Thus Sokallatlıa Nayakar's reig wat s II narrel by in 1:a Ily usel.css wars and meaningless bloodshed.
When Solkanatha's son, Ra Inga Krishıua Multlı Lu Weerapa becanine king in I (582, the whole country was in a state of unrest. But fortunately, the Mills list; tes of the Deccan-Bijapur and Golcondil-resulsed to recognize the suzerainty of the Emperor of Delhi and as a consequence the Muslims thelselves split into two camps. The Tanjore Maharat as also had their differences with Mysore, and while the enemics of Puidya were thus occupied, Muthu Weerappa managed to establish some order in his kingdoul. Unfortunately he did not rule long and he died suddenly in 1689.
The next heir to the throne was yet unborn at the title of his father's de:Ltlı. Therefore the Queen Mother Mangaımal, took tıp the reins of government and ruled most efficiently, She forced the troubles one ruler of Trava incore to pay tribute, and filrther attempted to curb the growing power of the Tanjore Maharattas. But one great blunder she committed, and that was to antagonise the Seth Lipathy. The Sethupathy did much als heliked and in various ways ignored the authority of Malgunimal. The Maharattas whom Malagaininal had brought to terms offered their help, and thus backed by the Tanjore army, she invaded Sethu-Iliad, The Sethupathy, better known as "Kellwin' Scthilpathy (old mail), quite undaunted, faced the colnbined army of Tanjore and Madura and inflicted a severe defeat. His army, which was entirely composed of war-like Maravas, took the Maharattas by surprise, and having killed the Queen's general, Naras appa Iyer, drove the invaders clean out of Seth I-mad. From this time oil wards, SethuTnad reinained independent of Madura.
Wijeya Sokanatha Nayakar, the son of Muthu Weerappa, began to rule from 1704. During his reign Setlu-nad became split up into several chieftanates thus losing much of its unity and strength. Wijeya Sokanatha died

{ бg )
in 173, and there being no heir, his queen Meenachi Amma took over the government. She lowever adopted a tlhe son of Pangaru Thir'ul mulai Nayakar a near kinsman and appointed him as the next heir. Some yCELTS later Pangaru Nayakar himself claimed the throne. To settle the dispute both appealed to the Nawab of the Carnatic. The Nawab who had his own plans regarding Pandya, decided in favour of Palgar Ll. But while Pangaru was ruling in Madura, tlhe Nawalo sent his general Clanda Sahib, to conquer Pandya. The very fact that the Nayakas had to refer their domestic quarrel to be settled by the Nawab showed how weak they were, Chanda Sahib captured both Madura and Trichnopoly and installed himself as rLuler.
With Meenachie A muna alid her successor Pangilt u Nay:Lliar, tle Nayakar Dynasty of Madura came to an end, and Palidya ceased to be a kingdon.
啤 本
Chanda Salib did not rule long. A few years later the Tanjore Maharıttı,5 invaded Madura aıl tool lim prisoner. In 1743 the Nizam of Hydrabad invaded Mysore and having conquered the Carnatic and the southern Tamil countries, placed them under the rule of his subordinate, the Nawab of Arcot.
In 1748 Ch;anda Sahib was released by the Maharattas, and he immediately claimed the countries ruled over by the Nawab of Arcot. Now, the British and French East India Companies, who had acquired much land in South India, began to interest themselves in local politics. The French toolk the sicle of Chand: Sahil, and the British supported the Nilwall of Arcot.
In the clash that followed the Tamil country was laid waste. The land reillained uncultivated, and famine and pestilence took heavy toll of the poor Dravidians. For want of a responsible government lawlessless was rife everywhere. The Palayakarils, particularly the Marava chieftains, acknowledged the authority of the Muslim rulers, only under military compulsion, and consequently the colli try was in a state of perpetual Lin rest. LLL ttLHCtLLL LLLLLLaa aLLL LLatHa aLLLL LLLL LLL LLtttLL LLLLL LLLLL aSLS LL highway robbery and looting.
Little by little the British got the belter of their enemies, and succeeded in lelping their ally tle Nawal of Arcot to become tle Tuler of practically the whole of the Tamil country. But the real power behind tle Nawab was no doubt the arily of the British East India CoIIpany.
The Palayakaras were however very difficult to manage and the Nawab found it impossible to collect the revenue from them. Therefore, the work of collecting the revenue was entrusted to the British East India Company in I78, and from this time up to 18oo, the British carried on a ruthless war against the Maravas, reducing them to subjection and destroying their fortresses one by one,
In 180I the British who had their headquarters at Madras brought the Southern country formally under their jurisdiction, and granted a

Page 54
( 7o )
general amnesty to the people. Within a short time, the whole of Dravida, consisting of the Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Tulu and Malayalam speaking countries of India, came either directly or indirectly under the rule of the British. For administrative purposes all Dravidian districts were constituted into a single province and this, no doubt, helped the various Dravidian groups to forget their past and develop a common Outlook on matters relating to the Dravidian country and its political future.
Printed for General Publishers, Ltd. by Ceylon Printers, Ltd 20, Parson's Road, Fort Colombo,
.

BBLOGRAPHY
This is by no means a complete list of works consulted
by me in writing this volume. I have mentioned only the more important books by authors who have laboured their whole life-time to bring to light the lost treasures of our history. I. have also omitted to mention the Tamil works, periodicals, lectures, archaeological reports, inscriptions, newspaper articles and such other sources of information which enabled me to finish the task I had set myself to accomplish,
Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago-V. Kanakasabhai, Ancient History of India-Rapson. Oxford History of India-V. A. Smith. Early History of the Dekkan-R. G. Bhandarkar. Manimekalai in its Historical Setting-Dr. S. K. Aiyangar. Beginnings of South Indian History-Dr. S. K. Aiyangar. Ancient Jafna- Mudaliyar C. Rasanayagam. A Critical History of Jaffna-Fev. Father Gnana Pirakasar, O.M.I. The Nayaks of Madura-R. Satyanatha Aiyar. The Pallavas of Kanchi-R, Gopalan. Studies in Cola History-K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. Colas-K. A., Nilakanta Sastri. The Pandyan Kingdom-K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. Tamil Studies-Srinivasa Aiyangar. Our Heritage- Dr. Mendis. Studies in Tamil History and Literature-Dikshitar. South India and her Muhammadan Invaders-S. K. Aiyangar. Ancient Dekhan-K, V. S. Aiyar.

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Acyuta Achyutaraya Adigan
Agastiya
Agastiyam
Aham
Ahapporul Ahananuru Anuradhapura Asela
Alexander Aryan Rishis Arya Chakkarawarty Asarakkovai
Asoka
Andhras
Ameravati Amerabojana Ainguru-nuru Ainthinai-aimpathu Ainthinai-elupathu Attila
Arikesari Maravarman
Arikesari Parakrama Avanti
Ay
Alvars
Appar
Asuras Arinjayan Adityan
Andal Adi-Rajendran Arcot Alagakkonar Annamalai Alakandi Aparajita
Brahmi Bakthas Bhutattalvar Bindusara Brahma Bijapur
British East India Co.
N DE X
Page
32 Bhairava 65 Bhuvaneka Bahu 37 I5 C I 5 Ceral Irunnporai 18 Cheran Senguttavan I 4 Chulamanivarman
8 I8 Chalulkiyas I 3, 44, 5 I Chola Empire 88 8 I 2 Chulamani ..... II. Chanda Sahib
y se 5 Citra
58
a 2O D .... 2 I, 24 Dasyu
... 24, 44 Dakshinapada
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64 Gurukulattarayan 68 Golconda
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2 I Hultzsch, Dr. 4 Hoyasala 4I Huns I2 Hind
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Page 28 58
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Imayavarmban Irumbada Thaliyar Illantraiyan
Indra
Jatavarman
Jaffna
Jayamkondar Jatavarman Vikrama Jalaluddin Jeevikasinthamani
K Kalinga Karunadar Kannadas Kadungon Kapatapuram Kosala Kalittogai Karnarppathu Kalavalinarppathu Karikalan Kaverippattinam Kurinjippattu Kudagul-nadu Kannakai Kanaka Kalabhra Kanchi Kongu Kuru-nadu Kuruntogai Kayawagu Koccadayan Kulasekeralvar Kundalakesi Kannara Devan Kedah Kulottunga I Kulasekhara Pandyan Kulottunga III Kopperunjinga Kalinga Maha Konamalai Khursan Khurstu Khan Kumara Kampana Kayal Korkai
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N Nakkirar I4, 15, I6 Narrinai O w - I9 Nedunalvadai . . . . I9 Nallanduvanar I9 Naladiyar I9 Nalankilli 25 Nedunjeliyan 25, 29 Nedunjadayan 37 Nrputungavarman ვ8

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