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THE TAMILS EIGHTEEN HUNDRED YEARSAGO

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KAN ISHKA KING of THE KosHANS (A. D. 78-Io6)
(from his coins).
 

THE TAMILS EIGHTEEN HUNDRED YEARSAGO
V. KANAKASABHAI
Asian Educational Services New Delhi

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PRICE: Rs 95
FIRST PUBLISHED: 1904 FIRST AES REPRINT : 1 979 PRINTED IN INDIA PUBLISHED BY J. JETEY FORASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES C-2115, SDA NEW DELHI-110016 PRINTED BY A. K. PROCESS DELH

TO
THE HONOURABLE DEWAN BAHADUR
Sir S. SUBRAMANYA YER, K.C.I.E.
Actg. Chief Justice of Madras
THIS BOOK
S
RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
AS A TOKEN OF
ESTEEM AND GRATITUDE
FOR
THE GREAT INTEREST HE HAS ALWAYS SHOWN IN
EVERY MOVEMENT INTENDED FOR THE
BENEFIT OR ENLIGHTEN MENT OF
THE NATIVES OF INDIA

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PREFACE.
A series of articles on the “Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago" was contributed by me to the Madras Review between the years 1895 and 1901. On the appearance of the very first article, Sir S. Su BRAMANYA IYER wrote to me suggesting that I should bring out all the information available in Tamil literature regarding the ancient civilization of the Tamils. I believe I have carried out the suggestion faithfully, as far as my leisure would permit. Since the completion of the series, many of my friends advised me to collect and publish the whole in the form of a book. I have therefore re-arranged the matter, dividing it into chapters, and added an Index, which I hope will facilitate reference. With a view to confine myself strictly to the subject of the book as shown in the title, I have carefully avoided touching upon the history of the Tamils before A.D. 50 or after A.D. 150.
MADRAs, R 16th January, 1904. S V. KANAKASABHAI.

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CONTENTs.
CHAPTER .
Introduction. Political divisions of the known world 1800 years ago-The Tamil-land-Ancient Tamil literature recently published-Antiquity of the literature-Sangha poets-llanko-Adikal, brother of a Chera king and author of the Tamil epic Chilappathikaram
Allusion in the poem to contemporary kings Satakarnin of Magadha and Gajabaahu of Ceylon
CIAPTER II.
Cieography of Tamilakam. The limits of Tamilakam-Neighbouring kingdoms-The thirteen nadus of Tamilakam and principal towns in themIdentification of places mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy
CHAPTER III,
Foreign Trade. Early trade routes-Strabo-Discovery of direct route by sea from Arabia to Tamilakam-Pliny's account of the tradeFuller account in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
CHAPTER IV.
Tamil Races and Tribes. The Villavar and Minawar-The Nagas-Naga tribes : Maravar, Eyinar, Oliyar, Oviyar. Aruvalar, ParathavarMongolian immigrants from Tamilitti in Bengal called TamilsTamil tribes : Marar, Thirayar, Vanavar or Celestials—Kosar identical with the Koshans who conquered Northern IndiaAryan immigrants-Princess of the Lunar race who founded Southern Madura-Brahmin settlements-Ayar or Shepherd races-The bull fight their national pastime-Jews-Correct reading of the double years in Jewish grant
.
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39

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C ON TER T S.
CHAPTER, W.
The Cholas. Chola genealogy from A.D. 50 to A.D. 150-Karikal the
Great-Ched-Chenni Nalank-Killi-Killi-Walavan-Rajasuyamwedda-peru-nar-killi
Oe OO) 800
CBAPTER WI.
The Pandyas. Pandyan genealogy from A.D. 50 to A.D. 150-Aryappadai-kadanta-nedunj-Cheliyan – Verri-ver-Cheliyan-Nedunj Cheliyan III-Ugrap-peru-valuti-Nan-maran
CHAPER VII.
The Cheras. هر Chera genealogy from A.D. 50 to A.D. 100-Athan I-Athan III alias Vana-Varmman-Chenkudduvan alias Imaya Warmman -Yanaik-kad-Chey-Perun-cheral-Irumborai e as V
CHAPTER WIII. Princes and Chiefs. Thirayan of Kanchi-Pulli and Athanungan of VenkadamMalayaman of Kovalur-Evvi of Milalai-Nannan of Chenkanma-Ay of Aykudi-Porunan of Nanjil Nad-Palayan Maran of Mohoor-Alumbil-Vel—Piddan-Korran of Kuthiraimalai-Athiyaman of Thakadoor
CHAPTER IX. Social Life.
System of government-The king-Five great assembliesEight groups of attendants-Officers of State-Customs, tolls and taxes-Tamil castes: Arivar, Ulavar, Vellalar or Karalar, Ayar, Wedduvar, Artizans, Padaiadchiyar, Walayar, Pulayar-Tamil castes similar to the castes described by Megasthenes-Mode of dress-Perfumes-Ornaments-Freedom of women-Courting--Suicide of disappointed lovers-Harlots and courtezans-Marriages-Articles of food-Entertainments-Muisic-Tamil and Aryan plays-Dances-Actresses-PaintingSculpture-Houses-Forts-Assault and battle-Military caste -War-bards, minstrels, and actors-Description of city life in Madura
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C O N T R N T S. Χί
CHAPTER X.
The Kural of Tiruvalu var. Påge Tiruvalluvar-Visit to the court of Ugrap-peru-yalutiConclave of poets and authors-Kural or Muppal, a moral code
in poetical aphorisms-Opinion of the court poets ... ... 138
CHAPTER XII
The Story of chilapp-athikaram.
The marriage of Kovilan and Kannaki-Kovilan falls in love with the beautiful actress Mathavi-Wastes all his wealthLeaves her in a fit of jealousy-Travels to Madura with bis wife Kannaki-Goes to the market to sell one of his wife's ankletsIs accused of having stolen it from the palace and is beheadedKannaki appears before the Pandya and proves her husband's innocence-Wanders into the Chera country and dies brokenhearted OUD se U ... 4
CEHAPTER XII.
The Story of Mani- mekalai.
Mathavi, the beautiful actress, becomes a Buddhist nun on hearing of the tragic death of her lover Kovilan-Her daughter Mani-mekalai is courted by Udayakumara, the Chola king's son-She escapes to the island Manippallavam-Returns to Kavirip-paddinam-Assumes the disguise of a Buddhist mendicant-Prince Udayakumara seeks her at night and is killed in the Buddhist monastery-Mani-mekalai is thrown into prisonby the Chola king-She is released-Visits Nagapuram in Chavai kam and Vanchi the Chera capital-Learns the six systems of Hindu philosophy-Goes to Kanchi, feeds the poor, and becomes
a Buddhist nun ... o o ... 162
CHAPTER XIII.
Tamil Poems and Poets.
The Kalih-thokai, a love poem-Kalath-thalai-Uriththi. ran-kannanar- Mudath-thamak-kanniyar-Kapilar-NakkirarMamulanar-Kalladanar-Mankudi-maruthanar — Tiruvalluvar -Kovur-kilar-Iraiyanar-Paranar - Perun-kausikanar-Auvvaiyar-Ilanko-adikal-Arisil-kilar-Ponmudiyar-Perunkunrurkilar-Total extent of Tamil literature 1800 years old-Allu. sions to Aryan literature ... 190

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χίi CONTE. N. S.
CHAPTER XIV,
Six Systems of Philosophy. Page Vedanta-Ajivaka- Nigrantha -- Sankhya — Vaiseshika — Bhutavati-Bauddha o s . . . 8 ... 22
CHAPTER. xv.
Religion. Evolution of religion according to civilization-Worship of the aborigines: Kali, Muruga, Krishna, Siwa, BalaramaEffect of Nigrantha and Bauddha faiths-High ideals of morality and charity-Belief in transmigration of souls-Speculation as to a future state-Utter neglect of affairs of this world by wise men the cause of national decay ... is a a ... 227
CHAPTER XVI.
Conclusion.
The Tamils under their own kings-Changes during the last sixty generations-Extension of sea-coast-Ancient cities in ruins-Decline and fall of royal dynasties-Malayalam and Canarese become separate dialects-Foreign invasions-Peace and security under British rule-Tamils now at the parting of ways-Urgent need of immediate reform on the lines of Western civilization ... ... ... ... 235

THE TAMILS: EIGHTEEN HUNDRED YEARS AGO,
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
EIGHTEEN hundred years ago, the most powerful and civilised empire in the known world was that of. Rome. Under Trajan, the last of the great Roman conquerors, it had risen to the zenith of its power, and embraced a great portion of Europe, and all those parts of Asia and Africa which lay around the Mediterranean Sea. In the east, the vast Empire of China had attained its greatest expansion under the kings of the illustrious Han dynasty and extended from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea, and from the Atlas mountains to the Himalayan range. Between these two Empires lay two kingdoms-Parthia and Gandhara. Pacorus, king of Parthia ruled over Parthia Proper, Media, Persia, Susiana and Babylonia. Kanishka, the leader of the Sakas, who had emigrated from the central table-land of Asia, and overthrown the Bactrian empire, was king of Gandhara, and his dominion stretched from Bactria to the Central Himalayas, and from the River Oxus to the River Jumna. East of Gandhara, and south of the Himalayan range was the ancient empire of Magadha then ruled by the Maha-karnas, who belonged to the great tribe of the Andhras. The small state of Malava, founded by a tribe akin to the Andhras, on the northern side of the Wyndhia hills, had thrown off the yoke of the Magadhas: and Parthian adventurers held sway in the regions near the mouths of the Indus and in Guzerat. In the Deccan, the basins of the Mahanadi, Godaveri and Kistna still formed part of the Magadha

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empire, the southern boundary of which approached Tamilakam, or the land of the Tamils, in the southern-most portion of the peninsula. Buddhism was paramount, and non-Aryan races were in power, almost everywhere throughout India. To the Aryan races it was a period of humiliation, and to Brahminism one of painful struggle for existence. When, in later years, Brahminism was again favored by royalty, it appears to have exerted all its energy, to erase every trace of the rival faith and foreign dominion. Accordingly we find that the Sanscrit literature of the first century of the Christian era is now a perfect blank. Curiously enough, a considerable portion of the Tamil literature of that very period has come down to us, almost intact, and reveals to us the condition of not only the Tamils, but also of other races who inhabited the rest of India in that remote age.
The vast field of ancient Tamil literature is like an unknown land into which no traveller hath yet set foot. Many of the ancient classical works in Tamil have but recently seen the light. Hitherto they were preserved in manuscript on palmyra leaves, and jealously hidden by those Pandits into whose hands they had fallen. The archaic language in which they were composed, and the alien religions they favoured, alike prevented their becoming popular with Tamil students. In fact some of them were forbidden in Tamil schools, and Saiva or Vaishnava pandits deemed it an unpardonable sin to teach them to their pupils. Most of these manuscripts lay neglected in the libraries of Saiva or Jain monasteries: and there they would have crumbled to dust but for the enterprise of a few scholars who have with considerable labour and research, rescued most of them from oblivion and published them in print. Several valuable works however still remain in manuscript, accessible only to a few individuals.
It is the general opinion of Western scholars that there was
Foremost among these scholars I should mention Rai Bahadur C. W. Thamotharam Pillai, B.A., B.L., who has published the whole of Tholkapiyam with the commentaries of Chenavaraiyar and Nachchinarkiniyar and the Kalithokai by Nallathanar: and Mr. Saminathier, Tamil Pandit, Kumbakonum College, who has published the Paththuppadu, Chilappathikaram, and Purananuru. I should not omit to mention also Mr. Shunmugam Pillai, Madras, who has very pluckily brought
forward an Edition of the Manimekalai, although there is no commentary accompanying the text,

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no Tamil literature before the ninth century A. D.' But the fact appears to be that all that was original and excellent in the literature of the Tamils was written before the ninth century, and what followed was, for the most part, but a base imitation or translation of Sanscrit works. From a careful study of ancient Tamil poems, I am led to think that some of the earliest works were undoubtedly composed more than two thousand years ago, and that the Tamil people acquired wealth and civilisation at this early period by their commercial intercourse with foreign nations such as the Arabs, Greeks, Romans and Javanese. With the advance of their material prosperity, there was a sudden stimulus to their literary activity. The Augustan period of Tamil literature was, I should say, in the first century of the Christian era; and the last College of poets was then held in Madura in the Court of the Tamil king Ugra (the Terrible) Pandya. The works of not less than fifty authors of this period have come down to us. These poets were of various castes, various religious persuasions and belonged to different parts of the Tamil country. Some were Nigranthas, some Buddhists, and some of the Brahminic faiths. There were kings, priests, merchants, doctors, farmers, and artizans among their number. Amidst the gloom and uncertainty in which the ancient history of the country is shrouded, the works of so many authors of one age throw a flood of welcome light.
The information afforded by these poems, regarding the religion and social customs of the Tamil people, would alone guide us to fix the probable date of this literature in the earliest centuries of the Christian Era. For, we find from them that there were Buddhists in the Tamil country, but they had set up no images of Buddha and had no priests; there were Nigranthas who called the Buddhists, heretics, but who had not commenced the worship of their Saints or Tirthankaras; there were temples dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Subramanya, but there were also other shrines in which the worship of Indra and Baladéva was continued; there were Brahmins who wore the sacred thread and called themselves the “twice-born" but neitherkings nor merchants sought this
1 Dr. Burmell in his South Indiam Paleography and Dr. Çaldwell in his Intro
sduction to the Comparative Grammar of Dravidian Languages, have ஐ8ed this f opinion. 2 مصر? *

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distinction; there were Tamils living in walled towns and cities, but in some parts of the country they still led the life of nomads and had no settled habitation.
An additional proof of the antiquity of the poems above mentioned may be adduced from the fact that the chief towns and seaports and the foreign merchandise of the Tamil country, as described in these poems correspond exactly with those given in the works of Pliny, Ptolemy and in the Periplus Maris Erythraei. Pliny died in 79 A. D.; and had completed his Natural History two years previously. The unknown author of the Periplus was a native of Egypt, and wrote his book after the time of Augustus Caesar, and before the kingdom of the Nabathoeans was overthrown by the Romans. A more definite indication of his date is furnished by his mentioning Zoskales as the king reigning in his time over the Auxumitae. This Zoskales is identified with Za-Hakale who must have been king of Abyssinia from 77 to 89 A. D. We may conclude therefore that the Periplus was written a little after the death of Pliny, between the years 80-89A. D. Klaudios Ptolemaios, or as he is commonly called Ptolemy, flourished in Alexandria about the middle of the second century A.D., in the reign of Antoninus Pius, and died in A. D. 163.* These authors furnish much interesting information regarding the Tamil people and their foreign commerce. Ptolemy especially gives a long list of the names of the maritime and inland towns. Most of the sea-ports mentioned by him can be readily identified from allusions to them. in Tamil poems; but it is not equally easy to trace the position of many of the towns removed from the coast, because Ptolemy had utterly misconceived the form of the Indian peninsula. In his map of India he represents the sea-coast, from near the modern city of Bombay to a point beyond Masulipatam, as a zigzag line running from west to east, and thus effaced the whole of the peninsula. Into this distorted map he tried to fit in the mountains, rivers and cities described to him, both by those who travelled frequently from Egypt to India and by those who visited Egypt from India. The names of the tribes and their chief cities as given by him are, however, wonderfully accurate, and give us some idea of
McCrindle's translatiom of the Periplus Maris Erythræi, page 5. McCrindle's translation of Ptolemy's Geography of India and Southern Asia, page 1. Dr. Bhandarkar's Early History of the Dekkan. page 20.

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the earnestness and diligence with which he must have collected his information. W
That Ugra Pandya and the last College or Sangha of poets, belonged to a very early period may be inferred from numerous allusions in later Tamil works, of which I shall mention only one here. In the commentary to Iraiyanar Akapporul, the author Nilakandan of Muchiri gives a brief account of the history of Tamil literature and alludes therein to the last Sangha of poets at Madura, presided over by Ugra, Pandya. Every one of the stanzas with which the author illustrates his commentary contains the praises of the Pandyan king Nedumáran alia. Arikésari, victor of the battle of Nelvéli, and the king is described therein as alive at the time and ruling the Pandya, Chera and Chola kingdoms, having defeated and driven off the invaders who had come from the north. From the Udayéndram grant of Nandivarman Pallavamalla.' I find that the famous battle of Nelvéli was fought between the Pandyan king and Udayachandra of Kollapuram (Kolhapar) who was the general of the Pallava king, Pallava malla Nandivarman. This Pallava king was contemporary ...ith the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya II. who reigned from A. D. 733 to 747 according to inscriptions in the Chalukya country. Nilakandan the commentator, who praises Neduncheliyan the victor of Nelveli, should have flourished therefore in the earlier half of the eighth century. It appears from his commentary that the works of the Sangha poets were current during his time in the form of collections or anthologies, such as Akam, Narrinai, Kurunthokai and Pathirruppathu. He quotes also from the Chilappathikaram. The Akam is a collection oi 401 different pieces composed on various occasions by more than 200 poets. The Kurunthokai is a similar collection from the works of 205 authors. The Narrinai contains 401 verses composed by not less than 200 poets. The Pathirruppathu consists of ten poems
See Thamotharam Pillai's edition of Iraiyanar Akapporul. The commentator (Nilakandan) stages that his interpretation of the rules of the Akapporul is that handed-down through several generations from Nakkirar, one of the poets of the last Sangha of Madura. He gives a list of the names of teachers through whom the commentary was transmitted, but it does not appear to be a complete list.
2 Salem District Manual, Vol. II., p. 356, r
See Indian Antiquary, Vol. VIII., p. 28 and Dr. Hultzsch's South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II., p. 145.

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by ten different persons. I counted the names of more than 514 different poets in these collections taken together. The number of these authors is so large that we may safely assume that the eldest of them might have lived six or seven centuries before the age of Nilakandan. This would allow an average of about 100 authors per century, which is by no means a small number. The Akam contains many verses which allude to Karikal Chóla and the Ghera kings Athan and Chenkudduvan. Ten stanzas of the Pathirruppathu composed by Paranar, one of the poets of the last Sangha, are in praise of Chenkudduva Chera. It is beyond doubt therefore that Chenkudduva Chera lived long before the close of the eighth century.
More definite information regarding the date of the last Sangha. in furnished by the allusions to historic personages which occur in the poems composed during the reigns of the Chola king Karikal, his son-in-law the Chera king Athan and the lattér's son Chenkudduva Chera alias Imaya Varman. The last mentioned Chera King had a younger brother Ilanko-Adikal, who became a monk of the Nigrantha Sect. He was the author of a long poem the Chilappathikāram' in which he relates that at a certain festival held by his brother Imaya Varman at the Chera capital, Gajabahu, the king of Lanka attended with an unnamed King of Málava. This allusion to a king of Ceylon enables us to fix the date of Inaya Varman. In the long lists of the kings of Ceylon preserved in Singhalese chronicles, the name Gajabahu occurs only twice. Gajabahu I. lived in the early part of the second century A.D. and Gajabahu II. in the twelfth century. If the latter was the king referred to in the Chilappathikaram, Karikal Chôla, the grandfather of Gajabahu's contemporary, Imaya Varman should have lived in the eleventh or twelfth century A. D. But in many
Akam-Stanzas 55, 124,896. This work is not published in print as yet Pathirruppattu, Stanzas 51 to 60, This poem also has not appeared in print. * Chillappathilikaram XXI-11 to 15 and XXIX---- to 3. . 4 This poem with the commentary of Nallarkkiniyar was published by Mr. Sa. inathier in the year 1892. The author's name is not given, but he is generally known by the title Ilanko-Adikal which signifies "a Royal monk." In line 1 of the feathikam or Preface to the poem, it is stated that he lived as a monk in the KunaWayil-Koddam (the East Gate Temple).
Chilappathikaram, page 81 and XXX-160. o Mahawanso, "Dipawanso, Rajavali and Rajaratnakaro

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Tamil poems' and inscriptions on copper-plates' recording the grants of Chola kings who lived in the tenth and eleventh centuries, Karikal Chola I. is described as one of the earliest and most remote ancestors of the Chola kings then reigning. it is evident therefore that the Gajabahu referred to in Chilappathikaram could not be Gajabâhu II., but must have been Gajabahu I. who was king of Ceylon from about A. D. 113 to A. D. 125.
The Chilappathikaram also mentions the fact that Chenkudduva Chera paid a friendly visit to the King of Magadha on the banks of the Ganges. It gives the name of the Magadha King as Nurruvar Kannar or the “Hundured Karnas” and this expression was long a puzzle to me, until it struck me that it was a translation of the Sanskrit title “Satakarnin.' Several kings of the Karna or Andhra dynasty bore the epithet Satakarnin, and coins and inscriptions of these kings have been found, in which the Pali form of the word “Satakani" occurs. Sanskrit scholars have however misread the name as Satakarnin, instead of Satakarnin. The Tamil rendering of the name into “Hundred Karnas' in a contemporary poem leaves no doubt of the fact that the name is correctly Satakarnin, made up of the words Sata (hundred) and Karna (ears), the epithet evidently meaning a king who employed one hundred spies, or had one hundred sources of information. The Vayu, Vishnu, Matsya and Bhagavata Puranas state that the Mauryas ruled the Magadha Empire for 137 years, and after them the Sungas 112 years, and after them the Kanvayanas 45 years : and that after them there were 30 kings of the Andhra dynasty who reigned 456 years: but none of the Puranas gives a complete list of the names of the Andhra kings. The Matsya, which appears to be the oldest of the Puranas furnishes the fullest list, which contains the names of only 29 kings and the number of years during which each of the kings
1 Kalingattu-parani, Vikrama-Chölan-Ula Kulottunga-Chölan-Ula and Raja Raja Chölan-Ula.
The copperplates relating to the Chudamani Vihara at Negapatam, now preserved in the town of Leyden in Holland. See Archaeological Reports of Southern India, by Dr. Burges, Vol. IV., p. 204. The plates recording the grant of Udaiyendra Mangalam, during the reign of vira Narayana Chóla. See Salem IDistrict Manual, p. 369.
There were other Karikal Cholas after him.

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reigned. In the early history of the emperors of Magadha, the only date which may be safely relied upon is that of Chandragupta, the contemporary of Seleucus Nicator, who began his reign in B. c. 310, and concluded a treaty with him in B.C. 305 The year of accession of Chandragupta may be fixed at B.C. 312, two years earlier than that of Seleucus Nicator, and calculating from that year the reign of the first Satakarnin ought to have extended from A. D. 77 to A.D. 133 according to the Matsya Purana as shown below:
Ten Mauryas for 137 years, B.c. 312—175. Ten Sungas for 112 years, B.c. 175-63. Four Kanvayanas for 45 years, B.C. 63 to 18.
Thirty Andhras of whom the first six are: .
Sisuka for 23 years, B. c. 18-A.D. 5. Krishna for 18 years, A.D. 5-28. Simalakarnin for 18 years, A.D. 23-41. Purnotsunga for 18 years, A.D. 41-59. Sirivaswami for 18 years, A.I. 59-77. Satakarnin for 56 years, A.D. 77-133.
The reign of this Satakarnin covers the entire period of the reign of Gajabahu, King of Ceylon, which lasted 12 years from A.D. 113 to 125 according to the Mahawanso. Satakarnin, Emperor of Magadha, who is alluded to in the Chilappathikaram as the contemporary of Chenkudduvachera and Gajabahu, is therefore doubtless the first Satakarnin in the list of the Matsya Purana, who reigned from A.D. 77 to 133. The synchronism of the Puranas and the Mahawanso is perfect, at least from the reign of Chandragupta up to that oil the first Satakarnin; and this coincidence is a strong proof of the general accuracy of the traditional history preserved in Puranic accounts and in the Mahawanso.
The Mahawanso was composed in the fifth century A. D. and the Dipavanso still earlier; and both these historical works mention Gajabâhu I. It appears that during the reign of his father "crooked nosed" Tissa, a Chóla king had invaded Ceylon, and carried away several thousands of captives; and that in retaliation Gajabahu invaded the Chóla dominions soon after his accession to the throne in A. D. 113. The tradition is that the captives were carried away to work on the banks of the River Kaviri, which were

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then under construction.1 This is quite in accordance with later Tamil poems and inscriptions' which speak of Karikal Chóla as the king who commenced the construction of the high banks along both sides of the bed of the Kaviri. The construction of the Kaviri banks which extended along its course to a distance of about 100 miles from its mouth, was an undertaking of such magnitude that it could not have been completed during the reign of Karikal. The Chóla King, who invaded Ceylon in order to procure captives to work at the banks, might have been therefore Karikal or his immediate successor. This tradition is further evidence of the fact that Chenkudduva Chera was contemporary with Gajabahu I. who lived in the early part of the second century A. D. Chenkudduvan's grandfather Karikal Chóla should have therefore reigned in the latter half of the first century A.D., or in other words, about eighteen hundred years ago. It will appear further on, from my account of Tamil literature, that the poets of the last Sangha at Maduramany of whom allude to the Chéra kings Athan and Chenkudduvan-should be assigned to the same period.
I shall in the following pages first describe the ancient geography, of the land of the Tamils, then their foreign commerce, the different races that spoke Tamil, their political history, and conclude with a brief account of their social life, mode of warfare, literature, philosophy and religion.
1 Mr. Hugh Nevill of the Ceylon Civil Service and Editor of the “Taprobanian' informed me that many ballads and stories still current in Ceylon refer to this tradition. Upham's translation of the RAjavali, chapter 35, p. 228. Rajaratnácari, p. 57. Turnour's Epitome of the History of Ceylon, p. 21.
The Kalingattu Parani and the Leyden Grant.

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CHAPTER II.
GEOGRAPHY OF TAMILA KAM.
The whole of the country lying south of the central plateau of Asia was known as Jambudvipa or “The Land of the Rose Apple trees" which are said to abound in it. In Jambudvipa, the region south of the Wyndhyas was called Dakshinapatha or The Southern side; and the extreme south of the peninsula, which was occupied by the Tamil people, was Tamilakam, or the abode of the Tamils.' The limits of Tamilakam were from Venkata, Hill in the North, to Cape Comorin in the South, and from the Bay of Bengal in the East, to the Arabian Sea in the West. Malayalam had not formed into a separate dialect at this period, and only one language, Tamil, was spoken from the Eastern to the Western Sea.
The people who lived north of Venkatam were called Vadukar. Inmediately north of Tamilakam, above the Ghats, was Erumainado or the “Buffalo land” the equivalent of which naime in Sanscrit was Mahîsha Mandalam. West of Erumainad were Tulu Nad, Kudakam (Coorg) and Konkanam. Other races in India were the Kalingdir, Pangalar, Kankar, Kattiyar and Northern Aryas.o The following Kingdoms and towns, outside Tamilakam are alluded to by Tamil poets :-The Kingdom of Magadha and the town of Kapilai which was the birthplace of Buddha": the Kingdom of
McCrindle’s Periplus, page 124.
Dr. Bhandarkar's Early History of the Dekkam, page i.
2 Chilappathikaram iii. 37. Manimekalai xvii. 62. Ptolemy and the author of the Periplus call it. Iimirike, but as pointed out by Dr. Caldwell (Dravidian Grammar, Introduction, page 14), it is evidently Damirike. In the Indian segment of the Roman maps called from their discoverer, the Pentinger Tables, the portion of India to which this name is applied is called Damirike-McCrindle's Periplus, page 126.
* Chilappathikaram viii. 1 and 2. Veňkata Hill is the modern Tirupathi about 100 miles North-west of Madras."
4 Akam, 294.
bid. 252.
o Chilappathikaram xxv. 156 to 158. The Pangalar appear to have been the people who inhabited Lower Bengal. The Kankar were those who occupied the banks of the Ganges higher up, evidently the Gangaridae mentioned by Ptolemy.
The Kattiyar were doubtless the people who gave the name Kattiwar to Guzerat.
* '{: : mirnek alai xxvi. 12 to 44, w

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Málava and its capital Avanti: the Kingdom of Vajra: the seaport Gangai on the banks of the Ganges, which was in the territory of the Kannar :o Vâranavâsi, the modern Benares : Thuvarai or Dwaraka in Guzerat, the capital of the deified hero Krishna. Ceylon was known as Lanka-dvipa or Ratna-divipa: the highest mountain in the island was Samanoli (now called Adam's Peak); and on its summit was an impression of Buddha's foot, which was an object of pilgrimage to Buddhists far and near. Between Ceylon and India was the island Manipallavam, on which there was one of the sacred seats of Buddha, then held in great veneration by all Buddhists. It is said to have been at a distance of thirty yojanas south of Puhár, the ancient sea-port at the mouth of the Kaviri. A ship sailing from the coast of Madura, to Châvakam (Java) touched at Manipallavam.“ To the east of Ceylon were the islands inhabited by a race of Nagas called Nakkasáranar or "naked nomads,' who were cannibals." Beyond these islands was Cinávakam a large kingdom the capital of which was Nagapuram. The king of this country claimed to be a descendant of the God Indra, and what is most remarkable, the language spoken in Chavakam appears to have been Tamil ! This Chavakam was most probably Sumatra or: Java.
1 Chilappathikaram ii. 99 to 103.
2 Ibid. xxiii. 138-141.
Ibid. xvii.
4 Manimekalari xxviii... l03.
Manimekalai vi. 211 to 214.
6 Ibid. xiv. 74 to 81. The Dipawanso and Mahawanso give a glowing but fabulous account of Buddha's first visit to this seat: but the Tamil Buddhist poem Manimekalai, which was composed three centuries earlier, gives a very simple version of the story which is as follows:-" Two Naga kings contended for this seat, but neither was able to lift it off the ground; determined however not to give it up, with nyes all aflame and breathing fury, they led their great armies and fought a bloody battle. The great Teacher (Buddha) then appeared before then and said, “Cease your strife, this seat is mine': then he sat upon it and preached the Law. Maninekalai, viii. 54 to 63.
Manimekalai xvi. 15. Ptolemy mentions three groups of islands inhabited by caunibals. Yule has identified them with the Nicobars, Nekkavaram of Marco Polo, Lakavaram of Rashid-ud-dim, McCrindle’s Ptolemy, 236 to 239.
Manimekalai xxiv. 164 to 170. Ptolemy calls the island Iabadois or Sabadois (the island of barley) and its capital Argyre (Silver town) McCrindle's Ptolemy, page 249.

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Tamilakahn was divided into thirteen Nadus or provinces, the names of which were:-Pándi, Thenpändi, Kuddam, Kudam, Karkâ, Vên, Pooli, Panri, Aruva, Aruva-vadatalai, Cheethamí, Maládu and Puna-nadu. Of these, Pandinadu, which corresponded nearly to the whole of the modern district of Madura, was considered the most important, being that tract where pure Tamil was then spoken. The chief town in this Nadu was Mathurai, the capital of the Pandyan kingdom. It appears to have been so called after the sacred city of Muttra on the banks of the Jumna, which was most probably the capital of the northern kingdom of the descendants of the Pândus, the heroes of the Mahābārata. This is evident from the appellation ThakkanaMathurai or Southern Madura" given to it by Tamil poets of this age. The Pandyan king called himself Panchavan' (the descendant of the five,) and Kaurian” (of the line of the Kurus), names which clearly indicate his origin from the Pandus, who were five brothers. The city of Madura retains to this day its ancient name, and thus bears living testimony to the fact that the descendants of the Pandus, who ruled in Muttra, had in early times established their power in the most Southern parts of the peninsula. It was a fortified city. There were four gates to the fort, surmounted by high towers, and outside the massive walls which were built of rough-hewn stone was a deep moat, and Surrounding the moat was a thick jungle of thorny trees. The roads leading to the gates were wide enough to permit several elephants to pass abreast, and on the walls on both sides of the entrance, there were all kinds of weapons and missiles concealed, ready to be discharged on an enemy. Yavana soldiers with drawn swords guarded thé gates." Over the gates and walls waved many a standard which had been taken in battle. The principal Streets in the city were the royal street, the market street, the
Nachchinarkiniyar gives a slightly different list of the Nadus. Instead of Vera and Puna-nadu he mentions Olinadu and Ponkar-nadu. Tholkapiyam Chola. thikaram, Sutram 400.
* Manimekalai, xiii. 13.
o Puranâ nuru, Stanza 58, line 8.
4 Ghilappathikaram, xv. 2.
McCrindle's Ptolemy, page 60.
ʻ Chilappathikaram, xiv. 62-67.

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courtezan's street and the streets where dwelt the goldsmiths, corn dealers, cloth merchants, jewellers, &c." The temple of Siva known as Welliambalam or "the silver shrine' appears to have been the grandest building in the clity. There were other temples dedicated to Vishnu, Baladéva, Subramanya and Chintadévi, and there were separate monasteries for the Buddhist, Brahminic and Nigrantha ascetics."
Madura, was doubtless the most famous and important town in Tamilakam at this period, being the capital city of the Pandyas, who were renowned as the most powerful of the Tamil kings, and munificent patrons of poets. What distinguished it however from other towns in the Tamil country were the high towers over the four gates of the fort. Hence it was familiarly known as Nan-mádak-küdal or the 'Cluster of four towers. The name was sometimes shortened into Madak-kodal, or Kthdal. The site of this ancient Madura, or Kudal was most probably Palla Madura (or old Madura,) now in ruins, which is situated at a distance of about six miles to the south-east of the moderr town of Madura. The ruins are now on the northern bank of the Vaigai, whereas ancient Madura stood on its southern bank; but it is quite possible that the river had changed its course since the destruction of the old city. That Madura was in danger of being destroyed by the Vaigai may be inferred from a poet's description of Pandya in the following words: “ Lord of the fortified city, whose walls knew of no siege by any other enemy, but the waters of the Vaigai when it is swollen with floods.' Outside the fort of Madura resided those men who led a life of religious devotion and poor classes of people such as the Panar and other lower castes."
West of Madura was the hill Parankunru sacred to Subra
Ibid. xiv. 143 to 218. Ibid. Pathikam 40-41.
bid. xiv. 7 to 1. 4 Mathuraikanchi, lines 467-487. o Nakkirar's Tiru-murukárrup-padai, line 71. Kalith-thokai, stanza 35, line 17. Stanza, 92, lines 11 and 65. The tradition that the name Nan-madak-kudal owed its origin to the four temples Tiru-áiaváy, Tirunalaru, Tiru-mpdankai and Tirumaduvur appears to be an invention of the Puranic age.
e Kalith thokai, stanza 67, lines 3 to 5. 7 Mathuraik-kanchi, 340-342.

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manya' according to the poet Nakkirar. This hill is south-west of modern Madura, but directly west of the ruins now known as old Madura; east of the capital was another hill, where there was a temple dedicated to Vishnu. On the latter hill were three sacred springs, to bathe in which was believed to be an act of great merit by the votaries of Vishnu. On the way from Madura to Uraiyur (now a suburb of Trichinopoly) were the Sirumalai hills which were covered with groves of mango and jack trees, arecanut and cocoanut palms, and where onion, saffron, raggy, millet, hill rice, edible roots, plantain and sugarcane were cultivated extensively."
Of the boundaries of Pandinadu, or of the exact extent and position of the other twelve Nadus comprised in Tamilakam, there is no record in ancient Tamil poems. The accounts given by commentators are also conflicting. In the absence of any connected account of the ancient geography of the country by Tamil authors, I have had to make my own researches with the help of the information available in the Periplus and in the works of Pliny and Ptolemy. '
There were four Naidu or provinces bordering on the Arabian Sea, in the following order, from North to South: Pooli,
Thiru-murukattup-padai, 7l-77.
? Chillappathikaram, xi. 91-103.
* Ibid., xi. 80.85.
4 Gunasagara in his commentary to the Yappariankalam of Amrithasagara, eighth sutram of the third part Olipiyal, gives the limits of Chen-Tamil-nadu or the province where pure Tanil was spoken "as north of the Waigai river, south of the Marutha river, east of Karuvur and west of Maruvur." This would include approx. imately, the northern half of the modern district of Madura and the Tanjore and Trichinopoly duistricts. It would exclude Madura, the capital of the Paudyr. The commentator Chenavaraiyar and after him, Nachchinár-kkiniyar accepted this definition of Chen-Tamil-nadu, and they mention the names of the surrounding Nadus in the following order from the South-east to the North-east of Chen Tamil Nadu:–Ponkar, Oli, Then-pandi, Kuddam, Kudam, Panri, Karka, Cheetham, Pooli, Malayamanadu, Aruva and Aruva vada thalai. Gunasāgara gave the same list with this difference that instead of Ponkar and Oli, hA had Ven and Punal Sadus. Sankara-namach-chivayar rejected with very good reason, this definition of Cheta Tamil Nadu, in his commentary to Pavanani's Nannul, Chollathikaram, Peyariyal, sutrams l4 and 16. He was of opinion that Chen Tamil Nadu ought to have included Pandi Nadu and excluded the Choa country or Punal Nadu.

WESTERN COAST
s OF dol *% TANM AKANM .
ബത്ത
g

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Kudam, Kuddam and Ven. The names were appropriate to the natural peculiarity of each province. Pooli, or “ the sandy tract extended most probably from the banks of the modern Agalappula to the mouth of the Ponani river. The soil of this part of the country is remarkably sandy. Kudam, or “the western land' denoted apparently the region between the mouth of the Ponani river and the southernmost mouth of the Periyar near Ernakulam. This would have been the most western land to the first immigrants who came into Malabar by the Palghat pass. Kuddam, or “the land of lakes' comprised the territory around the modern towns of Kottayam and Quilon which is to this day known by the same name to the natives of the country. The river Pali or Palai which flows through this province formed at its mouth several islands and lakes, and hence this tract was called Kuddam or the “land of lakes.' South of Kuddam lay Ven which stretched up to very near Cape Comorin. The low hills and valleys in this region were covered with luxuriant forests of bamboo, and therefore it was aptly named Ven-nad or the "bamboo land." East of Kudam was Karka, or the “rocky region.'
The five Nadus abovementioned formed the Chéra Kingdom the capital of which was Vanchi or Karur. It was situated on the banks of the Periyar, far fron its inouth and near the foot of the Western Ghats. The site of the town is now a deserted village, known as Tiru-Karur, three miles from Khothaimangalam, and 28 miles east by north of Cochin, where the remains of an old temple and other massive buildings are still visible. The town was strongly fortified, and on the battlements were mounted various engines to throw missiles on those who
*vriers&:-