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tournal of the A.
acological Sur
다.
Papers submitted
roads the second cent.
clished by the com
Depargement of Archae
 

ΟEYLON :
ey Department of Sri |Lankall
terrational seminarArchaeology in Sri Lanka
1950 Colomo
issioners of Archaeology
35°ilbo7, siciLanka

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CON
1. Preface
2Aspects of the Iconic representation of Buddha-M. C.JOS
3. Archaeological Evidence of Buddhist Links between Sri L
4. Archeologie Arakanaise-C, RAYMOND
S. Conservation at cross Roads in South Asia-M. S. NAGA
6. Crucible Steel in Sri Lanka and India: New Evidence-G,
7. The Identification of Mineral Preserved Organic Material
-ANNIE HOWELL
8. Pre-Harappan and Harappan Settlements in North Gujar
9. Dambegoda Project 1987-1990-MARTIN WIESE
10. Determination of firing Techniques of Ancien
WICKRAMASINGHE
11.Archaeological Researchs in Vijayanagara(Hampi)-M. S.
12.The Emergence of Marine Archaeology in South As
GANGADHARAM
13. Two School of Buddha Image in SriLAnka-C. WICKRA
24. An Experiment in the Mathematic Reconstruction o
Anuradhapura 1969-M. ABEYRATNA
15. Auspicious Symbols in Dvaravati Culture of Thailand-N
16. The Origin of the Cave-Dwellings of the Sangha in Sril
17. The Discovery of Two New Brahmi Letters in an Inscrip
18. The Prehistoric Chronology of Sri Lanka-S. U. DERAN
19. The Proto-and early Historic Radiocarbon Chronology c
20. Some Conclusion on the Significance of Sannathi, asaresu

TENTS
Page
i
H 1.
anka and Arakan-C. RAYMOND 9
17
AJARAo 27
Juleff 33
and Their Occurance in the Indian SubContinant
61
at-K. T. M. HEDGE 75
81.
t Pottery by Mossbauer Spectroscopy-NANĐẤằ
93
NAGARAJA RAO 107
ia and Prospects for Regional Cooperration-E. V.
139 MAGAMAGE 153
f the pottery A Case Study: Citadel Excavations of
167
CHUTIWONGS 181
anka from Early Brahmi Inscriptions-M. DLAS 195
tion from Jetavanaramaya-M. DIAS 207
YAGALA 211
of Sri Lanka-S. U. DERANTYAGALA. s 251
ltof Excavation at the Second Stupa-JAMESHOWELL 293

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The International Seminar Archaeology in Sri Lanka" is organised b to commemorate the event of the establ of Sri Lanka in 1890. The papers of the by the invited delegates to the seminar international community of South Asia are as follows: a. Letters, Literature ar Archaeology c. Science, Research an Archaeology. In this connection it may the delay in the submission of papers, t published unedited versions of pape opportunity to participate actively in th has been decided to publish an edite diacritical marks which have been on included in the final print. Any incoveni in this regard is very much regretted. F opportunity to thank all the delegate accepting our invitation. We also exte department and our friends and wellwis publication in a successful manner.

REFACE
titled "Towards the Second Century of by the Department of Archaeology in order ishment of the Department of Archaeology present publications are the contributions from the seven SAARC countries and the in Archaeology. The themes of the seminar ld Archaeology b. Man, Environment and d Archaeology d. Culture, Tourism and be mentioned that due to lack of time and he organising committee was compelled to is in order to complete the publication le forthcoming deliberations. However, it d version of the proceedings later. The hmitted due to technical reasons will be ence caused to the authors and the readers inally, the organising committee takes this is who made their contributions in time ind our thanks to all the members in the hers who helped in various ways to get this
Organising Committee.

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Page 7
ASPECTS OF THE CONC
M.C
According to some references p Buddha told Ananda not to bother to V passing away but attempt to achieve the records that the Blessed are known tha knowledgeable Kshatriyas, Brahmanas worsilip to his corporal remains after the came true as all the eight stupas built c became principal object of worship. Int in the Divyavadana* exposed most of the remains (dhatus) of Buddha redepositir which are stated to be 84000 in numb propagate Buddhism in a much wider a attempted to formalize the form of the st and perhaps vedica or railing. A que worshipping the stupas with sacred dha Buddha himself did not favour the idea popular belief based on age old conce Buddha's mortal remains represented h the stupa where it was deposited. Th: Buddhism as preserved in later texts l compiled not later than the third centur
According to the text in connecti Bodhisattva, following the appearance o in this stupa exists the actual body c manuscript also Supports a similar idea Stupa.
9 ༠༽
ਨੂੰ ।

REPRESENTATION OF BUDDHA
By
Joshi
reserved in the Mahaparinippan Sutta, "orship his mortal relics (sarira)" after his essence of Dhamma. The Sutta, however, it his intensly devoted followers amongst
and Grihapatis would (certainly) offer Parinibbanawhat was predicted by Buddha In his mortal remains by different groups he third century B.C. Asoka as mentioned se old stupas to obtain the original mortal g them in numerous newly raised stupas, )er, in different parts of his kingdom to rea. Evidence also shows that Asoka also upa by decorating itwith chhatra, harmika stion emerges as to why the system of tus became popular despite the fact that ? What appears to be likely that following pts of magical tradition that every bit of is physical and external presence through s is also confirmed by the traditions of ike Saddharmapundarika, a Sanskrit text y A.D,
on with an enquiry by Mahapratibhavana a stupa the Lord (Bhagavan) tells him that f one substance of a Tathagata.3 Gilgit referring to the presence of Buddha in a
V འཁོད། फै, 2Pान 烈エz ཤིན་ཏ“ཀླ་ཀ་ཉི་
P 0 to O O p e o

Page 8
Asoka’s attempt to provide chhatra idea that stupas with relics were possibly The vedia providedita specific structural represented in each case a divine sprit.
Emperor Asoka also seems to have Buddha and event connected within like.) example is his pillar at Sarnath with its lic chakra and thereby giving it the character C delivering his first sermon at Mrigadava. T only as pedestal or throne in conformity w
Perhaps Asoka himself was responsi memorial pillar into a Chakradhvaja, for it of spectacles for the propagation of dhal These are enumerated in his fourth Rock E khandani- cha anani diyvani rupani dasay or cars, celestial elephants, colwmns (ska Many of these divine spectacles find expre e.g., the Sudharma devasabha (celestial h depiction of Maya dream or elsewhere as a and flaming pillar in Amaravati sculp standardized the stupa design formally wi rails, etc.
Due to socio-cultural and other reas era and more vigourously in the subseq underwent a process of change, philosophi mainly responsible for the innovation and human form and modification in the corre
The origin of Buddha image in humi There are scholars who feel that it origir Mathura as the place of its origin. In th attention of art historians to some data ass an early Sanskrit text of the Sarvastiv

on the top of the stupa also supports the treated as the symbols of living Buddha. personality like the chaitya-vriksha which
nvented some new symbols to represent From this standpoint the most impressive n capital originally supporting a dharma fachakradhvajasymbolizing the Buddha he four lion supporting the wheel served rith the ideal of chakravartin.
ble for symbolizing the event by shaping was also he who introduced many kinds main terms of dramatic performances. Edict as vimana-dasana hasti-dasana agiipta...... ” i.e. sights of celestial mansions andha) of light and other divine forms. ssion in the post-Mauryan art tradition all) in Bharhut rail, divine elephant in symbolic representation of Bodhisattva ture. Asoka is also believed to have th the introduction of chhatra, harmika,
ons by about the beginning of Christian ent centuries the growth of Buddhism :ally and artistically. These changes were popularization of the Buddha image in sponding aspects of the faith.
n form itself is a much debated subject. ated in Gandhara while others suggest S connection we propose to draw the ociated with this subject in Divyavadana da school of Buddhism which vitally

Page 9
significant to understand the measures worship in human form. The materi Pamsupradanavadana (Episode of the ( Asokavadana. .
What is importantforus in this Avad to have converted Asoka to Buddhism. youngest child of a Gandhika (scent-deal Buddhism by a learned monk named Stha (stage of an arhat) in a short period. He been styled as a Buddha without lakshan Mathura was predicted by no less a pers visited Mathura.
He is also said to have subjugated M details of the actual episode are as under.
One day when upagupta was preac the city of Mathura, Mara, the god of T amongst the assembled people to divert realize the Truth. Next day, too during his and real pearls. Upagupta's preaching rer Upagupta beganto expound the Dharma, there and to sing and dance with the diving felt attracted towards the heavenly nymph this sight and Placed aflower-garland arou upon the great monk thought of subjugatir of the skeletons of a snake a dog and a ma of Mara who found after Wearing it that ir Snake, dog and man tied to his head, neck from his body but did not succeed. He th the help of the gods like Indra, Rudra, Visl divinities but they expressed their helpless approched Brahma who adviced him tc deliverance. Mara then realized the sign following verse:

taken for popwlarization of Buddha's al under reference is preserved in Gift of Dust) which itself is a part of
nais the story of Upagupta who is stated
According to the text Upagupta was er) named Gupta. He was ordained to vira Sanakavasi and he attained arhatva was so important as a monk that he has as (Alakshanaka Buddha). His birth at on than Buddha himself when the later
Mara like the founder of Buddhism. The
hing the law amidst a great gathering in Temptation, showered strings of pearls their attention. As a result none could discourse there was again a rain of gold mained effectless. On the third day when Mara caused ceslestial damsels to appear instruments. Consequently the audience. s and their music. Mara was delighted at nd the head of Sthavira Upagupta. There g Mara and created a flower garland out in. The garland was put around the head stead of garland there were skeletons of und ears. Maratried to remove the bones ereafter flew up into the sky and sought unu (Upendra), Yama, Varuna and other ness in the matter. Lastly for his relief he resort to Upagupta quickly to attain ificance of Buddha as expressed in the

Page 10
ॐ दृ20 Iा प्रयते श्रेष्स्य ংেস্ত্ৰৈ শুক্ল তােত আঁ৷ সত্ব
çm つや、 *ક્તિ ને 六eVで5やUVエ ਜਵਿਨਸ ਨਯਗ ಕ್ಲಿಕ್ಗಿ ぶ。 | – oaxo ão 2-y fà sa ! 12,
i.e. How great must have been the F respected the command of his disciple Compassionate one that in spite of his M ignorance the Benevolent Master even dic
Consequently with a feeling of deep of Venerable Upagupta and requested foi his body. The great Monk agreed to do so c not disturb the Bhikshus and he would kinc for he has seen only dharmakaya of the Lo
f
৪। স্কেনস) সদস্য। বৈকুণ্ঠ ঠুড় ঈd amーwwfエー→エで5
१-५ध )] पुणे (व 「もエr斧・所

di ইতো গোসটি ইWজনাই ।
чЭлд ८यो दुर्नु २4तुon/that 而分 实n সেন; &স্ট্র पgत्र 动 >^{&
am ru ܣܡ جسم ہ 葱、霹g阿°
Amama
'owers of Buddha,because even Brahma 2, It was only the forgiveness of the Mara's repeated attacks on him due to i not address him in harsh words ever.
repentance Mara Prostrated at the feet the removal of the skeletal fetters from into Conditions that thereafter he would illy show him the human form of Buddha, rd of Three worlds and not his rupakaya.
ନି !!!!!!! Ra ୮ । ो नै - ০৭ খৃষ্ট ছড়াদে) প্রাস ..." সিদি৫ইঠি শুধু দিgエリ。 দাসী প্ৰস্থানলন্ত দুঙ্গুলীৰ্ব্বৰ্গ

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Mara agreed to obey the comnanc should not show any respect to him in his him. The God of Temptation (Kama-dha shortly in the garb of Buddha with thirty tw to the eyes and looked like abrilliantly pro is as under:
ਨਕਸੇ
ནམ་ན་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་ अन् स्ठल्याप्रामप्यूप्रठ्ट्रष्येऽ 它RV शक्तिर्नु वीतृष्णगविटित्C 8रूलन्यासमिल्नेोद्धस्न्त्रि न ? >\२>a aan -तीन पत्रिष्ा ਪਨੇ ' প্লািসস দ্য ট্রড্রিং
le (ों2) >>
ਜਲਸਿਚਿ ਸੋਟੇ ਸੁੱਣੇ ਸੁ
व्केठ
હતો. स्ष्यविश्रांप्रद्धäपुत्रे ठाम 翠 ৰূ&দ্মাসক্রম t s ਜਮ ਮਿ भाठ्ट्रायला भर; -
Seeing this pleasant spectacle Upag of things which destroys the rupa inclu
beautifully describes the majestic form of full of grasce and spotless beauty.
त्रैभूबाई # ఫ్లో
. . . . . . " န်မျို ठळच्या- न्यू '
 
 
 
 

ls of Upagupta but warned him that he form as Buddha, for that Would destroy tupati) then disappeared and reappeared to signs from aforest. It was most pleasing duced coloured-portrait. The actual text
ーア>rッ万 7るエ | দুনী দি 2ন্স প্লাংগ সূত্ৰ
ওদ দেৱ। ১াড়। সঁী<ল৷ নে 0 to । 31 पूजे अदि त्र्व मयि
3.g t ༡༧༩༢. -f a Sཞྭཆ་
नलीई
རྒྱུ་गर्म"दक्षेिण वार्भ
- ।।नन्
sc
Տt
upta condemned the impermanent nature ding even that of Buddha.The avadawa Buddha as seen by Upagupta which was
་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་ - ठ्रन यूबुद्द्संट्राम्राधिष्ठिय मूल्यान्कूिट इन
प्रतिगर्त दरेन - नाटे भवन्त

Page 12
Upagupta feeling the presence of th prostrated like a fallen truak of a tree infi reminded him of his promise the monksa and not to Mara, although he knew that b. that When people worship earthen image icon and not to image itself, and his actioIII
मण्मयेषु भ्रतिकृतिष्लामशरणों : ता मृत्यःः ठय़ न्यामठ
पूर२उत्प्लाना टल्य -नाले: अश्य मरे द्वंवेधर्म
ਭਲ ਕਹਿ '\णू८ावूोचिक्षुभारंङॣ:- ܊ प्रापैथले, क्षे' श्येविशेपगृक्षसः
va
Mara then came in his actual form discourse.
It is necessary assess contents of th history. During the 3rd Century B.C. personality who might have interpretted th

le Lord forgot that it was an illusion and ont of the figure of Buddha. When Mara id that he was paying homage to Buddha lessed One was no more. He further told s they bow to the god represented by the 1 was similar only to this kind of worship.
ཡི་གྲོག། पर व्रतर्द्ध या | 4१||
ན་ ২\ নধৰন'2 -5o । C মঙ্গো ভনী प्रमभ्यच्य
12ः स्वयमेल
ਜੋ
and invited people to listen Upagupta
: Avadana in the light of known facts of Upagupta might have been a historical Le Law of Buddha in one or the other way

Page 13
but the story of sabjugation of Mara by Up added to introduce justify the worship of B This is evident from Upagupta's referenc terra-cotta of various deities. The need of Mathura by Sarvastivadins. Asagosha who gave it a mythological colour. MOst Asokavadana for it tallies to a great ext Sutratankara even in the translated form. the patronage of Kanishka.(I at Kundalawas also associated as Vice-President, pel worship of the image of Buddha in humar
It is due to this reason that early im Mathura and Gandhara at the same time.T Buddhist Centres in Madyadesa is further around the third regnal year of Kanishk; which refer to the installation of Bod representations of Buddha.
What we intend to emphasize is th Upagupta and Mara presented in the Sarvastivada school attempted to project although that may even be false or an illu enmy of Buddhain away is utilized for anc to the Blessed one, Thus the narration Dharma-Bhanakas (narrators of Dharma setting up the Buddha image under the na a large extent orthodox Buddhist of Gang Buddha as an object of worship.

bagupta appear to have been deleberated uddha’s image in anthropomorphic form. e to the prevailing worship of images in such an action was most probably felt at seems to be leader of such a monument, probably he was also the author of ent with the contents of ASVashaosha's In the great Buddhist Council held under Vana Mahavihara, with which ASvagosha haps approved the idea to introduce the
form.
ages of the Buddha are available both in he spread of this movement to important attested to by records of monks inscribed a (I) at Sarnath, Kausambi and Sravasti hisatva images resembling the earlier
at through the episodes like the one of
Divyavadanam the Buddhists of the
the importance of Buddha's Rupakaya sion. In this episode, even the Mara, the ble cause generatingan intense devotion of such stories amongst the public by and efforts made by monks like Bala in me of Bodhisatva may have convinced to a-Yamuna region to accept the figure of

Page 14
REFERENCES
1.Cf.Ananda: ”Kathamayam Bhante Tathagatssa sarire pattip
sarira-pujaya. Ingha tumhne Ananda sadatthil ghatapa............
2. P.L. Vaidya (ed) Divyavadanm (mithila, 1900) p.240-241.
3. Nalinaksha dutta (revised), Saddharmpundarikasutram (wit
1953), Pixiii
4. Ibid., Pixiv.
5.M.C.JOSHI, Aspects of Mauryan and Early post-Mauryana
Vol. XVI & XVIII (Calcotta 1989), P.16
6. P.L. Vaidya, op.Cit PP.216 ff. and also Sujitkumar Mukhopa
Delhi, 1963) pp. 1 ff.
7. D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, second edition, (Calcutta 1

ajamiti' Buddha Ayvavata tumhne Ananda hotha Tathagassa
Mahabarinibbana sutta
hN. D. Mironov's readings from CentralAsia Mgs.) (Calcutta,
Art in Journal of the Indian society of oriental Art (new Series),
dhyaya (ed, annoted and partly translated) Asokavadana (New
65) pp.135-137 and PP.144-145

Page 15
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDC BETWEEN SRI LA
C. R
Arakan (or Rakhine, in the Arakan three hundred and sixty miles (c. Bengal coast. Situated between In Burma proper, Arakan has served propagation of Indian culture, ar Asia. Because of this critical geo been intertwined with both the fo
dynasties of eastern India and those Pegu and Amarapura.
The historic boundaries of Arakar
military prowess and administrativ kings: in time of greatness, the F Chittagong (well into Bengal), and of the present Burmese state of Ar
According to the Arakanese chron were the Raks ha orbilu (referrin uncertain origin.) Subsequent wave; as the Miros and Saks, followed Chaungthas, the descendants of w isolated, hilly areas of Arakan.
The local chronicles make much of
peoples from the Gangetic Plain, Dhanyadi and Vesali in the footh some fifty miles upriver from the

NCE OF BUDDHIST LINKS ANKA AND ARAKAN By
aymond
ese language) is the region occupying 600 km) of the northeastern Bay of dia (the present-day Bangladesh) and historically as a vital conduit for the t, and religion throughout Southeast graphic position, Arakan's history has rtunes of the Hindu and the Muslim
of the Burmese kings of Pagan, Ava,
have expanded or shrunk with the e abilities of the various Arakanese
(ingdom of Arakan extended even to
encompassed about twice the territory
akan.
icles, the region's earliest inhabitants g, possibly, to negrito aborigines of of immigration included tribals such d by Chins, Khamis, Daignets and nom remain to this day in the more
the coming to Arakan of Indo-Aryan and the founding of the cities of
ills above the Kaladan River Valley,
present city of Sittwe (Akyab).

Page 16
10
If the Mahamuni legend as related
Sappadadamapakarana is largely hi particularly long history in Ara Chandasurya, king of Dhanyawadi (t Buddha's lifetime, was graced by a p reality, however, King Chandasurya di until 146 A.D., some six hundred year
But in Sappadada mapakarana, the " hundred rahans (Burmo-Rahkine for skies from India, to preach a grea Dhanyawadi). The Buddha's week-long his court and all his subjects were faith. Before departing, the king prev exact likeness of himself to be made and goodness of his teachings. The Bl help from the gods, the inhabitants under the Buddha's personal supervi finished, it was installed with much p close to the city. This statue known famous for its magical powers for age
With the passage of time, that site b the Arakanese as well as for pilgrims who, understandably, were extremely There are records which state that val capitals -Sri Ksettra, Pagan and PeguArakan with the expressed intentior image, considered by the Arakane kingdom, for themselves.
Many of the Arakanese chronicles em Arakan, dating the arrival of Buddhisn the Great Master. In the "Vesali and M than forty ancient palm-leaf manu traditional history of Arakan- the appears, corresponding to the area
Lankan M a h a va mis a and the Bur

in the ancient manuscript entitle
torically accurate, Buddhism has a.
an: according to these tales, he first Arakanese capital) during arsonal visit from Lord Buddha. In d not ascend the throne of Arakan
after the death of Buddha.
The Buddha, with his retinue of five the Pali arahat), flew through the t sermon on Kyautaw Hill (near visit was a great success: the King, passionately converted to the new illed upon the Buddha to allow an as a continual reminder of the truth uddha agreed, and with considerable of Dhanyadi cast a bronze image sion. After the sacred image was omp and ceremony on a small hill
as the Mahamuni Buddha became s afterwards.
ecame a major religious centre for
from neighbouring Buddhist states envious of the Mahamuni image. ious kings of the historic Burmese - had mounted periodic forays into l of carrying off the Mahamuni e being the palladium of their
phasize Gautama Buddha's visit to at Dhanyawadi to the lifetime of ahimsaka Chronicle" -one of more scripts still extant relating the
place-name "Mahimsakamandala" of greater Arakan. In both the nese S a s s a na vam s a are found

Page 17
references to the Buddhist mission Emperor Asoka and led by the Ven
The later copper-plate inscriptions o 575 AD 22) recording "the perpetual the king in solemn devotion tow, evidence of a comparatively early l to Burma, if not to Lanka).
We also have other such indica inscription on the Vesali pillar nov of Mrauk-U, the last capital of A. epigraphically dated to the early 8th all kings -Dhanyawadi, as well as ruled over the area prior to King An
If we did an estimate based on th: lending to each ruler an average t King Candradaya of Vesali -insc1 good", and "the benevolent"- can the second or the beginning of the t
The use of these particular WO affiliation, in which case Buddhism in Arakan by the 2nd century A believed to have come to Arakan at
According to our method of chro pillar, it would seem that Dhanyav about 370 AD, followed by Vesali the archaeological remains of the tw an inner moated city surrounding officials resided. Commoners occu
confines of the outer city.
Vesali, the larger of the two cities, Remains of stone steps formerly le tide on the northwestern side of
trading port: according to the the

11
to Mahimsakamandala dispatched by erable Maharevata.
f the Vesali King Niti Candra (520deeds of merit and charity done by ards the Buddha" constitute further 3uddhist presence in Arakan (relative
tors: the Sanskrit "Ananda Candra" preserved at the Shitthaung temple rakan (15th-18th centuries AD), and century A.D., enumerates the list of Vesali- who were believed to have
landa Candra of Vesali.
is kingly genealogy, rather arbitrarily enure of twenty years, the reign of ibed on the Shitthaung pillar as "the pe placed somewhere near the end of hird century A.D.
epithets suggests a royal Buddhist would have certainly been prevalent
.D. However, Buddhism is strongly
a considerably earlier date:
nologically de-coding the Shitthaung vadi was the capital of Arakan until until at least A.D.597. In both cases, 'o cities reveal an outer city wall and , a palace site where royalty and pied and cultivated rice within the
covered an area of 2.7 square miles. ading to a pier may be seen at low the city. Vesali was once a notable
chronicles "as many as a thousand

Page 18
12
annually". Under the founding Candra a prosperous Hindu-style Bengali kin
Numerous Brahmanical silver coins ha city site. On some coins there is a Stone statues from both the Hindu al back as the fifth century A.D., have Dhanyawadi and Vesali. Although c Gupta influences are clearly evident. Buddhism (possibly of the Mahayan ancient Arakan. Better evidence sh( carried out and planned by Burma Dhanyadi and Vesali, although no s reported.
In the middle of B.C. 3rd century d great Buddhist missionary Thera Ma order, Buddhism gained the statu Mahavihara Buddhist centre was we the close of the 3rd century B.C.2 A (29-17 B.C.)3 built the Abhayagiri monastic Buddhist learning in Anura
By the close of the first century B.C events in Anuradhapura: the city was from 43 to 29 B.C., and the Buddhist In 13 B.C., Mahaculika Mahatissa Abhaya's son, Coranaga. Coranga was eighteen viharas, where he had been
staging a rebellion against his cousin,
During this era of disturbances the popularly known as the Brahmana T according to the myths, starving peop atrocities as killing -and then eatingthey had previously venerated. With of Buddhist monks and lay-people deserted, even the Mahavihara was Mahathupa lay in complete neglect. M The country was physically and spiri

Dynasty (A.D.788-957), Vesali was gdom.
ve been found in around the Vesali undecipherable Nagari inscription. ld Buddhist pantheon, dating as far
been recovered in the vicinity of ruder than Indian work, Pala and It would appear that Hinduism and lineage) existed side by side in ould arise from excavations being 's Department of Archaeology at ignificant finds have thus far been
uring Devanampya Tissa's rule, the hinda arrived in Lanka: in short is of state religion there. The ll-established at Anuradhapura by century later, Vattagamini Abbaya Vihara, a second major centre of dhapura.
'..., there was a surfeit of important ruled by five Hindu Tamil kings King Vattagamini went into hiding. was succeeded by Vattagamini hostile to Buddhism and destroyed denied shelter earlier when he was Mahaculika Mahatissa (B.C. 17-3).“
country was ravaged by a famine, issa famine or Brahminity i asya: e were compelled to committ such - those same Buddhist monks whom or without cannibalism, thousands doubtless perished. Viharas were abandoned to the jungle and the iny monks left the island for India. ually devastated.

Page 19
Elder Sinhalese monks perceived endangered, since the continuation of Tripitaka from teacher to pupil app tragic and murderous period. At Teachings of Lord Buddha in a time -under the patronage of the local Matale (in the south of the island), history, commited to writing the who the full commentaries, in order that
In the A.D. first century, dissension which had till then had been ul Mahavihara. Later, the Dhammaruci separated from Mahavihara and eventually became Mahayana-orient
According to the Arakanese Chronic exchanges began from the second cer Suriyasiri (A.D. 201-221), 3 ty Nanasiridhipati Mahatera were sent ti period of Hindu ascendance there.
According to the Culavamsa, Vijayat with valuable gifts to Anirudda, seeking assistance against Cola inv assistance, if any, has been found.)
K.L. Hazra says, "during this tim flourishing condition in Lower Bur 1057 by Pagan marks as a landma eventually evolved into a famous But
According to the Arakanese Chr. conducted religious exchanges with
although Sri Lankan sources are si chronicles note the sending of religio Sri Lanka, during the reign of D delegation sent by Datharaja was
headed by the Venerable Atulavijay

L3
that the future of Buddhism was
the oral tradition of conveying the beared no longer possible in such a tempting to safely preserve the of chaos, the far-sighted mahatheras chief - assembled at Aluvihara at
and for the the first time in Lankan
ble of the Tripitaka, along with with the True Doctrine might endure. 6
began to show up in the Sangha, nited under the influence of the
sect (the Abhayagiri Vihara group) founded Jetavana vihara, which
ed.
les, Sri Lanka and Arakan religious tury A.D.7 During the reign of King welve Arakanese monks led by . O Sri Lanka as missionaries, after a
bahu I (A.D. 1065-1120) sent envoys the king of Ramanyadesa (Pagan), aders. (No indication of Anirudda's
e, Theravada Buddhism was in a ma. The conquest of Thaton in A.D. rk in Burmese history, and Pagan idhist centre in South-East Asia."'
onicles, the Kingdom of Arakan Sri Lanka during this same period, lent on this matter. But Arakanese
us envoys to Arakan by the King of atharaja (A.D. 1123-1139). 10 The
comprised of twenty-seven monks, a Mahathera. 11

Page 20
1
The Polonnaruva stone inscription 1157) 12 mentions a purification cal in Sri Lanka during the reign of Vi delegates from A rum a na. (Accor Arumana can be one of the names f
Later, King Nga-ra-man (who in 115 who had established his capital a Buddhist monks, led by Ven.Uttara 1186). 13 But the period between Vi be consideredas a dark chapter in K.L. Hazra, "during this period nei Sassanavamsa and "the Glass Palace the Culla vams a mention any religio Lanka and Burma".
The Golden Age of Mrauk-u, ex beginning of the seventeenth cen cooperation betweeen Arakan and indicates the close political, cultur between these two countries: King the Tripitakas from Sri Lanka in religious delegation to Lanka led b manuscript, the Kaladora Grant 16 fc intercourse between Lanka and RakÍ sixteenth century A.D. Suchinfo Cullavamsa, the Sulupuja valiya and Pikava.
In the reign of Mon-raza-Gri, a La Mrauk-u, and in return, the Arak monks under the leadership of the
Lanka. On arrival there in Novemb campaign of the Buddhist Sangh (Upasampada) at Udaku-khepa sima.
In the reign of Vimaladhamma Surya was in need of learned monks to re sent a mission to Rakhangapura,

of the Velaikkaras (A.D. 1137npaign conducted within three sects jayabahu I, with the help of Sangha ling to the Arakanese chronicles, or Arakan.)
6, succeeded his father Min-zu-thein, : Parein) sent a delegation of 36 Dhamma, to Parakramabahu. I (1153jayabahu I and Parakramabahu I can Sri Lankan history. According to ther Burmese sources such as the Chronicle", nor Sinhalese sources like us or political contact between Sri
tending from the fifteenth to the tury, was also a high point of Sri Lanka. Considerable evidence al and religious ties then existing Ba Saw Phru (1459-1482) received A.D. 147615 and in return, sent a y the Ven. Siddharta. An ola leaf bund in Sri Lanka, refers to religious khangapura 17 ( Arakan) during the rmation is corroborated by the the Narendra Caritavaloka Pradi
nkan envoy bearing gifts arrived at anese king sent twenty Buddhists Ven. Candravilasa Mahathero to Sri er 1563, they staged a reformation a and conducted the Ordination
I (A.D. 1592-1604) when Sri Lank store the Buddhist Sangha, the king specifically inviting the Arakanese

Page 21
monk Nandicakka, one of the leadir that his fame even reached Lanka.
(This period was characterized by Burma under Nanda Bayin, with th small states; Pegu, once a great ce famine, war and internal conflict.)
Shortly thereafter, King Min-k Arakan. He appointed his son, MinMin-bar selected the Ven. Tejosa religious mission to Lanka.
The Kings of Sri Lanka warmly Tejosara missions.
The Culavansa and the Sassa nawa records of religious intercourse b King Vimaladhamma Surya II's reig of the Sinhalese envoy in Rakhan Lankan Buddhist Sangha by Araka
After receiving another envoy sen Surya II seeking religious assist (1606-97) selected the Ven. Indam as leader of a mission to Sri Lanka
Of the two, the Ven. Nandicakka must have been well-known to the close connections to Arakan. His and the up a sampa da ordination Ven. Nandicakka himself in the Getambe near Peradanya in A.D. family and many other nobles rec the Sri Lankan Buddhist Sangha monks.

15
g theras, and a figure so well-known
a serious set-back to Buddhism in 2 country then divided into a host of tre of Theravada, was depopulated by
haung-raza (1621-1631) 18 ruled in bar as Governor of Sandoway. Prince ra, from Mrauk-u, to be sent on a
received both the Nandicakka and
msa each contain important evidential between Arakan and Sri Lanka during gn. Both chronicles refer to the arrival gapura 9 and the restoration of the Sri nese monks.
t by the Lankan King Vimaladhamma ance, the Arakanese king Maruppya anju, Abbot of Sattatthana monastery, in 1696.20
was a leading Mahathera whose name Sri Lankans as a result of Sri Lanka's group was received with great honours was conducted under the auspices of
udakkhepasima (ordination hall) at 1696.21 Several members of the royal ived lay ordination at that time. Thus was repeatedly restored by Arakanese

Page 22
16.
Another ola leaf manuscript22 TOCC Arakan and Sri Lanka was discove: Korale, Udahevahata, Sri Lanka, me The Cullavamsa, however, does not to Nandicakka.23 The Sulu-pajaMahatheras.
Thus, in the 16th and 17th centuries and Arakan had been critical to th Buddhism in Sri Lanka, specificall ceremonies and higher ordinations.
Dipavamsa vol. vii, p.18 and, p. 39-54. W. Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ce. 3 Mahavamsa xxxiii, p. 18. W.Rahula, op.cit. p.85 5 Vibhanga Atthagatha, p. 314-318. & A to Mahayamsa , xxxiii, p.100-101 & Dipay 7 Rakhaing Magazine, vol. iv, 1977, p. 1. Rakhaling-prene Phritsaing Thamaing K.L. Hazra, History of Theravada Budd 10 akhaling-prene Phritsaing Thamaing 11 Rakhaing Magazine, vol. iv, 1977, p. o Epigraphia Indica, xviii, 1925, p.133. 13 Ashin Candamâlâlikâra, Rakhaing R
K.L.Hazra, op.cit. p.89. 1* Ashin Candamälälikára, op. cit, vol.ii
Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the 17 Rakkhangapura means "Arakan" 18 Rakhaing-prene Phritsaing Thamaing 1o Culavamsa, xciv, p. 15-16 & Sassanav 20 Rakhaing Magazine, vol. iv, 1977, p. 21 Culavamsa, xciv, p. 15. 22 Journal of the Ceylon Branch of RAS, 23 Culavamsa, xciv, p. 15.

rding religious intercourse between ed at Kadedora Vihara in Gannave ntions Candiviilasa and Nandicakka. peak of Candavilasa, but refers only 'aliya states the names of both
the relationship between Sri Lanka re-establishment and restoration of y in the performance of religious
& Mahavamsa vol.v, p.195. ylon, 1966, p. 52.
nn guttara Nikálya Atthakarathá, p.52. 'amsa „xx,p.45. 32.
Hind, vol. i., 1984, p. 120. ism in South-East Asia; 1982, p. 82. Hmâ, vol.i, 1984, p. 120. 132.
zawon Thee Kyan, vol.i, 1931, p. 347.
1931, p.31. Royal Asiatic Society, vol.ii, 1952.
Hnd, vol. i., 1984, p.124.
msa, p. 27.
33.
ol.ii, 1952, p. 157.

Page 23
ARCHEOLOGE
panorama archéologique de
en Birmanie, dès origi
p: C. Ra
(Condensed version of the text at presented in Paris, 7 February 1990 et Civilisations Orientales.)
L'objectif était de présenter royaume de l'Arakan situé le long Bangladesh et Yangon (Rangoon) la
Selon la légende, son origine re bien qu'il fut quelquefois tributaire Bengale, il su préserver son indépen à laquelle il fut intégré à la Birma entre l'Inde et l'Asie du Sud-Est, pénétration de la culture indienne et
Difficile d'accès – accès sou spéciales– cette région ne fit gu Britanniques. Pourtant, de nombreu royaume qui dut déplacer sa capitale
M
histoire (cela dû en partie à sa topog
Une topographie qui en
L'Arakan, longue bande de terre Golfe du Bengale, est limité au Nord montagnes- l'Arakan Yoma-, à l'C l'estuaire de la Naf, et au Sud par district d'Aung et de l'île de Ramree à l'Ouest la Mayu, au centre la Kala trois dirigent leurs cours du Nord séparée par des chaînes de montagn à perte de vue. Les trois rivières se composé de nombreuses criques. Ai montagneux au nord ayant abrité comme les Miro, les Saks, les Chins, de plus en plus ouvert. Quelques entre les plaines fertiles s'étendant à

ARAKANAISE
l'ancien royaume d'Arakan les au XVIIIème siècle
ymond
companying a slideshow originally | at Institute Nationnal des Langues
une partie des recherches sur le du golfe du Bengale, entre l'actuel capitale de Myanmar (Birmanie).
monte au début de l'ère chrétienne et de la Birmanie ou du Sultanat du (dance jusqu'au XVIIIème siècle date nie. Grâce à sa situation privilégiée , l'Arakan fut l'une des voies de du bouddhisme en Asie du Sud-Est.
mis, en outre, à des autorisations ière l'objet d'études du temps des x sites archéologiques jalonnent ce
de nombreuses fois au cours de son graphie).
dit long sur son histoire.
s'étirant du Nord au Sud le long du , et à l'Est par une longue chaîne de uest par le Golfe du Bengale et une série de criques le séparant du : Trois grandes rivières la traversent: dan et à l'Est la Lemro. Toutes les vers le Sud et chacune d'elle est es alternant avec des plaines fertiles rejoignent et forment un vaste delta nsi se dessine deux zones: un pays le tout temps de nombreuses tribus les Khamis, les Daingnets et un pays chaînes de montagnes s'intercalent perte de vue jalonnées de villages

Page 24
sITesor THE oLD CA
ai-sძN
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NDEX
Hills and Ridges
O h
Ke H kit
W , Voali
VV or
AMi0 «V
Site of the old cities
L, • LaungNot
Ja (Jianyawaddy
. IP : Parcia
 

,~~~•••••••••••
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を
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Page 25
et de nombreuses rizières coupées plaines, le long des rivières, qu légendaires de l'ancien royaume de
Arthur P. Phayre, en 1841, langue anglaise à s'intéresser à l'A1 les chroniques et les manuscrits numismatique et épigraphique de d un certain nombre d'informations.
Mais c'est à Forchhammer q archéologique sur les anciennes ca 1884. Ce n'est qu'en 1921, sous la d services archéologiques prennent e monuments de l'Arakan, déjà fort Forcchhammer. Em 1927 commen édifices de la dernière capitale "Mr. appelé Myo Aung (ancienne cité) et
Delaissés à nouveau aprés restauration et l'entretien du site département archéologique de Rang les années, des campagnes de foui musée a été aménagé depuis 1986.
Dépendant étroitement de son se déroule le long de ces rivières capitales vont s'établir de plus en zone montagneuse, en utilisant la ses défenses afin de bénéficie l'envahisseur envieux de la richesse
A. Les cités de la vallée de la Kalad
Dannyawadi est aussi le nom les chroniques. Selon elles, la cité précédé Vésali. D'après Phayre et F après J.C.
Aujourd'hui il ne subsiste que du palais et de la célèbre pagode siècles l'imposante statue du Boud trois birmans et considérée par le royaume. En 1784 quand l'Arakan Bodawpaya mutila l'image sacrée a Amarapura.
De nos jours, elle se trouve à Protégeant l'édifice, neuf statue

19
de sombres forêts. C'est dans ces ce sont implantées les capitales Dannyawadi.
fut un des premiers historiens de akan. Il s'appuya essentiellement sur arakanais conjointement à l'étude bcuments arakanais pour nous livrer
le nous devons le premier rapport pitales arakanaises qu'il inspecte en irection de Charles Duroiselle, que les n considération la restauration des endommagés lors de la visite de ce la restauration des principaux auk U" (oeuf de singe) de nos jours un musée y fut crée.
l'indépendance de la Birmanie, la sont actuellement poursuivis par le pon, qui mène parallèllement , selon lles, cela depuis 1979. Un nouveau
accés à la mer, l'histoire de l'Arakan Pour des raisons de sécurité, les plus à l'intérieur des terres, dans la configuration du terrain pour établir r de protection naturelle contre
de ces terres.
lui désigne le royaume d'Arakan dans aurait été la première capitale, ayant arvey elle aurait existé de 146 à 788
les enceintes de l'ancienne cité, celle Mahâmuni ayant abrité pendant des ha Mahâmuni, tant convoitée par les Arakanais comme le palladium du »mba sous le joug des Birmans le roi in de la transporter dans sa capitale,
Mandalay dans la pagode de l'Arakan. en pierre toujours in situ furent

Page 26
r:ye:::..iin
Scale 1: 200
1ooo oo о Ooo 2000
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Kyaukkyat
coco MOOO 5ooo feet.
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Page 27
PLAN
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sale, a thots ine
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of the Mahanuni Shrine

Page 28
22
retrouvées aux quatre points ca appartiendraient au style Gupta tardi VIème et le VIIIème siècle. Mais permet d'affirmer ou d'infirmer les (la pagode Mahâmuni, a été détruite la dernière reconstruction datant du nous fournir aucune indication quant
Vesali ancienne capitale de l' A siècle est aujourd'hui un petit vi l'ancienne capitale. Elle était consti ovale entouré de fossés avec des l'est et des murs incurvés au sud et à muros comme à Dannyawadi. De n faire face à la saison sèche. Le dépa campagnes de fouilles entre 1979 et plusieurs structures attestant de la l'hindouisme.
Le rapport définitif n'a pas « récapitulatif comprenant plusieurs pla a été publié dans la revue "Araka différentes inscriptions et le matériel de la campagne propose une nouvel allant du IVème au XIème siècle. Ce paraît quelque peu surestimer l'ancie du VIIIème siècle sous le roi An d'une précieuse inscription en sanc pilier en pierre et portant la liste gé
B. Les cités de la vallée de la Lemro
Du XIème au XVIème siècle u succéder le long de la Lemro. Pour fortifier et s'établir de plus en plus fleuve.
Sambawak (Pyinsa) (20°23 de l construit par un descendant du roi Cl A cette époque l'Arakan doit s'incl jeune royaume de Pagan et devient petites cités en Arakan.
Parrein (20°34 de lat. N., 9314 usurpateur du nom de Letyaminna transféré sa capitale en raison d'un Lemro et Sambawak. De la ville ancie

rdinaux. Selon Duroiselle, elles f et pourraient être datées entre le aucun élément jusqu'à ce jour ne dates proposées par les chroniques et reconstuite de nombreuses fois - début du XXème siècle- ne peut à l'époque de ces statues).
rakan entre le VIIIème et le XIème llage implanté sur les ruines de tuée d'une enceinte plus ou moins murs en lignes droites au nord et à
l'ouest. Elle possédait une cité intra bmbreux réservoirs lui permettait de rtement archéologique y dirigea cinq
1984 permettant de faire apparaître l présence du bouddhisme et de
ncore été publié. Seul un article nches des structures mises au jour, n" en langue birmane. D'après les
exhumé U Nyunt Han, responsable le datation pour l'ensemble du site qui d'après les résultats de la fouille nneté. Cette cité disparait au début landachandra. Celui-ci nous fit don rit couvrant les quatre faces d'un
néalogique de ces prédécesseurs.
ne série de capitales éphémères va se fuir l'envahisseur, les villes vont se à l'intérieur des terres, en amont du
at. N.,93°16 de long. E) fut dit-on, landra de Vesali en 1018 après J.C. ner devant les raids successifs du
son tributaire C'est le début des
de lon. E) fut fondée en 1118 par un n. Il semblerait que celui-ci ait ; île qui se serait formée entre la nne il ne reste plus rien.

Page 29
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Thargauag
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Page 30
24
Hkrit (20°35 de lat. N.) élevé Lemro pour des raisons de sécurité, . la rivière Hkrit et la Lemro. De nos subsistent les traces d'une enceinte de murs, entourés d'étroits fossés. L rizières.
Launggyet (20°82 de lat. et 93° éphémères occupe de nos jours une l'Arakan s'affranchit de la tutelle de paix et d'indépendance où elle étend 1404 elle est à nouveau l'enjeu Birmanie Centrale et les môns de envahit son territoire et réaffirme sa réfugie au Bengal. Ce n'est qu'en musulman Nazid-ud-din, il reconq nouvelle capitale Mrauk U.
C. Entre la Lemro et la Kaladan
Mrauk U dit aussi Myohaung ( C'est l'unique cité où subsiste, encore Elle fut construite par Min Saw Mu Elle commande l'accès, à la fois à la terre et par voie d' eau. La ville : collines parallèles de l'Ouest au Nord. royaume de l'Arakan. Ses défenses nombreuses fois pour se protéger de à l'Ouest. A l'image des anciennes cap muros où se trouvait l'emplacemen large plateforme de 2000 mètres de
Au XVème et XVIème siècle 1 l'atteste les nombreux monuments de Le bouddhisme est en pleine expan temples et pagodes en pierre . Les Htukkanthein, l'Andawthein, le Ratan parler des fastes de l'ancienne ( étrangers se rendant en Extréme-Ori
Au XVIIème siècle en proie à décliner rapidement et en 1784 l'annexera définitivement à la Birma

au XIIIème siècle, en amont de la | 17 km de Parrein est située entre
jours même le nom a disparu, seul arrée renforcée d'une double rangée e site est actuellement recouvert de
14 de lon.E.) dernière des capitales
île sur la Lemro. A cette époque Pagan et connait quelques années de son contrôle jusqu'à Chittagong. En le convoitise entre les birmans de Basse Birmanie. Le royaume d'Ava , suzeraineté. Le roi Minsawmun se
1630 que, soutenu par le sultan uiert son royaume et fonde une
2025 de lat. N., 93°11 de long. E) de nos jours, les défenses de la cité . n en 1430 avec l'aide des portugais. à Lemro et à la Kakadan, par voie de s'adosse à une série de chaînes de C'est la plus grande cité de l'ancien furent construites et renforcés de s attaques birmanes et des menaces itales, elle possèdait une ville intra t du palais dont seul subsiste une Coté, surélevé par trois terrasses .
* royaume est en plein essor comme la capitale édifier à cette époque. sion et l'on construit de nombreux plus célèbres sont le Shittaung, le abon qui sont encore là pour nous apitale décrit par les voyageurs bnt.
des luttes intestines le royaume va le roi des birmans, Bodawpaya, nie.

Page 31
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Page 32
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Page 33
CONSERVATION AT CROS B. M. S. Nag
With a glorious past, South Asian region h form of monuments Sculptures, paintings different periods through out the length a to be grateful to the erst-while colonial rul heritage, it is also a fact that more than tw loss of respect of our own cultural herit: National and Regional Organizations who preservation of the ancient monuments. our heritage is still dictated by the manual of nationalism, the almost extinct values which has now started glowing. Peoples have become alert and want the herita therefore, time that the South Asian Regi to the cultural heritage.
Taking the example of India, it is p and preservation policy with a view to en
There are National and State level C the responsibility of the preservation o thousand monuments and archeolog. importance, there is an equal number of importance. It is also a fact that there are which deserve to be protected and presel National and International famous monl
If we examine the status of the or preservation of monuments, the situatio trained personnel as the expertise in var dwindling. If any good work is being involved Conservationists of old traditio

S ROADS IN SOUTH ASIA
f
araja Rao
as inherited a rich cultural heritage in the and various other Art forms belonging to nd breadth of the region. While weaught ers who rediscovered many of our ancient o centuries of servility has resulted in the ge. In each country, there are probably ) are charged with the responsibility of the However, the policy for preservation of s of the colonial era. With the resurgence for our own heritage have been rekindled of the Nations of the South Asian region ge to be preserved for posterity. It is on reviews the existing conservation policy
roposed to review the existing protection unciate a policy that fits into our region.
rganisations in India who are charged with our monuments. While more than five cal sites are declared as of National monuments and sites declared as of State literally thousands of ancient monuments ved for posterity. Howeveritis only a few ments which always receive attention.
ganisations which are responsible for the is very disappointing. There is dearth of ous branches of conservation is gradually one it is only because of a few decoted still surviving. We seem to be basking in

Page 34
past glory of an experience of more than :
When we look at the regional level C of monuments the picture is not quite enco Archaeologists to lead the departments O. a Conservation Wing or necessary Engine States with vast geographical territory have can be counted on finger tips.
It is only in the recent past that cert Heritage Societies which have come int Preservation of Cultural Heritage. Unfo) necessary infrastructure nor sufficient fu awareness among the people regarding th being critisised, perhaps not with out reas
Conservation and Preservation of State level Organisations have so far su Sufficient financial resources. The Arch better off in the past few years. What has I resources, is the dwindling expertise and la personnel. No doubt, other causes includ public at large for historica or other monumental heritage. Developmental p caused pressure on land use and the grow encroachment are the other reasons for th
Having set out the present situatio faced by them in the preservation of monur of conservation. If we askourselves wheth I am afraid one cannot honestly say that V today is, in my view, an outmoded system. our heritage. The protection policy of the a comprehensive one. A monument here national importance. The idea of "area implemented. For example, the Golkond

century and a quarter.
rganisations responsible for preservation uraging. Many states do not have trained Archaeology. Many others do not have ering staff with the required skills. Even declared monuments as protected which
ain voluntary agencies like INTACH and o being and are taking interest in the tunately these agencies do not have the nds. While their attempts have created e preservation of our Heritage, they are on, that their approach is elitist.
our monuments by the Central and the ffered primarily because of the lack of aeological Survey of India, however is eally affected this task even with meagre ck of attempts to create acadre of trained e a lack of respect and ignorance of the easons leading to the misuse of our rojects and Industrialisation which have th and movement of population causing e improper care of monuments.
in about the agencies and the problems lents, we may examine the existing policy :r we have a state policy for conservation, 'e have a definite policy. What we have a colonial legacy in the preservation of Archeological Survey of Inaia is still not and a monument there is declared as of Conservation" is yet to be evolved and a Fort in Andhra Pradesh is not entirely

Page 35
declared as a monument of national imp Vijayanagara (Hampi), have been decla places, only an inscription is declared as which it is located is not protected. Only protected and not the entire complex o' located. The boundaries of the protect Consequently we are unable to tackle th classic examples of this nature in the hist States are also protecting monuments. monuments on their lists, without the re look after them.
In this context, it is disheartening monuments of Natural importance, which take charge. Many important monuments of national importance decades ago have date of protection for reasons already sta
It is therefore now thw opportun policy and consider whether the regional some of the most famous monuments so t this will encourage the regional admin. resources for the preservation of monum should reflect on the conservation metho
Even after four decades of inc Conservation Manual by Sir John Marsh Manual, we have to conserve and preser exists. We are not expexted to restore th the conservation methods adopted in Bri is permissible. We know that the House ( been restored by providing missing or wonders as to why there was dual policy should not restore but only maintain what that one day Taj Mahal will become bald. which get out of their positions becaus

ortance. Only 56 structures in the city of red as protected monuments. In some protected while the ancient structure in he paintings in Kota-Bundi is declared as monuments in which the paintings are ed monuments are not clearly defined. e probelsm of encroachment. There are brica city of Lucknow.
But it serves no purpose just to inscribe sources and the required skilled staff to
that there is also a trend to deprotect the State level Departments will have to which have been declared as monuments ; received little or no attention, since the ted.
2 time to review the pational protection organisations will take charge of atleast nat teh regional pride is inspired. Perhaps stration also to provide more financial lents. This is also an occasion when one ds that is being adopted in our country.
lependance we are still following the ell produced in 1923. According to this e a structure in the condition in which it le structures. However, when we look at ain, we find that restoration of structures of Parliament, West Minister Abbey, have
decayed architectural members. One . If we follow the dual principle that we ever is left of our monuments, I am afraid We are now replacing the marble veneers e of the expansion of the iron dowels.

Page 36
Therefore, it is time now that we wa commensurate with the changing of nee should be a Asian debate within a time fr. such as how much should we conserve, ho and what are the conservation methods ancients.
Historically, we have clear evider conserved many monuments. In fact ma in character register many grants for " means for repairing breakages, for resto specifically cite two examples. There is at dedicated to Hulleswara at Doddahullur, of the basement ascribable to late 11th ce when the temple was in an extremely dilap dismantled and reconstructed from Upa Within the complex of the Mysore Pal: provuded with a Mahadvara surmounted the first quarter of the 17th century. An ins Krishnaraka Wadiyar III having found the the entire structure reconstructed. Epigr: numbers.
We have Agama sastras recording conservation of monuments by natural because of age. They definitely provide fo Examples can be cited from Vaikhanasz Ssmhita.
If we study several of the monumer ofstructures being not only conserved rec and by different kings. Artisans, craftsme for their contribution in this sphere. Ats tradition has been stopped and we have should maintain the monuments in the co that be so, what will be the contribution of

ke up and workout a policy which is is of our various regions. Perhaps there ame in which we should decide the issues w much reconstruction could be allowed
and policies that were adopted by our
ce that many of the ancient kings have ny of the inscriptions which are donative Khandasphytitha Jeernorddhara", which ration and conservation. I would like to emple near Bangalore in Karnataka State
The Tamil inscription on the moulding 2ntury or early 12th century, records that fidated condition, the whole structure was na to Stupi i.e. from basement to finial. ace, a temple dedicated to Vishnu was by a Gopuram by King Raja Wadiyar in scription of mid 18th century, records that : Gopuram in a dilapidated condition, got aphical references could be cited in large
specific prescriptions with regard to the calamities or man made calamities or r the restoration and even reconstruction. and Shairagamas, particularly Marichi
its in our country, there is clear evidence onstructed bytadded toin differenttimes in architectswreceived liberal donations ome point of history, it appears that this nherited a manually prescribing that we ondition in which they were protected. If our generation in the 20th century to our

Page 37
artistic creations? Ours is a continui tradition?
If we just look around and see wh: we find that reconstruction is being pra the example of Mexico. The pyral reconstructed. In this Island count reconstructionis being done because ofr the ancient Stupas of Anuradhapura a plastered.
Keeping all these in mind, we shou policy for India, but a regional policy common cultural heritage and tradition the following in view:
(i) Our Acts and Rules should be
(ii) We should consider evolving country and region, based on tradi No doubt good aspects from weste in our manual.
(iii) We should protect and conser conservation of "historical areas".
(iv) The emphasis should be tota chemical preservation and pro IOnlleltS.
(v) We should evolve a consensus allowed.
(vi) We should also consider reuse structures. Perhaps here there is where castles are converted into

g, living tradition. Should we stop this
ut is happening in other parts of the world, :ticed without any hesitation. Let us take mids of Tectihucan have been totally y of Sri Lanka, restoration and even eligious considerations. Thus for example, e not only reconstructed byt also totally
ld not attempt to evolve not only a national for South Asian Region since we share S. while evolving a policy, we should keep
amended at the earliest.
a Conservation Manual, relevant to our tional texts and epigraphical references. rn methods could be suitably incorporated
ve not just isolated buildings, but consider
conservation i.e. structural conservation, ection of the environment around the
on how much of reconstruction should be
s of certain monuments particularly secular no harm in taking examples from Europe, fuseums and put to reuse and thus well

Page 38
maintained.
(vii) Finally, we should take the pe( the preservation of our heritage. T Departments of Archaeology is that dom but not what they should do in
We should seriously consider now to and to reuse the monuments.

ple into confidence and involve them in le common criticism we have against the the people are told what they should not respect of any monument.
) evolve a policy to restore, to reconstruct

Page 39
CRUCIBLE STEEL IN SRI LAN
E
G.
In 1908 Ananda Coomaraswamy descrit how he had watched two old men at Alutr of steel in long, slender enclosed crl observed was only a demonstration of a well aware of the gathering scientific int India and consequently wrote his report deserved. However, he did not give the seen the steel being nade and the sampl
This paper, after highlighting som describes the recent Re-discovery of material remains with that of crucible ste of Coomaraswamy's account in the light observations and comparisons made her material only and do not include any ( programme of scientific analysis.
Iron and Crucible Steel
Crucible steel, more popularly re and unique position in the full spectri modern. Pure iron in itself is a soft meta e.g. it can not be significantly harde However, combined with small amoun steel, its strength, hardness and working the advent of modern high temperatur manufactured relied upon the very slow iron in the solid. A piece of wrought ir hearth for many hours or even days. F temperature of 910oCfor carbon topen

KA AND INDA: NEW EVIDENCE.
у uleff
ed in his book Mediaelvel Sinhalese Art uvara near Balangoda making smallingots cibles. Although what Coomaraswamy process that was already obsolete, he was erest in similiar steel making porcesses in with the thoroghness he knew the subject exact location of the place where he had es he collected cannot now be traced.
e aspects of the crucible steel technology, Coomaraswamy's site and compares its 'el sites in India. It also re-assesses aspects of new ethnographic and field data. The e are based on a visual examination of the of the results emerging from the present
ferred to as "wootz", occupies an elevated im of iron metallurgy, both ancient and l with a very limited range of possibilities, ed or strengthened by heat treatments. s of carbon (0.2-2.0%) to form the alloy porperties increase exponentially. Before furnaces, the process by which steel was rate of molecular diffusion of carbon into n was buried in charcoal and heated in a o example, it would take nine hours at a trate intoironto adepth of4mm (Maddin,

Page 40
1984). This method, known as carburizati and by repeated re-forging and re-carbur. low carbon steel with a reasonable deg persevered with this technique for ce1 testimony to the economic and technolog
On the other hand, makers of cruci operation, a small ingot of fully honoge hardness. The precise nature of the proc been the subject of much debate amo convincing recent explanations is given b to happen is that a crucible is charged W. wood and/or leaves, and is sealed with cal together in a simple charcoal furnace to which is approximately 1,300OC. At this t the organic material in the Solid state unt melting point is depressed from 1,537oC steel then nelted and convection currer homogeneous. The crucible was then all open to retrieve the highly crystalline stee of the ingot at that Stage was too high anc (Lowe, 1990). Subsequent high temperatl used to de-carburize the ingot until it rea 083-2% carbon. Thisbrief description of of accounts, which will be quoted Sepera On the work of yater (1982-4), who has working with the documentary evidence.
The greatest claim to fame that cru raw material of the famous Damascus Suffaces, and legendary quality of streng claim that the damascene patterning on nature of the original ingots (Wilkinsor Piaskowski, 1968), and it is through stuc Steel was first aroused. However, as BI Swordsmithing was the only application

on, produced a thin surface layer of steel, izing it was possible to produce a piece of ree of homogeneity. that iron workers nturies, despite its awkwardness, bears ical value of the end produc.
ble steel were able to procuce, in a single neous, high carbon steel of exceptional esses taking place inside the crucible has ng metallurgists, and one of the more y Yater (1982-4). In brief, what appears ith wrought iron, or possibly ore, and fry ly. A number of crucibles are then heated the maximum temperature achievable, emperature the iron absorbs carbon from il if vecomes sufficiently saturated that its to 1,300OC, or to that of the furnace. The hts stirred the mixture until it was fully owed to cool in air before being broken lingot. In some cases the carbon content d the naterial was in fact a white cast iron lire annealings and rapid air coolings were ched a hyper-eutectoid composition with the process is amalganated from a number tely later in this paper, but draws heavily combined a practical knowledge of iron
cible steel can make to date is that it is the Swords with their beautifully patterned gth and cutting edite. Many metallurgists the Swords derives from the crystalline 1, 1837: Belaiew, 1918; Zschokke, 1924; lying the patterns that interst in curcible onson (1986) argues, it is unlikely that for crucible steel. There is documentary

Page 41
3
evidence that the crucible steel made il stone-cutters chisels and fine wires form as new field date is processed and objects no doubt come to light.
Crucible Steel in India
Present knowledge of crucible ste evidene. Probably the most useful recent Bronson (1986). Bronson begins by enu literature which point to iron and stee including the note on the iron of the expo iron of the Seres in the 39the book of Plj origin of Seres has been much debated a along the overland route from China. ho explanation put forward by Schoff (1915 Seres is derived from the Sinhalese word S we may have the first clue connecting Sri Bronson (1986 then discusses the many ri and Steel. By the sixth and early seventh hinduwani or hunduwani. The presentau the word wani, but it is instantly recognis and perhaps furnishes a second clue. It i references talk of Steel, it is not until Al-Biruni (al-Hassan and Hill, 1986), tha
From the sixteenth century onwal references and, by the nineteenth centur of scientists, metallurgists and travellers. three main categories: scientific experim to explain the damascene phemoneno purposes and first hand accounts of th archaeological point of view, it is the latte attempted to bring some semblance of dissecting the process elements descril accurate eyewitness accounts.

the Mysore area was used for making |sical instruments (Buchanan, 1807) and, are analysed, other uses and variants will
el relies very heavily upon documentary review of the estant literature is that by merating the few references in classical | being made and exported from India rted from India including the note on the ny’s Historia Naturalis. The location and ld is often associated with the silk export wever, if one is prepared to consider the ), not included in Bronson's review, that eri denoting the Tamilkingdom of Chera, Lanka and iron production. 2ferences in Arab literature to Indian iron 1 century there are several references to thor has not investigated the etymology of able as the nodern Sinhala term for steel, s notable that, while many of these early the twelfth century, and the writings of it crucibles are first mentioned.
ds there is an ever increasing number of y, crucible steel had become the pet topic Detailed accounts on the subject fall into 2ntation on original samples in an attempt l, replication experiments for industrial process in India and Ceylon. From an which is most interesting. Bronson (1986) rder into the widely varying accounts by ed in eighteen of the, apparently, most

Page 42
What emerged from this analysi plagiarism, even in the most convincing a substantial body offield data isoften dif distill into four main geographical cent variations in process.
Hyderabad
Progressing from north to south, the of Andhra Pradesh on the Central Decca of extensive and intersive survey by Thelr Berkeley and the author has been extrem ore deposits, smelting sites and crucible s while the survey was in progress. The mos by Voysey (1832) who watched steel bein in a village called Konasamudram. Voyse making on more than one occasion in this has an encouraging ring of truth and acci study of the large heap of industrial debr sttemtion to the nature and fabric of the that one of the critical factors effecting the the refractory material of the crucible itse high temperatures and also provide suffi cooling period after firing. Lowe has show charred rice hulls mixed with clay which, fibre-reinforced ceramic refractory (Low The crucibles of this area are squat and c clay lids completely sealing the crucible m 2.5 cm to 12 cm and the resultant ingot w by many writers. The external surfaces of c green to black ash glaze. The internal Surf speace are covered with a ting layer of slag top of the of what would have been the in the crucible wall, of the same greenish sl: rested in a bath of alsg which protected t According to Voysey's description, the c.

is was a disquieting tendency towards ccounts, which, in the absence of a more ficult to detect. However, the data does 'es of procuction, each with improtant
e first centre is in the Nizamabad District in Plateau. This area has been the subject na Lowe, of the Univeristy of California, lely fortunate in visiting the some of the teel production sites with the researcher t important account from this area is that g made in crucibles on several occasions y was the only European to observe steel area, or anywhere in India, and his report uracy. Lowe (1990) has made a detailed is remaining at the sie, paying perticular cruccibles temselves. It should be noted Success of the process was the quality of lf which had to withstand long periods at cient insulation during the all important in that the curcible fabric is composed of on firing, becomes a high-performance 2, et al. 1990, in press). up-like with large lumpy coarse-textured ouths (Fig.1). They vary in diameter from ould ba a round bun shape, as described rucibles and lids are covered with a thick aces of what Lowe describes as the ingot g/glaze that is a dull greenish colour. The got is marked by a "fin", protruding from ag. Lowe explains that the molten metal he vessel wall from attack during firing. rucibles were not charged with wrought

Page 43
iron and wood or leaves, but with two di (Voysey, 1832).
From the author's brief visit to K amount of debris, that the site operated on of the debris comprised broken used cri amount of greenigh glassy slag. Lowe’s fir like it in the area ambiguities surrounding
Mysore
Further south, in Karnataka, the n earliest eye-witness accounts, by Buchana C.V.B. (1820) relate to this area and it is the effect these accounts have had on later accuracy from documentary evidence onl
"It is in a way unfortunate that the i neither Buchanan nor Heyne uses) shoul Almost all laterfield observers show, ofte they are thoroughly familiar with Buchan
However, ironing out the minor in basic features of the Mysore process seem 1820) shaped crucibles with sealed lids. T iron with wood (Buchanan, 1807), and/or husk (C.V.B., 1820). At least 20 cruciblesv for upto 10 hours. The resulting ingotassu crucible. At present, the best known Chitradurg. The material from this site ha Rao of the Indian Institute of World cult scientists (Rao, Mukherjee and Lahiri, 19
The author had the opportunity, th: and Mr. R.H.Sawkar, Deputy Managing I

fferent kinds of iron and a piece of slag
onasamudram it was obvious, from the truly industrial proportions. The majority lcibles, but there was also a substantial hal detailed report on this and other sites g crucible steel.
ext centre is in the Mysore district. The un (1807), Heyne (in Bronson. 1986), and intersting to note Bronson's comment on descriptions, and the problem of assaying
y.
initial field publications on wootz (a term d have been such paragons of their kind. n without bothering to add footnotes, that an's and Heyne's descriptions".
consistencies in the various accounts, the to be conical or "plantain-flower" (C.V.B., The crucibles were charged with wrought leaves (Heyne, in Bronson), and/or rice were placed in the furnace which was fired med the conical shape of the inside of the site in this area is Gattihoshalli, near as been studied principally by Mr. K.N.P. lire, Bangalore, in conjunction with other 70).
rough the good offices of Mr. K.N.P. Rao Director of Chitradurg Copper Co Lid., to

Page 44
visit the site at Gattihoshalli. As with Kon an industrial scale and, again, it comp. fragments of dark green and blue glassy resembling blast-furnace slag (Tylecote, 1 these and the konasamudram crucibles compostion of charred rice husks with cla of the ingot and a thin surface layer of slag the ingot would have been. The externa glassy slag which tends to run down the ov layer structure: an inner crucible with contributes to the glassy slag formation. M very like thumb impressions, in the centri
Arange of samples, including an unf charge and two ingots, from a Mysore sit of Archaeology in London, and are illustr
Tamil Nadu
The third steel manufacturing centri district. The documentary evidence for th: it, "Somewhat doubtful status". From what similar to that of Mysore and involves flower-pot shape (Bronson, 1986), with w
While the Department of Ancie Thanjavur intends to undertake a study of what no sites have been located and exam
The fourth steel making centre in S in the follwing section. Bronson points ou area are described as being crystalline manufacture of damascene blades. He t process types: the South Indian process, Lanka, which involves a crucible charge

asamudram, the extent of the debris is on ises primarily of broken crucibles and slag. Tylecote describes this material as 984).There are many similarities between . The crucible fabric is a coarse black 7. There is a "fin" of slag indicating the top on the internal wall of the crucible where surface is covered with a thick layer of er the walls of the crucible forming a two a coarse, protective outer layer which any of the covers have small indentations, 2 of their external surfaces.
ired and afired crucible, atypical crucible e is now in the collection of the Institute ated in Plates 1-5.
e in India was in TamilNadu, in the Salem is centre is scanty and of, as Bronson puts , can be gleaned, it seems the process was charging the crucible, of either pear or orught iron and, either wood, or leaves.
nt Industries at the Tamil University, crucible steel in Tamil Nadu, it appears ples of crucibles have not been found.
ri Lanka will be dealt with in more depth that only the ingots from the Hyderabad
and, consequently, were used in the hus sub-divides the four areas into two including Mysore, Tamil Nadu and Sri of Wrought iron and dried wood and/or

Page 45
leaves, and the Hyderabad process, in wh of iron. It should be stated that the descri and draw primarily on the visual impressi visit to India. They do not take into acco concerning ores, smelting processes, furr documentary sources.
Crucible Steel in Sri Lanka
As far as Sri Lanka is concerned 1 literature. The mid-ninth century writer, Swords (Hammer-Purgstall, 1854; Wulff, steel from Serendib. He mentions fou favoured Serendib steel: Yeman, Fars, Again, there is no hardevidence to conne Interstingly, the date of this reference (a with the radiocarbon daes for the west-fa Samanalawewa Archaeological Survey ( can be fathomed, from the surface matc processes taking place but, as Suggested, t sound evidence for a more pedestraian local needs and may, therefore, be pro product (ibid.).
Later writers allude to steel makin the techniques used in its production. K1 reads, "Steel they can make of their Ir account of bloomery iron smelting, has li
"Wether the Singalese know how t satisfactory manner: I rather think they case-hardening (carburizing)-"
Tennent (1859) quotes from a repo 1847-48) in 1854 on the minerals of Sri L

ich the crucible is charged with two types ptions giben above are extremely limited ons gathered by the author during a field unt the wealth of additional information. lace types, etc. Which is contained in the
the first refernces to steel occur in Arab al-Kindi, in his book on the Qualities of 1966) pays great attemtion to the superior r important Sword-making centres that Khorasan and Mansura (Bronson, 1986). ct this famed steel with a crucible process. bout 873 A.D. (Wulff, 1966)) coincides cing metallurgical sites discovered by the suleff, 1990 (this Volume)). As yet, little rial alone, as to the exact metallurgical hese sites appear to be contemporary with ploomery iron smelting process servicing ducing a very different, specialized end
g in Sri Lanka but few say anything about nox’s (1681) only comment on the subject on". Davy (1821), despite his thorough ttle to say on the subject.
o make steel, I have not ascertained in a do; they are in the constant practice of
rt made by Dr.Gygax (Colonial Geologist anka, which says, "the wrought iron from

Page 46
it the iron ore requires no puddling, diamond." there are, no doubt, other simi deal in the unraveling questions such as made in Sri Lanka.
The first useful account known t contribution to the Ceylon Almanack of 1. the "Kandyan Mode of Manufacturing constituted "a little inland trade --- now m the District of Badulla", but that it had bee He describes the technique as follows.
"It consistin introducing a smallbar form which they call "covery" with pieces (Ranawara of the Singhalese). The open clay, and it is placed in a charcoal fire fo supplied to the iron, which is converted to of the best qualities are as follows; 7 parts use the wood of the Toddelia aculeata, the case the proportions are 3 of iron to 1 of inferior steel, but by increasing the iron t this kind of steel is not generally manufac
He then quotes from a lecture give the Great Exhibition of 1851, and from H how two blacksmiths from the Ouvah Dis with 24 small bars of steel, which are cal claims that steel had been manufactured Irewandumpalla in Kandepalle.", and th Hanahappawaela Kammala and Kosgama at Mahawalgaha in Saffragam district."
The next, and most famous, accoun Ananda Coomaraswamy in his book Coomaraswamy first described seeing iro both in the Balangoda district, in the .

and converted into steel, it cuts like a ar references but they do not help a great now, where and when crucible steel was
) the author is that by Ondaatje in his 354 (Ondaatje, 1854). In this he describes Steel", and claims that, by that time, it ade only in Saffragam and Kandepalle in naflourishing industry under native rule.
of goodiron into a clay mould of a tubular of dried wood of the Cassia aurivulata end of the tube is afterwards closed with r two hours, by which process carbon is steel. The proportions for making steel iron to 3 parts of dried wood. They also "Kudu Meris" of the Singhalese in which wood. This wood, however, produces an O5 parts a better kind may be obtained. tured, as it is brittle and unmalleable."
n by Prof. royle to the Society of Arts at eath (1839). He continues by describing trict annually supplied the Kings' stores led "WAna karal" (steel seed pod). He at, "Deheigolla and Iwalla in Wellasse; ut it was then still made at, "Horaguna Kammala, belinging to Kandepalle, also
of crucible steel in Sri Lanka is that by Mediaeval Sinhalese Art (1908). n being smelted and steel being made, Annual Administration Reports of the

Page 47
Mineralogical Survey, of which he was th The same account appears in a paper in t account of the smelting process is extre1 this paper, only the Steel making passage
Coomaraswamy saw the steel bei The central part of his description is quo
"The steel makers are smiths (nav yamannu smelters) from whom they bu smaller, and at the ground level, instead O it is a semi-circular hearth filled with cha bellows, which are identical with those of crucibles, each about eight inches long, t inch in thickness. Into the crucible is Ranavara (Cassia auriculata); in the pro the case examined. The crucible is cove for the escape of gas; six crucibles thus pr a fire started. Very soon the gases burn stopped. Then the blast is kept up conti and more charcoal added, the great obj distribution of heat. When the steel is front part of the hearth, so that the blas tubes are lifted up one by one in long in quite liquid. Any which are not are qui time. The others are laid down to cool a of steel removed."
A sample of the steel was analys contain 1.97% carbon, and only very fain text and the footnotes of the passage, Coc and to other writers on Indian steel, notal 1986). From this we can construe that Co. and importance of crucible steel. BI Coomaraswamy's work is among the b descriptions of wootz making, we must

len Chief Mineralogist, for 1903 and 1904. he Ceylon Geographer (1961). While the mely important, from the point of view of
will be assessed here.
ng made, "at Alutnuwara" by two old men. sted below.
adanno), thus much higher caste than the y the iron required. --- The furnace --- is fbeing raised three feet above the ground; rcoal, into which air is conducted from the the iron furnace. The steel is made in clay wo inches in diameter, and a quarter of an put a piece of iron, with some chips of portion of 12 1/2 oz. iron to 5 oz. wood, in red with a lid, having small holes pierced epared are embedded in the charcoal, and off, and while this goes on the blowing is nuously, while the tubes are turned about ect being to keep up a constant and even ikely to be ready, a hole is opened in the it goes right through the furnace, and the on tongs and shaken to see if the steel is te ready are returned to the furnace for a ind subsequently broken open and the bar
ed at the Imperial Institute and found to ttraces of sulphur and phosphorus. In the bmarSwamy makes reference to Ondaatke, bly Yule and Sambhasiva Iyer (in Bronson, omaraswamy was well aware of the interest onson (ibid.) says of this account, "As est documented and most credible of all
accept his word." The photographs that

Page 48
Coomaraswamy took of both the smelting most convincing corroboration.
While Coomaraswamy himself does not collected on this occasion, Hadfield (191 that samples of both the crucibles and the then in the Colombo Museum. P.G.Cool Ceylon says, "some recently found clay tul (wane karal), are on view in the Museun Sadly, neithersets of samples can now bel and there are presently no accessible exa
Crucible Steel and The Samanalaw
One of the primary aims of the Sama 1990 (this volume) was to relocate Cooma sezrch for other, similar sites in th archaeo-metallurgical data that began to including the discovery of the previo iron-working sites, finding the steel site w
Much of the survey work involved c iron-working, through interviews with lo Blacksmithvillage at Hatanpola, close to til of the smiths, H.A. Elias, recognised ou guidance, the site was located in the villa miles from Alutnuwara. H.A.Elias knew re-used the broken crucibles to melt brass
The site is situated in a village gard in the centre of the smallvillage of Mawalg are 163-000 N and 193-900 E, and the s volume)). The garden is considerably ov visible in the exposed banks of the garden visible in the bank over a distance of 16m a The site is far smaller than any observed i

; and steel making processes provide the
mention where he deposited the samples 2) says in his paper on iron in Sri Lanka steel prepared for Coomaraswamy were. 'ay (1967), in his book on the geology of )es or moulds (kova) still with their casts 1 of the Geological Survey Department. pcated, at least, not by the present author. mples of steel ingots in Sri Lanka.
ewa Archaeological Survey
nalawewa Archaeological Survey (Juleff, araswamy's steel making site, and also to e locality. Despite the wealth of emerge from the first day of the Survey, usly unrecorded series of west-facing as not as straightforward as anticipate.
ollecting etnographic data on traditional cal people. It was during a visit to the he Alutnuwara Devale (temple), that one description of a crucible and, with his ge of Mawalgaha, about one and a half of the site only because he occasionally for decorative work on knives he forged.
'n immediately overlooking paddy fields aha. The metric co-ordinates for the site ite distribution ma[s (Juleff, 1990 (this ergrown and the crucible debris is only above th paddy fields. The crucibles are nd the overall height of the bank is 1.5m. 1 India.

Page 49
Asurface layer of 30cm, visible also almost entirely of large, complete, planosurface texture of these slag cakes, whic "knobbly" and, in appearance, they do not cakes found elsewhere in the survey area sectioned, these cakes are shown to conta appear to be "furnace bottoms" from a sn smithing hearth bottoms. Assessing fron explanation seems more probable. The topmost layer of the site.
Beneath the layer of "furnace bott crucible fragments, densely packed in a sc crucibles, illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3, cor The fragments vary in size and completer almost entire crucibles missing only th Coomaraswamy's description (Fig. 2), ha are represented in the debris. Although coveredwith glassy slag, no separate fragin
At about a distance of 30m from th higher elevation, another surface scattero site, which may be interpreted as another situated in a village garden. The artifact a fragments of crucibles, but, in this case, th with holes; two tuyere ends, in both of wh in maximum diameter; and many small lun slag similar to that observed on the Indiau
Looking more closely at the featu Indian material become apparent. The cr Gattihoshalli, although longer and more thinner than any of the Indian examples charred rice husk and clay, and is the sa Indian crucibles, the external walls are c black glassy slag which appears to run dov

in the exposed bank section, is composed xonvex or convex-convex slag cakes. The h often weigh upto 2kg, is consistently quite match other "furnace bottom" slag at bloomery iron smelting sites. When in large inclusions of metallic iron. They helting operation, although, they may be a visual examination only, the former “e are very few broken crucibles in this
oms" there is a thick deposit of broken bil and charcoal matrix. The shape of the iform's to Coomaraswamy's description. less from small base or wall fragments to eir lids. Lids, which also conform to ving several small pierced holes in them, the external surfaces of the crucibles are nents of slag were found in the deposit.
he site described above, and on a slightly fcrucible fragments was discovered. This working centre of the same site, is, again, issemblage of th4 scatter includes broken le fragments are far smaller; crucible lids ich the tuyereis ovalinshape and 3.5 cm ps and fragments ofgreen and blue glassy
sites.
res of the crucibles similarities with the ucible shape is reminiscent of those from slender. While the crucible walls are , the fabric is of the same composition, me uniform blak colour. As with all the overed with a layer of the green, blue or inware and collect in thick viscous lumps

Page 50
around the base. The crucible lids are fa Konasamudram or Gattihoshalli, and intentionally pierced. Just as with the Indi lined with a thin layer of glassy slag which thick viscous lumps around the base. The those from either Konasamudram or Gatt they were intentionally pierced. Just as ingot space is lined with a thin layer of glas by a latdral slag "fin". However, there is a from Mawalgaha. This second "fin" runs : down the crucible, and marks the top of th side to cool (see Fig. 3). This piece of e account with pleasing simplicity. The ingo thin shape, very like the wani karal (steel would have been far easier to forge into b hemispherical form that would have resulte cooling.
In addition to collecting an exami interviews were held with the inhabitants any information pertaining to steel making Initially, it seemed that almost nothing gradually information began to emerge sources. It is possible that the initial reluta being associated with iron working of any
The fact that this was the site that ( when one of the villagers mentioned that t now deceased, relations in the Nationa Mawalgaha carry the initials W.A. in th achariya meaning craftman. All the smith: H.A., meaning Hatanpola Achariya.
All of the blacksmiths consulted we auriculata, was not used in the crucible cl was. While it is true that Miis not generall

r less substantial than those from either
differ importantly in that they wer an material, internally, the ingot space is appears to run downwards and collect in crucible lids are far less substantial than ihboshalli, and differ importantly in that with the Indian material, internally, the sy slag and the top of the ingotis marked econd "fin" in all the crucibles examined at right angles to the first, longitudinally e ingot when the crucible was lain on its vidence corronorates Coomaraswamy's t would, therefore, have taken on a long seed pod) of its customary name, which lades or cutting edges for tools than the :difthe crucible remained upright during
ling a range of samples from the sites, of Mawlgaha and Hatanpola, to record that might remain in local oral tradition. was remembered about the site, but that was born out by several different
nce was due to the caste connotations of kind.
DoomarSwamy described was confirmed here were said to be photographs of his, 1 Museum. Some of the villagers in eir surnames denoting Wani achariya, at Hatanpola have the surname initials
re in agreement that Ranawara, Cassia large, but that Mi, Madhuca longifolia, 7 a rare tree in Sri Lanka, it is interesting

Page 51
that within 30m of the first crucible steels immediately pointed out by the villagers a does not grow wild anywhere in the are: never used it for fuel or charcoal. The que thoroughly investigated as part of the rese; and it is clear that there is a definite pref that was used consistently. Perhaps,
Coomaraswamy's account. The fact that a of Cassia auriculata, which is common an mentions it, may have led Coomaraswamy
One of the older blackSmiths at Ha steel-making workshop in operation. included the insistence that the steel was I molten steel being poured from one cr achieved while the crucible was soft, and visualize. Although he did qualify the stat( solidified immediately after pouring and this is the case, are there not many mor cri this account it would take 70 crucibles explained that the crucibles were reused S sounds implausible, it is not the first time it a similar story, told by an old man in Navangama in the Kotmale district in t references in the literature to pouring iro
"Iron-ore is found interlared in e considerable depth under ground. It is blwon with two bellows. The scoria is sep for the purpose, and the melted mass is which it is purified father, and forged for in Europe, Africa and Asia, 1770-79, Sec
In most other aspects the blacksmit concurred with other spoken accounts in Mi. In addition, he

ite there grows a large Mitree which was being associated with the site. Ranawara and the area and the blackSmiths have 'stion fo choices of wood for charcoal was arch into the bloomery smelting processes ered range of species, native to the area, in this point we find the first flaw in ill the writers on Indian steel-making talk d abundant there, and that Ondaatje also to make an unsubstantiated assumption.
tanpola claimed he could remember the His account was slightly confusing and efined in a series of seven crucibles. The ucible to the next. How this could be he metal remained molten, is difficult to ment by saying that the metal cooled and had to be heated again to melt it. Why, if ucibles left on the site when, according to to produce 10 ingots? The blacksmith everal times over. Although this account thas been heard. The author came acroSS the traditional iron-working village of he central hills. There are also oblige in from crucibles into moulds.
arth and clay, and that sometimes to a melted in crucibles over a fire, which is 2rated from it with tongs made expressly poured into a mould made of clay, after smaller uses." (from Thunberg's Travels ond Journey to Mature).
's explanation of the process and the site luding the question of Ranawara versus

Page 52
was insistent that the Waniachariya sme buy it from the smelters as Coomaraswa process used and the ore exploted the bla sure that they used a specialized techni This would xplain the large numbers of' they do not appear to be the same as ot Researchinto the bloomery smeltingtra intertrading, of products or technology, exchange system was controlled by the te the service rent, or rakakariya system (, another ill considered statement?
That this site is not only the lo demonstration but also the site referred introduced the exicting prospect that thi would yield further evidence. Three pj Koslanda, Horaguna Hanahappawaela at Kosgama, barely five miles from Ma investigated and, with the advantave of h the advantage of having examples focurc little problems. However, while there is { Smelting at Kosgama, it can be stated wi produced at any of the sites. There were I never seen crucibles resembling in any \ interesting to speculate that, in this exc reverse order, the footsteps of Coomaras Chief Mineralogist to the Mineralogical have explored the entire region from Rat must have had in the back of his mind Ondaatje.
Finally, as part of the overall strat taken from the Mawalgaha site. The dat Analytic of Florida, USA and the calibra this volume (Deraniyagala, 1990; Juleff, range from 1643 AD to 1680 AD, althoug

ted their own iron at the site. They did not my reports. In the details of the smelting cksmith was unclear but he was reasonably (ue to produce the raw iron they needed. furnace bottoms" on the the site, and why her bloomery smelting "furnace bottoms". lition has shown that there was little or no between smelters and Smiths, and that the mple, or devale, and the landlord through uless, 1990). Has Coomaraswamy made
cation of Coomaraswamy's steel making to by Ondaatke is indispitable. This fact 2 other locations mentioned by Ondaatje laces were explored: Irewandympalla, at Horagune and the Kosgama Kammala at walgaha. All three were thoroughly laving examples fo investigated and, with ibles, locating sites should have presented vidence of blacksmithing at all three, and th confidence that crucible steel was not to crucible remains and local villagers had vay the examples from Mawalgaha. It is ercise... we may have been following, in wamy in the search for crucible steel. As Survey, Coomaraswamy would no doubt napura to Koslanda and, all the while, he the names of the places mentioned by
egy of the survey, a charcoal sample was ng of the sample was carried out by Beta ed results, which are quoted elsewher in 990), give a date of 1663 AD and a date 1 Deraniyagala (1990) has calculated the

Page 53
range, according to Stuvier and Pearson (
In conclusion, it would be fatuous t the data set out here. Until the material re and ingots of Sri Lankan steel have been command of the full picture. Howeve Samanalawewa Survey, the subject has reliance on Coomaraswamy's descrip Coomaraswamy's writings has been born to make a more critical assessment of spe
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to Thelma Lowe for prize discoveries of her work. I am also g same reasons. Their willingness to share perspective to the Srilankan material. I of Hatampola, without whose contribution and all my colleagues from the Archaeolc then Samanalawewa Survey.

(1986), to extend up to the 20th century.
o attempt to interpret further at this stage rmains of the site are analysed thoroughly found and analysed, we will still ot be in ir, with the preliminary findings of the mushroomed away from its customary tion alone. While the major part of out by the field evidence it is now possible cific points in his account.
taking thetime to show mw some of the rateful to K.N.P.Rao of Bangalore for hite the results of their work has lent greater would also like to thank the blackSmiths the subject would be far less entertaining, gy Department who have collaborated in

Page 54
References
al-Hassan, A.Y. and Hill, D.R.
1986 Islamic Technolgy. Cambridge: Cambridge University P.
Belaiew, N.
1918 Damascene Steel. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute
Bronson, B.
1986 The Making and Selling of Wootz, a Crucible Steel of Inc
Buchanan, F. 1807 AJourney from Madras through the Cout
Coomaraswamy, a,K.
1956 (1908) Mediaeval Sinhalese Art. New York: pantheon Bo
Coomaraswamy, A.K.
1961 The Early Iron and steel Industry of Ceylon. The Ceylon
Cooray, P.G.
1967 An Introduction to the Geology of Ceylon. Spolia Zeylan
C.V.B.
1820 Method of Making Steel in Mysore. Asiatic Journal 9:44.
Davy, J.
1821. An Account of the Interior of Ceylon, and of its Inhabit
Rees, Orme and Brown.
Deraniyagala, S.U.
1990 The Radio Carbon Chronolgy of the Proto and Early
Historic periods of Sri Lanka. Towards the Second Centenary

ess and UNESCO.
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lian. Archaeolmaterials, 1(1):13-51.
tries of Mysroe, Canara and Malabar. 3 vols. London.
oks.
Geographer, 15,1-4:31-38.
ica, 31(1)
ints, with Travels in that Island. London: LOngman, Hurst,
of Archaeology in Sri Lanka. Colombo.

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Health, J.M.
1839 On Indian Iron and Steel. Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Hadfield, R.
1912 Sinhalese Iron and Steel of Ancient Origin. Journal of
Juleff, G.
1990 The Samanalawewa Archaeological Survey. Towards th
Juleff, G.
1990 The Samanalawewa Archaeological Survey. Interim
Generating Board. Colombo, March 1990.
Knox, R.
1681 An Historical Relation of Ceylon. London: Richard Ch
Lowe, T.L.
1990 Refractories in High-Carbon Iron Processing: A Prelimi
and Cross-cultural Interractions in Ceramics. Ceramics and
Lowe, T.L., N. Merk, and G. Thomas
1990 An Historical fiber-Reinforced Ceramic Composite: C
Iissues in Art and Archaeology, ed. P. Vandiver. San Francis
Maddin, R.
1984 The Early Blacksmith. The Crafts of the Blacksmith. E
Ondaatke, W.C.
1854. The Kandyan Mode of Manufacturing Steel. Ceylon Al
Piaskowski, J.
1976 Damascus Steel: The Greatest Achievement of Early M
the History of Arabic Science, eds. al-Hassan, Karmi and Na
Rao, K.N.P., J.K. Mukherjee, and A.K.Lahiri.
1970 Some Observations of the Structure of Ancient Steel

Society 5:390-393.
he Iron and Steel Institure 85,1:134-186.
e Second Centenary of Archaeology in Sri Lanka. Colombo.
Report Submitted to Balfouyr Beatty and Central Electricity
iswell.
nary Study of the Deccani Wootz-Making Crucibles. Cross-craft
Civilization 4:237-251.
haracterization of teh "Wootz" Crucible Refractory. Materials
co, Materials Research Society symposium (in press).
ds. Scott, B.G. and Cleere, H. Ulster Museum, 7-17.
manack. Appendix, p.40.
etallurgy. Proceedings of the First International Symposium for
mnum. University of Aleppo, vol. 2:239-245.
from South India and its Mode of Production. Bulletin of the

Page 56
Historical Metallurgy Group 4,1:12-17.
Schoff, W.H.
1915 The Eastern Iron Trade of the Roman Empire. Journal c
Stuiver, M. and G.W. Pearson.
1986 High Precision Calobration of the Radiocarbon Scale, AL
Tennent, Sir J.E.
1859 Ceylon. Vols. I & II. London, Longman.
Tylecote, R.F.
1984 Early Metallurgy in India. The Metallurgist and Materials
Voysey, H.W.
1832 Description of th Native Manufacture of Steel in India. Jou
Wilkinson, H.
1837 On the cause of the external pattern, or watering of the Da
of Great Britain and Ireland. 4:187-193.
Wulff, Hand E.
1966 The Traditional Crafts of Persia. Their development, tech Cambridge Mass.: M.I.T. Press.
Yater, W.
1982-4 The Legendary Steel of Damascus. The Anvil's Ring, (SI
Zschokke, B.
1924. Du damascee et es lames de Damas. Revue de Metallurgie

the American Oriental Society. 35(3):224-239.
1950-500 BC. Radiocarbon, 28(2B):805-838.
Technologist. July 1984:343-350.
urnal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1:245-247.
mascus sword blades. Hournal of the Royal Asiatic Society
hology and influence on Eastern and Western Civilisations.
ing 1982):1-8; (Summer 1983):3-13; (Winter 1983-84):3-17.
1:635-669.

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Figures
Fig. 1 Cross section of a Deccanicrucible (courtesy of Tehlma
Fig. 2A Mawalgaha crucible and lid.
Fig. 3 Section through a Mawalgaha crucible showing lateral a
Plates
Plate 1. Fired and unfired crucibles from Mysore area (courte
Plate 2. Tupical crucible charge for a Mysore crucible includi
and six pieces of dried wood (courtcsy of Institute of Arcaheol
Plate 3. Two stcclingots from Mysorc (courtesy of Institute of
Plate 4. Metallographic structure of Mysore sticci ingot at low
Plate 5. Mct allographic structure of Mysore sticel ingot at hig

Lowe).
nd longitudinal "fins".
sy of Institure of Archaeology, London).
ng a bar and a fragment of wrought iron, two crumpled leaves
ogy, London).
Archaeology, London).
magnification.
n magnification.

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* 仓 > © Q
Stag
Ref rectory
Vesse
in got
 

Fig.1

Page 59
Lau
Fig. 2 Å Ma Falgaha cru
 
 

لللط
Lcible and lid.

Page 60
fins
Fig. 3 Section through showing lateral and longitudin
 

الجی me=Assessها
Mawalgaha crucible Ll "fins".

Page 61


Page 62
56
| Crn
Pl. 2
 

Page 63
Pl. 3
 

Page 64
P
 

S.

Page 65
P. 5
 

Page 66


Page 67
THE DENTIFICATION OF M MATER ALS AND THEIR OCCU CONTI
B
Annie
Abstract
A large number of artefacts excav over the last ten years have been found to within their corrosion layers. These orga as a result of their proximity to corrodin mineral preserved. Using both opticalanc possible to identify these traces, often to organic materials have been identified southern India.
Introduction
The laws of thermodynamics state follows therefore, that all matter whethe decay. As the composition of all organic integral part of the natural process of de environment as deterioration takes plac divided into two parts - physical anc deterioration the object is subjected to animals and runing water, whilst chemi chemical composition of the object brou bacteria. The survival of organic material of the material but on that of the burial e: the agents of decay during burial will resu this is often difficult to predict owing environment. Perhaps the two most in material are water and oxygen. Water physical and chemical damage, but activ controls mocro organism activity. As a ri water is inactivated or absent as in the fri

NERAL PRESERVED ORGANIC RANCE IN THE INDAN SUB NANT.
у
Howell
ated from archaeological sites in Europe have traces of organic materials preserved nic materials which have been preserved g metal artefacts are referred to as being lscanning electron microscopy it has been species level. Recently mineral preserved | on artefacts excavated at Sannathi in
that all order must decline into chaos. It r inorganic or organic must be subject to materials is based on carbon they are an scay and their carbon is recycled into the e. The decay of organic materials may be l chemical. In the physical process of physical abrasion by agents such as small cal deterioration involves changes in the ght about by factors such as water, air or therefore, depends not only on the nature nvironment. The absence of some or all of lt in some degree of preservation although g to the complex, nature of the burial portant factors in the decay of organic as the universal catalyst not only inflicts ates other agents of decay, whilst exygen sult organic materials survive best where ozen Scythian tombs in Siberia (7th to 3rd

Page 68
century BC) or the shallow, dessicated oxygen is excluded and the burial env waterlogged deposits at York.
In 1962 Biek noted for the first
corroded metal artefacts. These organic ri debeis which is associated with the buI organic residues, but the remnants of associated with the artefact during it's peri the organic componant of a composite o artefacts have been recovered which sho products, bone, hornivory and textile whic to corroding metal artefacts.
The Mechanisms of Mineral Preservatin
Mineral preservation of organic ma object is adjacent ot or in direct contact wi lead artefacts. Corroding iron, copper a organic consitutant from micro organism preservation to take place is one which i formation of iron oxides or basic copper : to occur the pH and redox potential of the corrosion to take place until passivation o
Metal corrosion products appear to pres 1. Coating
This is perhaps the most common original organic material is coated with me organisms. This type of preservation usuall salts which have bacteriostatic propert preventing hydrolysis from ccuring. The preserved although rapid post excavation large crystals which disrupt and deform textile and animal fibres tend to be preser

pre dynastic burials of Eygpt; or where ironment becomes anaerobic as in the
time the presence of organic traces on >mains were not merely the usual organic ial environment e.g. seeds, insects and brganic objects which had been closely od of manufacture and usage or had been bject. In recent years a large number of w traces of wood, leather and other skin ch have been preserved by their proximity
iterials will only take place if the organic th rapidly corroding iron, copper alloy or ld lead produce salts which protect the activity. The ideal environment for such S aggressive to metals causing the rapid and lead Carbonates. For such reactions system must be sufficient to enable active
CCS.
erve organic materials in three ways:
form of mineral preservation where the talsalts which inhibit the activity of micro y occurs in the presence of copper or lead ies and seal off the organic material morphological structure is usually well corrosion may lead to the formaiton of making identification difficult. Wood, ved in this manner.

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2. Impregnation.
Here metal salts coat and imprey absence of toxic agents allows decay although the presence of metallic salts d product is one which is completely mine Bone, antler, ivory, horn and leather te
3. Replacement.
This type of preservation is usual also take place to a lesser extent in the organic materials becomes consolidate it decays leaving a negative impression corrosion layers. Wood, textiles and pel surface detail, and where individual fib surface detail usually remains.
The actual process of mineral although much research work has bee materials are associated with water w physical forces, adsorbed onto the mo bonding or it can be a constituant of th the adjacent metal work decays the Cul replace some of the water and bond compounds along the length of the indiv for a sufficient length of time to enable to be recorded in the corrosion layers.
Physical Appearance.
Tothenaked eye organic materi appear as thin, flat traces which di surrounding corrosion layers. Preserv traces which tend to be friable with a by copper corrosion products the trac tend to be hard and brittle. Orange de

53
nate mainly porous organic materials The of the organic componant to take place, bes tend to delay the process. The resulting alised and tends to be fragile and powdery. nd to be preserved in this way.
y observed in iron corrosion layers but can resence of copper corrosion products. The i with corrosion products, following which L of it's surface detail and structure in the ts preserved in this way usually exhibit fine res have been encapsulated a mould of the
preservation is still not fully understood in carried out in recent years. All organic hich can be held within the capillaries by lectules and held in position by hydrogen le molecule itself. It seems possible that as 2+ and the Fe3+ ions which are produced
onto the hydroxyl groups forming solid idual fibres. This delays the process of decay a record of the structural and surface details
ls preserved by metallic corrosion products fer in appearance and texture from the tion by iron salts produces orange/brown owdery texture. In the case of preservation s are usually darkgreen/black in colour and Osits may also occur on copper alloy objects

Page 70
if preservatin has taken place in the coppe salts has occured the organic material appe similar to the surrounding lead carbonate
Identification Techniques.
Low powered incident light microsc and cleaning carried out on archaeologica for the initial identification of mineral pre: -x25) will reveal the "organic" nature of sal appear to be very similar to the sur) magnifications (x12 - x30) will reveal som enable an identification of the type of org
The scanning electron microscope (S.E.M detail and the internal structure of sample the light microscope, greater resolution an x3000. Such high magnifications allow the i diagnostic feature which may be visible or
Identification of Mineral Preserved
1. Wood
The anatomical features of wood ten products which often enables accurate id features present need to be examined insa radial longitudinal and tangential longitu or T.S.) the arrangement of the pores ar parenchyma and any unusual features longitudinal section (R.L.S.) may show thickening in the vessels or tracheids, p longitudinal details or ray cells or whether the tangential longitudinal section (T.L.S. arrangement, the perforation plates, the

roxide layer. Where preservation by lead ars as afriable cream/pale brown deposit corrosion cust.
:opy is essential for al initial examination ll artefacts and is therefore, usually used served materials. Low magnifications (x6 mples, as without magnification they may rounding corrosion products. Higher e surface features and will in most cases anic materials present to be made.
M) is employed to study both the surface s. It has a depth of field 300 times that of d can provide magnifications in excess of dentification of many morphological and
the surface or in corss section.
Samples.
ld to be well preserved by metal corrosion entifications to be made. The diagnostic mples taken from three planes-tranverse, dinal. In cross section (transverse sectin ld resin canals, the distribution of axial of the rays may be visible. The radial perforation plates in the vessels, spiral itting in tracheids, cross field pits, the the wood is ring or diffuse porous. From .) the cross section of ray cells and their axial resin canals and axial parenchyma

Page 71
may be visible. By noting the presence of is possible to use an established microsco However, owing to the friable nature of r across section for study and so identificat from the longitudinal sections along. For longitudinal sections are most indicat transverse and radial longitudinal section
2. Animal Tissues.
As previously mentioned various fleeces, pelts, hairs, bone, antler, ivory ar corroding metalwork. However, unlike number of diagnostic features which allo in most cases it is only possible to determ
a. Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn.
Bone and antler are both compose very similar structures making it very diff samples. Bone can sometimes be identil which may be visible in both longitudinal
The term ivory is usually ascribed 1 when referring to other large mammaliar is composed of dentine and has a laminat canal system. During burial the dentine before mineral preservation can occur. tubules can be seen at high magnification but not the species.
Horn is composed of Keratin whicl burial. When preserved by metal corrc maintained and is visible as rows of pa structure resembles that of wood but usi

some or all of these diagnostic features it pickey to identify the species of the wood. eplaced wood it is often difficult to obtain ion has to be based on information gained hardwoods the transverse and tangential ive, whereas for coniferous woods the . is give most information.
types of animal tissue such as leather, ld horn may be preserved by contact with wood they do not have the enormous ws the species to be identified. Therefore, line the types of material used.
d of collagen and hydroxyapetite and have icult to distinguish between them insamll fied by the presence of Haversian canals
and corss section.
o elephant tusks although it is often used teeth such as walrus or hippopotamus. It 2d structure caused by growth rings but no is rapidly attacked and decays to powder Jsing the s.E.M. the presence of dentinal is which will identify the material as ivory
hbreaks up into fine rippled layers during ision products the layeered structure is rralel ridges. At low magnifications this ng the higher magnifications of the S.E.M

Page 72
they can be distinguished by the lack of m
b. Leather and Skin Products.
Leather and its associated skin pro difficult to identify to species level. Identifi layer present in the upper section of the co collagen fibres forms a smooth surface inte rise to the distunguishing grain patterns. It skin type can be identified quite accura collection. However, if much of the grain p: sample in cross section it may be possibli animal tissues by the presence of collagen and fleeces tend to be well preserved by m identification as large concentrations of hail The hairs can be identified from the clearn layers prior to their decay. These moulds a the species type may be dtermined from th of a reference collection.
3. Textiles and Fibres.
Metal corrosion products tend to distorating or disturbing the weave or stitc be studied microscopically with very little have been coated by copper corrosion proc sequestering agents such as E.D.T.A. and t transmitted light microscopy. Textiles and fi can be identified with the aid of the S.E.M.
Uses and implications.
Through careful study of mineral pré is possible to produce reconstruction diagr do this it is essential to carefully plan the p

rphological features.
ducts such as fleece and pelts are also cation of skin types is based on the grain rium. The compact interweaving offine upted by empty hair follicles which give the grain pattern is well preserved the tely using simple keys or a reference attern has been removed, by viewing the 2 to distinguish the sample from other fibres in the corium. The hairs of pelts letal corrosion products and greatly aid is are often clearly visible on the surface. houlds which they make in the corrosion 'e usually seen as negative imprints, but e distinctive bract patterns with the aid
encapsulate individual fibres without ling. This enables the surface detail to lisruption to the sample. Where fibres ucts it is possible to extract them using carry outstandard examinations using respreserved in heavy corrosion layers
served organic traces on metal work it ms of the original artefact. In order to eces during excavation, and wherever

Page 73
Reconstruction of a large wooden box based on wood preserved by the corroded iron fittings,
 

Page 74
Sword with cut away scat
 

Orr
ory
Leather
Wood
Fleece with hairs next to
bade
ade
bard.

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6
possible to leave the mineral presserved
Wooden caskets have been Success on metal fittings such as hinges, locks, an was possible to reconstruct the box in together by wooden tenons and dowels addition to recording the carpentry te determine how the timbers used had bee
Much work has been carried out on tend to exhibit a wide range of mineral pl below three seperate traces of horn wel patterns runing in different directions. Th the pommel, grip and guard sections of th were identified on the blade. From the ri was possible to reconstruct the scabbar outermost layer was identified as leathe pattern. Further examination showed this patterns for sheep and goat are indisting had been inserted to keep the scabbard appeared to be closest to the blade were patterns as being those of sheep. It woul blade as the lanolin present in the fleece well oiled and helping to prevent rusting.
Occurance in India
During recent excavations at Sar number of metal artefacts were excav, preserved organic materials. A total of showed evidence for organic materials wh products. Four of the copper alloy artefa of curved lengths of copper alloy sheet w a series of horizontal bands. At various p copper pins had been hammered through orange/brown deposit was noted. Close

material in situ.
fully reconstructed from the traces found d bindings. In the example cited below it detail. Both mitred and butt joints held had been used in the construction. In chniques used it was also possible to n reduced to planks.
swords of the Anglo Saxon period as they reserved materials. In the example shown re identified on the hilt with their grain Lese were interpreted as corresponding to le hilt. Traces of leather, wood and fleece elatinship of these traces to each other it d in which the Sword was housed. The r on the basis of a well preserved grain to be either sheep or goat skin (the grain uishable). Below this thin layers of wood rigid and give it shape. The traces which identified from the extensive hair bract ld seem that a fleece lining protected the would act as a natural lubricant keeping it
nathi in Gulbarga district, Karnataka a ated which exhibited traces of mineral f five copper alloy and two iron artefacts ichhadbeenpreserved by metalcorrosion cts appeared to be very similar consisting ith a convex outer surface decorated with points along the length of the object small the surface. Around the copper pins on examination showed this to be traces of

Page 76
mineral preserved wood. From the conte the copper alloy fragments were in fact reconstruct the artefact proved to be diffic in situ and the mineral preserved wood dertermine the direction of the grain. H artefact was either an edging for a woode or votive object. The fifth copper allo perforated edges also appears to be conn possibly have been part of a plate attache frame. On cleaning the artefact it be composed of copper and gold,indicati importance when in use. The pins how content than the remainder of the artefa of mineral preserved material at these pi at a faster rate that the gold componant. piece of folded sheet were also shown tol wood. In the case of the spear head the where the artefact would have been attac iron sheet is not known, but it is possible t other wooden object. In all cases the min state of preservation and had become ex examination of the traces showed them to the species as samples could not be obtai owing to the delicate nature of the mater mineral preserved organic materials in composed of black cotton soil which is \ time of the monsoon, but dries out quite lead to rapid corrosion of the metalwo would be preserved, followed by subse artefact would be able to achieve equilib
Conclusion.
Research has shown that under certain b preserved by corroding metalwork, and th be identified using reference collections

xtual evidence it seemed probable that all part of the same artefact. An attempt to ult as the fragments had not beenplanned was very nfriable making it difficult to However it would seem possible that the in casket or part of a frame for a religious y object, fragments of a flat sheet with ected with object in some way. This could d to the box or part of the backing for the came evident that the alloy was in fact ng that it was an object of value and 'ever, appeared to have a higher copper ct which would explain the concentration oints, as the copper would have corroded The two iron objects, a spear head and a be supporting traces of mineral preserved wood was found at the base of the point ned to a wooden shaft. The purpose of the hat it was part of a fitting for a box or some eral preserved material was in avery poor temely powdery and friable. Preliminary be wood, but it was not possible to identify ned for the scanning electron microscope ial. It is perhaps not too surprising to find this context. The burial environment is well aerated and retains waterwell at the rapidly once the rains cease. This would k in which time the organic componant luent periods of stabilisation where the sium with the burial environment.
urial conditions organic materials can be at these mineral preserved structures can or established keys. With the aid of the

Page 77
scanning electron microscope more accu made and many of the technologicla deta valuabel information on the developmen perishable raw materials which were in u often help to verify or dispute the few lite
Acknowledgements.
Much of the work presented in th Monuments Laboratory of the Historic B England. The author would like to tha Laboratory for its support in this rese photographic material.

rate identifications of species type can be ils stueied. Such studies not only provide t of various technologies and the types of se during the early historical period, but rary references which exist.
is paper was undertaken at the Ancient uildings and Monuments Commission for nk the staff of the Ancient Monuments arch and for allowing the use of their

Page 78
References.
Appleyard. H.M.
(1969) “Fibres of archaeological interest, their examinatin anc
Archaeology, 2nd. edn, London, Thames & Hudson.
Barford.P.
(1979) 'Mineral Pseudomorphs of Organic Materials. A Study
Unpublished dissertatin).
Biek. L.
(1963) “Archaeology and the Microscope' London, Lutterwor
Cronyn.J., Pye.E & Watson. J.
(1985). The recognition and identificatin of traces of organic n
The Archaeologist and the Laboratory, London, C.B.A. Resea
Cronym. J.M.
(1990) The Elements of Archaeological Conservatin'. Londor
Edwards M.G.
(1982) & Watson.J. Ancient Monuments Laboratory Info1
Monuments commission.
Keepax.C.
(1977) 'Scanning electron Microscopy of Wood Replaced by Ir
(2) 145
Moraitou. G.
(1983) "Structure, Deterioration and Identification of Bone, .
Unpublished dissertation).
McLane. A.M. (1984) The Identification of Mineral Preserved Skin Products

identificatin', in Brothwell. D and Higgs. E., ed., Science in
in Burial Environments'. (Institute of Archaeology, London.
th Press.
naterials in associatin with metal artefacts'. In Phillips. P.ed.,
rch Report No.58.
l, Routledge.
mation Sheet Number 4. London, Historic Buildings and
on Corrosion Products'. Journal of Archaeological Science 2.
Antler, Horn and Ivory, (Institute of Archaeology, London,
, (University of Durham. Unpublished dissertation).

Page 79
Turgoose. S.
(1982) The Nature of Surviving Iron Objects'. In Clarke. Monographs and Reports No 53, London, National Maritim
Watson. J.
(1988) The Identification of Organic Materials Preserved by Microscopy in Archaeology, B.A.R. Internatinal Series 452,

..W. and Blackshaw S.M. ed., Conservation of Iron, Maritime
Museum.
Metal Corrosion Products'. In Olsen.S.L. ed., Scanning Electron
Oxford.

Page 80


Page 81
Pre-Harappan and Harappan
K. T. M
Through systematic exploration of seventeen Harappan sites which included being excavated by the Archaeologicals bisht and Surkotada which was excavated pattern of districution of Harappan sites Harappan immigrants came to Kutch ov
This was a significant observantic thought that at least some of the immigra settled in north Gujarat. There was alsc pertinent to us. There are innumerable M is specially rich in them. But none of the to indicate that they were transforming fr stage. It was therefore interesting to knov only after the mature Harappan commu any evidence to indicate that the Pre-Har to north Gujarat and they indicated the s
We, therefore, carried out a detail of the Rupen river, in an area bound by exploration brought to light 34 mature a
The Rupen estuary is built up of all the Rupen and its tributories flowing fro In response to an arid climate during developed a series of sand dues. Duringt were stabilized under a soil formation a now. Roads crossing the estuary cut thro Goudie and Hedge, 1978).

Settlements in North Gujarat
y M. Hegde
Kutch District, J.P.Joshi brought to light the large mound at Dholvira which is now urvey of India under the direction of R.S. in 1971 and 72 by Joshi (Joshi, 1972). The in Kutch clearly indicated to Joshi that the 2r land routes.
n. At the M.S. University of Baroda, we nt groups from the Indus Valley may have ) another question which appeared to be Mesolithic sites in Gujarat. North Gujarat se sites has shown the necessary evidence om foOdgatheringstage to food producing w if the settled way of life began in Gujarat nicites migrated into Gujarat or was there appan peasant communities also migrated ettled way of life in the state.
ed village to village survey in the estruary 23 15 - 23 45' N and 71 30 - 72 E. The nd late Harappan settlements.
luvial silt, sand and clay, brought down by m the western slopes of the Ratanga Hills. the late Plistocene period, the estuary he early part of the Holocene these dunes nd vagetation cover. The dunes are relict ught two dunes in each kilometer (Alcin,

Page 82
When the dune tops weathered not also numerous freshwater lakes between The sand and silt particles on the dunes when subjected to weathering produce carbonates. Clay particles being tiny, flak along with the monsoon run off and form depressions, converting them into lak perennial. They supply the potable water
The sub-soil water in the Rupen es it is not too close to the Rann, is not unfer the sources of perennial Supply of potab attractive land for agriculturists. The area the third mellinnium B.C. (Ramaswamy, 1 in this area ranges from 45 to 50 cm. In probably ranged between 90 and 100 cn therefore no wounder that we found as m
a Ca.
Unfortunately, many of the Harapp: using tractors. Upper layers of these sites v located in Nagwadvillage, close to the eas found to be least disturbed by modern-ag Rann, the soil on this dune was subject to contoured this duen and put it under phosphate content of the soilsmaples obt square to demarcate the ancient Harappa
Excavation within the phosphate r brick and rubble structures of the mature Below these structures, deep within the burials of the Pre-Harappan peasan pre-harappan burials includeds a variety forms fabric, slip and decoration closely recovered in the excavation at Amriand K to reveal the evidence of pre-harappanpea

only a fertile soil developed on them but
inter-dunal depressions were also formed. include particles of feldspars. Feldspars clay and respective alkali or alkali earth y and light flow down from the duen tops an impervious layer over the inter-dunal es. Many of these lakes are large and to the present day villagers in that area.
uary is brackish. The soil on the dunes, if tile. And inter-dunal depressions forming ble water, the Rupen estuary formed an received twice the present rainfall during 968). At present the mean annuar rainfall the third mellinnium B.C. the rain fall n. It was indeed an attractive land. It is any as 34 Harappansites within this small
an sites foundby us were deeply ploughed were heavily disturbed. One of these sites, tern edge of the Little Rann of Kutch was gricultire. Because of its proximity to the salt efflorescence. It was not fertile. We 10 metre squre grid and estimated the ained from 25 and 35 cm depth from each nvillage within the dune.
ch area brought to light successive mud Harappan period in the upper five layers, 'ergin soil were found extended and pot t community. Grave goods in these
of typical pre-harappan pottery whose re resumbled the pre-harappan pottery ot-digi, Nagwadais the first site in Gujarat sant settlement. There must be may more

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of these sites.
Our excavation so far on the Nag to unearth a clear habitation deposit oft It is very likely, that the pre-Harappan structural activities of the mature Hara mound later. We have found numerous pre-Harappan period in the lower most therefore clear that the pre-Harappanps their dead there.
Up above the pre-harappan gra habitation depost of the mature phase ( of four well-built structural Strate. The bricks. Mud Bricks were very well moul and 8 cm thick. Mud brick walls measu Arrangement of bricks on the walls s. stretchers. Rubble walls measure 50 c arranged using clay mortar.
From the floors of these structu relics. They enable us to reconstruct wall-being of the Harappanvillage comm date obtained on charcoal recovered frc of the structures. The date is 2140 = 8. radiocarbon assay.
Floors of the structures yielded a includee beautifully painted, gracefully Ware and Buff Ware. Among the shap with the incised radiating concentric ciu storage jars, bowls and dishes. Alo non-Harappan pottery produced in agri were also produced in a gritty red ware produced in this fabric. There were alsoF stud handles.

wada mound has been limited. We are yet he pre-Harappan peasant community in it. habiration deposit was disturbed by the ppan community who came to live on the s sherds and almost complete pots of the layer of the mature Harappan period. It is asants did live at Nagwada and also buried
ves at Nagwada was found a metre thick of Harappa culture. This deposit consisted
structures were built of rubble and mud ded and measured 32 cm long 16 cm broad red 50 cm thick. Clay was used as mortar. howed alternating layers of headers and m thick. Rubble was also very carefully
res we have recovered valuabel Harappan the activities, way of life and economic unity. Sofar, we have only one radiocarbon pm the second layer, from the floor ofone 0 B.C. Four more charcoal samples await
large quantity of Harappan pottery. These shaped and well backed Red Ware, Grey es were typical Harappan dishes-on-stand cle designs on the dishes, perforated jars, ng with these pottery there were also tty redware. Many of the Harappan shapes . Many of the Harappan shapes were also Black and Red Ware bowls with and without

Page 84
78
Among the other antiquities are a steatite, lapis lazuli, agate and amazonite.. were manufactured at Nagwada. We recov and unpolished stone pieces in other word manufacture, grooved Stones that were use were used in perforating the beads. C recovered at Nagwada are cylindrical, well and amazonite nodule are found near Na Kutch.
Excavation at Nagwada has also yi bangles at the site. Seashells like Turbinel third millennium B.C. During that time F Gujarat and Saurashtra was five metres h time the great and the Little Rann formed Rann was connected to the Gulf of Kutch shells. It is very likely that the Little Rann v exploited at Nagwada for producing shell yield a large number offragments cut shell and some fully polished with the Harapp and bangles were manufactured at Nagwa
We subjected the earth recovere floatation. This released the ancient flora floated up. These floral fragments were c. Institute of Palaeobotany at Lucknow for the occurrence of wheat, barley and bajr recovered more than thirty spindle words. thread which was probably weaved at the
The zoologist in the department ha percentage of sheep bones among the bc excavation from the mature Harappan leve was also weaved at Nagwada.

variety of ornamental beads made of Among these agate and amazonite beads ered in the excavation numerous chipped ls, unfinished beads in different stages of din polishing the beads and drill bits that ompleted agate and amazonite beads polished and beautiful to behold. Agate gwada on the bets, in the Little Rann of
elded evidence of manufacture of shell la Phrum was locally available during the Flandrian Sea level around Kutch, nothe igher than what it is to-day. During that an inlet of the Arbian Sea and the Little which to-day is rich in Turbinella Pyram vas equally rich in these shells. They were bangles. The excavation at Nagwada has circlets, some of them yet to be polished an chevron mark Over them. The beads da for sale at diferent Harappan sites.
d from the floors of the structures to l fragments from clay and sand and they ollected, dried and sent to Birbal Sahani 2xamination. The Institute has reported fragments. In the excavation we have These were used for producing cotton site.
as reported the occurrence of very high ones among the borus recovered in the 'ls. It is also very likely that woolen cloth

Page 85
Agriculture, cotton weaving, pro agate and amazonite ornamental beads a round activities of the Harappan commu much wealth for the people. This wealth brick houses and in the variety of anti Among them are a vareity of copper Orr three large sized are heads each of them handle they will have weighed much mo axes needed very strong bicps. These a Harappan community at Nagwada and health. A large number of variety o structures further support the economic v reflected in the import of lapis lazuli b. found in large numbers from each of the to Nagwada from the Rhori Hills in Sinc agate weights. The smallest of these wei twice that of the first, 1.925 gm. The larg that of the first, but weighs slightly less, also this weight around 54.50gm. These trade that formed a part of the activities the discovery of a Hazrappan sealing ol inscription at the top and the impression of this sealing at Nagwada clearly demo Nagwada were literate.
The site also yielded a terracotta i spincal shell object decorated with six s antiaquities recovered at Nagwada cle prosperous village. These villages sustai towns and cities.

iuction of woolen cloth, manufacture of nd shell bangles show the continuous year lity at Nagwada. These activities produced is reflected in well-built rubble and mud quities recovered from these structures. aments and tools. Among the tools were weighing more than 1800 grams. With the re than 2000 grams. Wielding such heavy ces reflect the physical well being of the nutritious food they are to maintain their f gold ornaments recovered from these vellbeing of these community which is also eads and ivory coloured long flint blades se structures. These blades were brought Ih. Among the other antiquities are three ghts 0.064 gm. The next one in size, being est of them should have weighed 64 times 54.43 gm. At Harappa and Mohenjo Daro weights clearly support the long distance at Nagwada. This is further supported by n a block of clay with a line of Harappan of a bull below the inscription. Occurence strated that at least some of the people at
mage of a mother goddess and a beautiful ets of concentric circles. Strucrtures and arly indicate that it was a hard working led the rich life that prevailed in Harappan

Page 86
80
References
B. Allchin, A. Goudie, K.T.M.Hegde,
1978. The Prehistory and Palaeography of the Great Indian De
J.P. Joshi,
Exploration in Kutch and Excavation at Surkotada and New lig
Baroda, Vol.22, PP. 98-144.
C.Ramaswamy,
1968, Monsoon over the Indus Valley Design the Harappan Pe

sert, Academic Press, London.
hton Harappan Migration, Journal of the Oriental Institute,
riod, Nature Vol. 217, No. 5129, PP 628-9.

Page 87
PROJECT: DAMIBEGODA, SRI LAN
BODHISATTV
B
Martin
In April 1987 I was commissioned by
(State Museums of Prussion Culture, We
large statute of coarse crystalline limesto
been planned as a single and short opera
adventurous restoration project which col years later, May 1990.
Dambegoda - description of the site
Dambegoda lies about 250 kilomet easte5rn part of Sri Lanka. A few kilom country which rises to a height of 2,500 m plain of the Yala National Park. Althougl by jungle it is relatively thickly populated v described as a village is about 5 kilometre
The Bodhisattva statue in Dambe, together with the temple complex and the statue at Maligavila, one kilometre away, out of a single block. While this part of th to the 8th century A. d., the Dambegoda the 10th century. 1 IN the thick jungle discovered where marks clearly indicate wedged out from the rock here. The B srystaline limestoneandits surfaceissmo traces of lime which makes one infer that mortar plaster. The statue is 9.85 metres the top of the head and has an average s metres at the elbow) and stands on a lotusf in diameter, turned out of the same mate)

NKA RECONSTRUCTION OF THE
VA IMAGE
W
Wiese y Prof. Reiderer of the Rattigen-Institute st Berlin) to undertake core drilling of a ne in Sri Lanka. What in actual fact had tion turned out to be a much larger and ld be brought to a completion only three
res east of Colombo, namely in the south letres to the north starts the central hill netres. To the south Stretches the broad n the area around Dambegoda is covered while the nearest Settlement which can be
es away.
goda has to bd considered as belonging 16 metre high (also fallen down) Buddha and likewise fully sculptured and hewn he complex is supposed to have belonged statue is supposed to belong to the 9th or nearby a historical quarry was recently that a further colossal block had been odhisattva Stateu is made Out of coarse othly polished although a few places show t it was most probably painted over with in height from the bottom at the feet to ban of 2.6 metres (maximum width is 2.8 lower,64 centimetres high and 3.8 metres rial.

Page 88
The figure is placed facing then equally steeply to the east and the we defined by a slightly rising hillock. Toth so as to form three levels which are co flights of steps. On the ground level as smaller temple buildings or statue-ho western sides. The exact function of th only with the completion of the excavat The uppermost flight of stairs which iss entrance section of the square shaped ma and 1.8 metre thick brick wall on which C provided with plastic decorated clay t reaching up to a maximum height of 1.25 undecided. In the intrior of the base foundation stones in the centre of which in depth have been dug make it possible supportinga framework annd that this f statue. At the lower level of the upp revealed a basement ledge cut into then sloping sides of the hill. This is a furt complex (See Picture 2).
This statue which had fallen face d thick jungle. As it fell it broke into larg was visited by treasure hunters who bore dynastic as they thought it might contain In the explosions the feet and the rear sic destroyed and the corresponding fr Fortunately, from the head only the back is one of the most beautiful and finest remained intact.
Due to the fact that the statue fe well preserved in its polished condition u of the soil The plaster must hav come o time. The slightly twisted fall to the lefts

orth on the summit opf a hill which slopes it. The back side which is to the south is 2 north the summit of the temple is terraced nnected with each other by means of four well as oin the first terrace of this complex urse are to be found on the eastern and ese buildings, however, will become clear ions which are presently being carried out. ubdivided by a small landing opens into the instructurte which is enclosed by a profiled ne of the feiezes running round it has been illes. The wall today, is seen as a stump metres and its original height remains still ment, symmetrically arranged floor level quadrangylar holes of about 15 centimetres to recognize that wooden pillars stood here ramework held the roof which covered the per two-piece staircase, excavations have atural rock which at leastborders the three her indication of th extensiveness of the
ownwards was re-discovered in 1893 in the erasegments and around 1948 the statue d some blocks from behind and blew uwith deposited treasures like gold and jewellery. le of the statue around the hips were totally ont section broke into smaller pieces. part was blown away so that teh face which pieces of Sculpture in Sri Lanka's history
ll face downwards its front side remained ntil to day owing to the preservative action ff the stone already at an earlier point of ide explains the excellent condition of that

Page 89
side as against the rightside where damage to the disintegration of the crystal-buildi longer to be found.
The Planning of the reconstruction
In the seven it was decided by the I to re-erect this statue owing to, among ot head. In 1976 it was agreed with Prof. joint-venture, with the federal Republi technical assistnace. In 1981 my Germa photography and the arrangement of all t all 103 peices, with weights varying from 5 total weight of the state is estimated at ar.
Taking into account the damages mi the two partres, in order to ensure the re-erected. The basic idea was to Srill th alignemnt with a core drill in order to ins from the foundation through the legs up ti at an angle of 30 from the vertical perp shoulders. This static construction was son the work for the first time in april 1987. Department of Archaoelogy I submitted restoration.
The scheme of restoration in outlin
Construction of a massive found filling-up with concrete.
Placing together the individual blo figger units' with maximum possib high gradc steel anchor and eposide

due to the elements are perievable owing ng in the stone. Several pieces were no
)epartment of Archaeology of Sri Lanka her reason, the excellent condition of its Riederer to carry out this project as a c of Germany providing material and in colleague, F. Roedl, began with the he fragments belonging to the statue. In :00 grammel to 3 tour were counted. The ound 40 tons.
2ntioned, a rough sketch was prepared by
staties of the statue which was to be lorugh the statue ina certain horizontal ert high grade steel rods - two vertically O the hips and from this height two more endicular outwords reaching up to the newhatsinplified by me when I took over Furthermore in collaboration with the a studied and comprehensive sheme of
ation, planking of the base region and
:ks of stone and fragments to make nine le horizontal jointing. Completion with

Page 90
Insertion of reinforced, massive, h the vertically running borings mad
Pouring of the borings and the joi
Adding of other smaller fragments section (right and left arm) in the
Filling of the hollow spaces and concrete reinforced with high grad
Mortar-mixture ratio: stone chips
Stonemason-like preparation an
The execution of the work in detail
At the time of my arrival in April parts of the statue on a sandbed inside t and placed theme together in a lying pos The missingparts were then modelled drawings or records of this Bodhisattva overall impression of the same only at photogrammetry was made by the colle and this later served as the only relevant picture 1).
As a further step a glassfibre form scaffolding and which was to serve its p during the work of erection.
Incidentally it must be mentione separately twice on previous occasions purposes.

gh grade steel rods through the statue into e by the core drill.
nts between te “Units with spoxide.
and Units' lying outside of the reinforced lescribed manner.
the construction of the missing parts in le steel and resembling natural stone.
- sifted sand-white cement = 1:1:1
d re-touching of the artificial stone.
April 1987
1987 one had collected all the rtraceable he floor space of the original statue house ition with the faceupwards (see picture 8). in concrete. Asid thee did not exist any figure it was possible to get an effective this time..Of the complete front section a agues of the Department of Archaeology model in ther work of reconstruction (see
was also made which was later fixed to the urpose as the model representing the size
d that the Bodhisattva head was moulded and these models are used for exhibition

Page 91
The feet which were turned out o added were now removed in order to c proceeding centrally and in horizontal a original partup to the hips. This was carr of the fine type. The diamond mounted ( it was long enough to drill into the nex then-i.e. after the removal of the blocks drill work (see Picture 6). The simplific: that I did away with the two originally pla a single centrally located drilling to be ca. to a distance of one metre into the head. T overlapping in the cubic region of the b front section had been found. The b corresponding inner volume was entirely a weight of around 20 tons, among them b tons and the head estimated to weigh abi
Already available at this time wa dimension of 4.1 m.x 4.10 m. x5.50 m. on later on. Two centrally placed shafts with metres had been kept free in the founda rods were to be planted later.
July 1987
The next step in the process of re during my second period of stay at D individual fragments to larger 'units', alt Since the sides ofmany of the blocks wer the elements a clear alignment was not this on the other hand made this methc together the units in such away that aper Moreover,in working with epoxide gumit be brought into a horizontal position wit of these units was restricted by the techr by the pulley blocks between three and t

bricks and concrete and were artificially rill two holes with a diameter of 85 mm lignment from the lowermost, preserved ed out with a special core drilling machine Irill tube had a length of 3.0 metres so that nearest piece. These drill holes served drilled through - as a guidance for further ation of the static construction lies only in nned oblique drillings and instead caused rried out from the area of the abdomen up these three passages provided an adequate elly where only smaller fragments in the ackside and a massive piece from the missing. This region had to absorb later eing a part of the shoulder weighing three Out tWO tonS.
is likewise the base foundation with the which the lotus flower was to be mounted 1 a large diameter and up to a depth of 2.5 tion in which two of the high grade steel
construction which I had to take in hand ambegoda was the arrangement of the ogether nine in number (see picture 11). e worn out and wasted due to exposure to possible in mounting smaller pieces. But d of reconstruction easier because I put fect vertical mounting was made possible. was a great facility that all the pieces could 1 their planes of fracture. The magnitude ical resources available to us and indeed en tons of tractive power. Of course, the

Page 92
massive and thick construction of the scal putting the pieces together stainless ste 12mm to 25 mm were used, the number d planes of fracture. Since we drilled into t precise preparations which guaranteed t one upon the other, were indispensable(; all the cases at the first try and as we had move the blocks of stone, the mounting to took more time than originally expecte thereafter carefully cleaned and plaster product under the trade mark EPIFIX. I upon the other had got wasted to such an { little contact area between the pieces cor and then closed the outer area of the joint in which the following day epoxide and th mortar up to the highest lying point in wh 1).
The construction of the scaffolding done earlier in the case of erecting a small a massive timber construction of tree trur (see pictures 8 and 9). For this purpose and satin found within an area of two kilo the construction site where they were ere
Owing to political disturbances in 1 that the German partner had exhusted the due to the Department of Archaeology country, the work came to a standstill duri actual erection of the statue began only ir
June - August 1989
Thus actual work of erection began stay. Already in 1987 we had cast cent (diameter 1.7 m) upto the top lotus flowe

folding was also a determining factor. In 2l anchor with a diameter ranging from epending on the size and the stress of the le stone starting from the fracture planes, he identical alignment of the drill holes, ee picture 7). As this did not succeed in only the pully blocks earlier mentioned to )k more the blocks of stone, the mounting d. Auchor and fracture surfaces were d up with an excellent Indian expocide n cases where fracture surfaces lying one xtent due to exposure that there was very cerned, we first placed ancho in epoxide with mortar up to the highest lying point enclosed the outer area of the joint with ich the followingday epoxide was poured
was also started during the same time. As er scaffolding over the sandbed, now also ks up to 15 metres in height was erected suitable tree trunks of ebony, tamouring, metres were cut down and transported to cted with the assistance of pully-blocks.
his area, and still more owing to the fact budget allocation for the project and also giving priority to other projects in the ng the larger part of 1988. Therefore the June 1989 with my third period of stay.
only in June 1989 with my third period of ally on the foundation a concrete core r which was to be finally mounted. The

Page 93
two earlier mentioned foundation shafts v I was now brought into its position overth blocks after astainless steel plaitwork had of the feet between the top of the concret 6 metre long stainless steel rods with a dia the top to the bottom of theshaft and ther shafts. A form for the feet was made and the foundation shafts. In pouring concrete it was unavoidable that a pouring in of sr In order to carve these and also to make were coated with wax. The stainless steel poured with epoxide and this owing to i together of th stone blocks to the rods ar shifting of weight to the foundation.
Unit II which was made by putting and 8) was then brought in position, the jo it was filled up from above through the dr be called not a uniot but a section. The m only smaller pieces of the original front si (see Pictures 12-15).
A somewhat larger piece at this lev undr the right elbow could not be joine common planes of fracture were totally centimetres, this piece was clamped to t figure or namely to the right iron rod by fully-blocks (see Picture 16).
Since both stainless steel rods wret critical area they had to be lenghened by this work and also in minor tasks later on, was very helpful to us.
Unit IV (see Picture 17) which repr now brought into position as the last unit (

vere extended through this pedestal. Unit e pedestal and held suspended with pulley been already mounted in the missing part e pedestal and the bottom of Unit I. Two meter of 80 mm were now driven in from centred and fixed in the clearance of the then filled up with concrete together with it was unavoidable that a puring concrete maller original pices was also carried out. it easy to lay them open later such areas rods in the area of the original stone was ts density guaranteed a better clamping ld consequently produced a proportional,
together two main blocks (see Pictures 7 ints around werfilled up with plaster and ill holes with epoxide. Unit III can really any available fragments which represent ide wer mounted piece by piece, in place
el which represents the loop of the gridle d to any unit during earlier attempts as absent with an average joint of about 5 he fixed position of the already erected keeping suspended by means of several
oo short for an optimal ovrlapping in this 60 to 80 cm in each case by welding. In the English Pelwatte Sugar Corporation
esents the hip area with the left loop was on the two foundation rods. In the region

Page 94
of the back, a rod of 65mm diameter was the bottom of Unit IV and mortired in ea provided with a stainless steel plait-work. now inserted from above and aligned; the about 2 M3 concrete and addition of unid
Unit V (belly area) and Unit VI likewise moved on to the central rod and p was bored to the central bore hole oblique the head, for the purpose of pouring. The been separately sculptured and staggered two parts and mounted. The left stiffenin transposed with several pieces and it serve which was to be completed in artificial sto
February - May 1990
Units VIII and IX, the two arms, we so that they could be mounted later during In each case four anchor 400 mm long and
In the case of the left arm whose fra winding to be cut in the anchor in order to the anchor. In the vertical pasting up of th a chemical anchoring plaster (not flowing, a spray gum. The space of the earlier orig the girdle loop was bridged by a vertical a After a steel reinforcement was done the
COlCrete.
For static reasons, hollow spaces havi forming was now done for optic reasons or The plankings were made with an average over the original surface. These surfaces surfaces or to the original ornaments in st which I had brought from Germany. (seep

inserted between the top of Unit II and ch case, the open back section was thus The central rod resting on Unit II was back side was planked and filled up with 2ntifiable fragments.
shoulders, chest)(see Picture 18) were oured with epoxide. Unit VII, the head ly from the damaged part of the back of top of the head which originally too had with stone tenors was assembled out of g of the robe could then be completely d later as the model for the opposite side ne. (see Pictures 22/23).
are then assembled in the usual manner my fourth period of stay (see picture 21). having a diameter of 25 mm were used.
icture runs almost horizontal I caused a still intensify the clamping of epoxide to e stainless steel in to the shoulder I used fast hardening) which I pressed in with inal connection between the elbow and anchor (diameter 25 mm) and arrested. : space was planked and filled up with
beenfilledup with concrete. All further in order to fill up smaller hollow spaces. projection between 2 and 5 centimetres were then worn down to the original one-masonlike workmanship with tools ictures 22-25). The work on the surface

Page 95
was carried out with the notched chisel so original surface as regards the structure.
As the last item of the stonemasor out from the concrete blocks at the botto deliberately unchanged area which will al damages do, le in 1948 is the back of the h which dynamite had been placed on tha operation was carried out.
Statistics
The Statue (assembled with 69 original pi 1 bored out natural stone core : 11.7 m (c 2 Epifix (Epoxide): 320 kg 3 Upat (chemical mortar): 1.8 kg 4 Stainless steel
diameter 0.80 m = 13.80 m
diameter 0.65 m = 5.80 m diameter 0.24 m = 7.20 m diameter 0.14 m = 18.10 m diameter 0.12 m = 46.00 m
diameter 0.10 m = 15.00 m diameter 0.06 m 18,00 m diameter 0.03 m = 20,00m diameter 0.02 m = 25,00m 5. White cement: 1358 kg 6 Naturalstone chips: 3.25 m3 (0 12 mm) 7 Sand: 2.4 m
Mechanical lifting appliances and act 1 Pully blocks: 1x3 tons
5x5 tons
5x10 tons

as to preserve a clear difference from the
like workmanship, the feet were worked m which had been cast earlier. The only so continue to remain as document of the ead where a bore hole is recognizable in t occasion. At the end a total cleaning
eces): liameter 85 mm)
essories

Page 96
2 Hydraulicjacks: 2st a 10 tons 3 Lifting rope:510 m 4 Chains:4 nos, length between 8 and 23 1 5 linen sacks: 140 nos (for the protection
Electrical Machines
1 Drill hammers with bits of 0.8 to 3.0 cm 2 lore drilling machine 3 Angle drive grinder Dia.178mm
Scaffolding
1 Tree trunks 15 and 18 m long: 14 Nos 2 Further trunks with different 0 and leng 3 Binding rope (with different 0) = 545 kg 4 Nails 12.5 cm long: 13.45 kg.
2.5 cm long: 1.70 Kg
Further work
The further progress of the work wi lotus flower of which only about 40 per cer The missing portion will be cast in concer worked over in a stonemason-like mannel the statue. How it will be done is still not pillar construction with a shingle roof. T bricks will be further excavated and prese
The comprehensive planning of the edifice into an extensive Archaeological pa conservation of the temple premises at M likewise fallen Buddha statue and the pre:

Υ1
of stone surfaces)
gth:800 m (estimated)
ll be in regard to the construction of the it of the original pieces could be secured. ete in the manner mentioned earlier and . Finally a roof will be constructed over clear, but most likely it will be a wooden he terraces and the temple wall made of rved.
Department of Al ...aeology ties up this rk which provides for the protection and aligawila as well as the recreation of the servation of the image house around it.

Page 97
Epilogue
Some may now turn back and ask w for completion. I would kindly suggest location of this site, its infrastructure an area from July 1987 to December 1989.
Giving some details regarding the certainly provide a better picture. The sc: in height was constructed by the workers of filling the trunks and trnsporting them site and to its final erection at the site undependable generators which had to be of a bucket of water from the nearest well as already mentioned, the exclusive pulley-blocks was also not an easy task. Fo department in Colombo only the telephc away was available and it must be said tha
Bus transport between Maligavila twice a day and on Some days not availab political situation in 1989 even this form wild strikes which went of control - and of Curfews lasting several days at a time bro were the unexpected curfews and work p the underground militant opposition, whi on normal working days the workers ha journey lasting several hours due to the fe: before the darkness fell around 6.00 p.m.
Owing to partly permanent night cu also severally restricted. Maligavila is abol
C2.

hy this project has taken such a long time to them to take into consideration the il the political situation prevailing in this
progress of work during this priod would affolding with tree trunks up to 18 metres without any technical aids from the point up to a distance of two kilometres to the There were many problems with the hired from the vicinity. The transporting took about 45 minutes. Last but not least, movement of the stone blocks with or placing orders for material through the one at the post office lying 20 kilometres it its reliability was very much limited.
and the nearest town was available only ble at all. Owing to the extemely critical of transport was brought to a stanstill by f course this affected not only our region. ught work to a Stillstand and even worse rohibitions declared during the night by ch further aggravated the situation. Even d to start very early on their homeward ar of attacks in order to reach their houses
rfews, contact with Colombo by road was it six hours away from Colombo by motor

Page 98
Now-in the month of May 1990-the much. The peaceful period appears very : statue now after its completion to serve spiritual meeting-point for all devout Bud an eye for beauty.
(This may be copied from the original p named in English.

2
situation can be said to have cased very appropriate to hand over the Bodhisattva its purpose as a place of worship and a dhists and naturally for all those who have
aper in the German language as they are

Page 99
DETERMINATION OF FIRINC
POTT)
BY MOSSBAUER
B.
Nanda Wick
Pottery objects are of great archae which were used widely in several functi varying from eating and drinking to buri the object of extensive trade in ancient techniques and trade provide informatio various cultures and their influences.
The foregoing considerations expl technology has always been the Subject investigations. A variety of techniques h differential Thermal analysis (DTA), X microScopy3, Scanning electron microsco which is the subject of this paper.
Mossbauer Spectra of ancient po Dharmawarderað It provides informatior and the symmetry of its immediate envir may be derived from such spectra are the S-electron density at the nucleus, and the of the electric field gradient at the n information about the local symmetry aro
Firing in an oxidizing or reducing a amount of Ferrous iron present in the M be extracted from the electric quadrupole in a magnetically Orderd State, either by C in the laboratory or by a progressive refrir promising since authentic clay is normall

TECHNIQUES OF ANCIENT ERY.
SPECTROSCOPY
у Kramasinghe.
ological importance since they are items ons of everyday life in the ancient world, al rites. Due to it many uses, pottery was times. The provenance, manufacturing n about artistic and technological skill of
ain why the study of the ancient ceremic of amateur and professional Scientific lave been used for these studies Such as -ray powder diffraction (XRD)2 optical py (SEM)4 and Mossbauer spectroscopy5
ttery were first reported by Cousin and formation on the Oxidation state of iron onment. The two main parameters which isomer shift (S), which is a measure of the quadrupole splithing, which is a reflexion ucleus. These two parameters provide und the ironatom and its Oxidation State.
tmosphere can be distinguished from the Ossbauer spectra. Firing temperature can : splitling or the fraction of the iron that is comparison with spctra of a cally test-fired g procedure. The latter seems to be more y unavailable.

Page 100
Dsecription of the Studied Samples.
The experiments were performed form a excavation of a urn burial site date of these (fragment A) was apart of a vesse burials. The other Sherd (fragment B) wa details of the deceased.
Fragment A is red on one side and grey layer. The curvature of this fragment suggs and the grey one has been the inner face form (length 8cm Radius 2.5mm) has a da intermediate layer. (Plate 1)
Expriments.
Samples of the each layer were pre tool, and their mossbauer spectra were ta 57CO in Rh Source. To determine the firin sample of the red layer of fragment B mo an electric furnace for six hours at 7000c mossbauer spectrum was taken at room squares fitted with a superposition of Lor
Results and Discussion.
. The mossbauer spectra of fragm parameters are given in Table 1.The spect forms: the octahedral Fe(III) (S = 0.37m (S = 0.37 mm/s, Bint = 49.7T) It does not c and Fe2O3 brown layer contains octahedr The brown layer contains much larger frac shows larger fraction of Fe(II) and it cont

on two multi coloured pottery fragments d 2000 B.C. at west Theben in Egypt. One lwhich had been used for contents of urn is a part of a seal fixed to the tomb giving
on the other with a brown intermediate sts that the red surface has been the outer of a vessel. Fragment B with a cylindrical irkgrey core, red surface layer and brown
pared by scraping with a tungsten carbide ken at room temperature (293 K) with a gtemperature about 300mg of pulverized punted on a platinum boat was heated in , 800oc and 900oc. After each refiring a temperature. All the spectra were least entzian lines.
2nt A are shown in Fig and relevant rum of red layer characterised by two iron m/s, E = 0.65-1.17 mm/s) and & Fe2O3. contain Fe(II) at all. In addition to Fe(III) al Fe(II) (S= 0.92 mm/s, E = 2.46 mm/s). tion of magnetic iron. The iner grey layer ains small amont of Fe(III) and Fe2O3.

Page 101
95
'' .The mossbauer spectra of fragmer parameters are given in Table 2 Mossbauer the presence of a large amount of ferrous contains only a small amount.(5%). The fraction of magnetic iron (60%) larger tha.
COC.
The distribution of layers and the f layer are similar in both fragments. Therefo in both. Fe(II) fraction in each layer sugge reducing atmosphere. Then towards the admitted into the kiln, such that the environment.
Slow oxidation of ferrous iron at alc magnetic iron particles7 where as the paramagnetic or superparamagnetic oxida layer is the region where the Oxidations ca penetrate any further before the sherd hac large quarntity of Magbetion iron in the br fast oxidation occured in red, surface lay magfetic products due to in availability of
The determination of ancient firi assumption that clay fired at Certain tempt refiring unless the inifial temperature is e is approcimate since the original firing tin imitated. The fact that the various param refiring up to the original temperature has It is therefore plausible that Mossbauer Pau this has been demonstrated in a number o
The Mossbauer spectra of refired s parameters are given in Table 3. The relati at 700'c refired sample in the same as wha suggestes that the oxidation of the surface

it B are given in Fig.2 and mossbauer parameters of the darkgrey core reveals ion (67%), while the red surface layer : intermediate brown layer contains a neither the red surface or the darkgrey
raction of different iron species in each ore the firing technique should be similar 'sts that the firing was initiatly done in a end of the firing porcess more air. was final firing was done in an oxidizing
w temperature favours the formation of rapid oxidation preferentially yields a tion products. The brown intermediate ime to a halt because the Oxygen did not il Cooled. The reason for collection of a Own layer was slow oxidization as against er. The Inner core contains very little oxygen to penetrate.
ng temperatures may be based on the rature can not be altered by subsequent xceeded. This determination, of course, he and atmosphere are not known to be eters of the fired clay do not alter with been shown with the SEM8 and DTA1. ameters will show similar behaviour and f applications. 9,10.
amples are shown in Fig 3 and relavant ve intersity of the magnetic contribution tobtained from the original sample. this iron in the pottery may have taken place

Page 102
above 700oC. The relative intensities oft defined as the ratio of the area A1 of the phase 2
A12 = A1 (paramag-Fe3+ in Phase1)/A in Fig.4 as a function of refiring temp nonmagnetic ferric contribution of t temperature of 770'c in the diagram. Th temperature on or around 770°C.
Conclussion.
The result obtain in this paper sugg samples was initially in a reducing envir firing process more air was admitted into 1 in an oxidizing atmosphere.
The experiment conducted to det refiring the samples suggested that origin as the period of initial firing is not know exactly the original firing temperature.

he non magnetic ferric contribution A12, paramagretic Ferric in phase 1 to that in
2 (paramag-Fe3+ in Phase2) are plotted erature TR. The relativ intensity of the he original sample corresponds to a is shows that this pottery was fired at the
gest that the kiln which fired these pottery onment and then towares the end of the the kitn, such that the final firing was done
ermin the original firing temperature by al firing temperature was 7700c. However n, therefore it is not possible to measure

Page 103
References.
1. Cole, W.F. and Crook, D.N Trans. Brit. Ceranic Soc. 6
2. Perinet G. 7th Int. ceram. Congron 371-376 (1960).
3. Cowgill, MiN. and Hutchinson, G.C. Amer. J. Science 1
4. Maniatis, Y and Tite, MoS. papers presented at the 2n
5. Kostikas, A, simopoulos, A.; and Gangas, N.H. Applica
6. Consins, D.R. and Dharmawardena, K.G. Nature 223:7
7. Riederer, J; Wagner N. and Wager, f.E. Radiochem. R.
8. Kingrery, W.D. and Frierman, J.D Proc. Prehistoric So
9. Bakas, T, Gangas, N.H, Sigalas, E; and Aitken, M.J. A.
10. Manictis,; sim poulos A; and Kostikas. A Archaeol. C

299-315 (1962).
57:465-477 (1969).
International Scientific congrers PP 483-492(ionton 1979)
ions of mossbauer spectroscopy London. Acadamic pron.
32-733(1969).
dio anal. Letters 40:319 (1979).
c. 40205-205 (1974)
rchaeometry 22:69-80 (1980).
Ceram.97-108 (1982)

Page 104
Plate 1 Photographs of Samples.
Acknowledegment
My thanks are due Prof. J. Riederer, Director Rathgan Resea
Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry Technical University W. B

rch Laboratory, W.Berlin and Prof. E. Riedel, Department of
erlin for their valuble Suggestions.

Page 105
100.00
99.5C)
99.0
98.5C
98.00
OO. OC
99.8C
99. 60
99.40
99.20
99.00
98.80
98.60
- 0. O -6.0 -2, C
100.00
99. 60
99.20
98.80
98.40
968. OO
97.60
| —m-m--
-10. O -6, 0 -2.
Vee Fig.l. Mossbauer spectra of fragment
a. red layer b. brown layer c. grey layer
 
 

2, O S.O lOO ocity (mm/a)
2.0 S.O 10.0
2City mm/s)

Page 106
10.
OOOO
99.80
99.60
99.40
99.20
9
9.
O
O
- O.O -S, 0 -2.
Ve
9
C
E gg. CC
仁
98.50 [፫) 鹤 98. OO
f 嗣 97. SO
97. CC
SS. SC
- 0.3 -6. O -2. O
Ve
Fig.2 Mosstaauer spectra of fragment B
a. red layer b. brown layer C. grey layer
 
 
 

2.0 6.0 10. O
ocity (mm/s)
2. O 6. O 10.0
OCity nn wa)

Page 107
100.00
99.50
99.00
98.50
98. OO
97, 50
101
- O.O
C
9
8
O
O
S
9
4.
9.9S999 88.S8.S.9. O2 OOC
9
8
-8.0
999 8S.S
C
O
9.
S
S
C
-S. O
0} {10 س
-S.O -2. C
Ve.
Fig. 3 Spectra of the refired samples.
a. 700°C
b, 800 °C
c. 900C
 
 
 

O 2.. O 6.0 O.O
2.0 S.O 10.0

Page 108
1C
As O
7 OO 800
pcą.4. Vayahíov of y
م۴e v- الار صاo bfح
 

origivol col woble
9ხo r-r °c
の○ ゆ me vekte felly fic
* 62 منهاCar معطمصممa Tم+ مايو

Page 109
Plate 1. Pilot
 

Fagret B
ograph of the studied sailples.

Page 110
Table 1 Mossbauer parametr
E
m/s m/s
Red O37 0.17
layer O37 1.17
O37 0.65
BrOWn 0.38 0.17 layer 0.41 0.81
0.92 2.46
Grey 0.35 0.24 layer 0.29 0.96
1.17 2.20
O. 74 1. 40

104
s of the original sample A.
B. A
int rel T m/s 钻
497 0.30 28.9
0.45 66.0
0.17 5.1
51.1 0.20 53.8
0.30 24.4
0.52 21.8
50.7 0.28 14.5
w 0.22 12.6
0.31 36.7
n 0.65 36.2

Page 111
1.
Table 2 Mossbauer parameters of the
S E B. l m/s m/s T
Red 0.37 0.21 51.0
layer 0.36 l. 30
0.36 0.36 0.67 VM
0.85 239
BIOWI 0.37 0.19 51.4
layer 0.35 0.98
1 - 05 2.11
Grey 0.45 0.23 50.6
0.28 1.00
1. 14 2.14 un
1.33 amb
0.71

D5
original Sample B.
t A rel
m/s 岩
0.20 51.4
O. 43 28.3
0.21 15.8
0.41 4.5
0.18 60.2
0.41 23.3
0.40 16.5
O 45 11.0
0.18 12.4
O38 66.9
0.19 97

Page 112
10
Table 3: Mossbauer parametrs of the
int oC m/s m/s T
700 O39 0.22 52.1
0.38 1.44
0.39 0.78
0.89 2.16
800 0.37 0.21 50.6
0.33 1.32 wo
0.36 0.74
900 0.38 0.19 50.8
0.41 180 ump
0.36 0.85

refired Sample.
A rel m/s 密
0.23 53.1
0.46 34.3
0.22 11.4
0.06 1.2
0.27 65.8
0.57 20.1
0.23 14.1
0.21 553 من نیا
悖、 0.52 18.8
0.30 259

Page 113
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH
B
M. S. NAG
INTRODUCTION
The foundation of city and the kingdom an epoch making event causing the renai of this City caused the cohesion of all th into a single empire and became the savic India in particular.
The City of Victory, Vijayanagara amidst striking and beautiful scenery, de wide torrential and almost unfordab. impassable craggy granite hills with bal perifery of the City provided strong natu to utmost advantage. It is perhaps the m of which architectural evidence has be literary works in Kannda, Sanskrit an contemporary foreign visitors help archaeological remains of the City.
The imperial Capital at its heyday Abdur Razzak, the Russian Nikitin, the domingo Paesand Fernao Numizand the description ofthe grandeur ofthe imperia Razzak "The City of Bidjanagara is such place like it, and the ear of intelligence h anything to equal it in the world"
It was therfore, creditable that du Union Minister of Education Prof. Nurul the Project of exposing the reminas of th Sikri in Uttar Pradesh, Champaner in

ES IN VIJAYANAGARA (HAMPI)
y ARAJA RAO
of vijayanagara in the year 1336 A.D. was ssance of Indian Culture. The foundation le crumbling states of the Southern India our of Indian Culture in general and South
l, was located in the picture Surrounding, picting nature at its wildest and best. The le Tungabhadra on the north and the 'e and denuded boulders and tors Onthe ral defences which the rulers used to have ost extensive City of the medieval period, en preserved in tact. The contemporary d Telugu as well descriptions given by us in unearthing and identifying the
has been visited by the Moorish Traveller 2 Portuguese travellers, Duarte Barbosa, Italian Nicolo Conti, who have left graphic alcity which they saw. To quote only Abdur that the pupil of the eye has never seen a as never been informed that there existed
uring 1976 the farsightedness of the then Hasan, a noted Historian-Archaeologist, e three great medieval cities viz. Fathepur Gujarat and Hampi (Vijayanagara) in

Page 114
Karnataka, was initiated. The National Pi by the Archaeological Survey of India an Museums in Karnataka, for nearly a deca
RESEARCHES
The Research Project at Hamp: Documentation of cultural remians and and publications.
DOCUMENTATION OF Cl ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION
The Directorate of Archaeology George Michell and Dr. John Fritz (witht been documenting the cultural remains of George Michell prepared an architectura been published by the Directory of the C the Directorate of Archaeology & Museul has been documenting inscriptions no excavations. While the State Directorate concentrating in unearthing palatial stru quarters area, the Archaeological Sur conserving various Structures in the Roya
CONSERVATION
Besides carrying out excavations, conserve restore not only the excavat in the famous Virupaksha Bazaar.
PUBLICATIONS.

oject of Hampi is being carried out jointly l the State Directorate of Archaeolgy and de and a half.
consists of primarily three areas viz., archaeological excavations, conservation
JLTURAL REMAINS AND
& Museums in collaboration with Dr. he approval of Government of India) have the City, primarily in the Urban core. Dr. l inventory of the Urban Core which has Jrban Core which has been published by ns. The Directorate with its technical staff it so far noticed, besides carrying out 2 of Archaeology & Museums has been ctures in the area known as Noblemen's vey of India has been excavating and l Centre in the heart of the City.
simultaneously action has been taken to ed remains but also the Bazaar Mantapas

Page 115
The State Directorate of Archae publications based not only on excavat Department and other scholars associat been brought out by the Directorate. 1. VIJAYANAGARA - Progress of R 2. VIJAYANAGARA - PROGRESS ( 3. VIJAYANAGARA - Progress of I 4. VIJAYANAGARA -Through the eye and John Gollings (1983) 5. VIJAYANAGARA - Architectural & II.
PROGRESS OF RESEARCH
We may now turn to the progress achive
I. Excavations: (a) Virupaksha Bazaar
The virupaksha Bazaar which ext 2xcavated from the eastern end. It accumulated debris of more than a metI ast has been excavated exposing the Mantapas on the northern and southern have also been conserved to their origin
(b) Noblemen's Ouarters area
In the heart of the Urban core is a by exotic granite formations. So far we argest among them located in the sout he residence of a very important nobler on a platform had double enclosure wal lighted steps from the northern side.
The cultural remains unearthed from 1 'eledon ware primarily representing t

ology & Museums has initiated series of ions but also research carried out by the 2d with it. The following publications have
esearch 1979 - 83 DF RESEARCH 1983-84 Research 1984-87 's of Col. John Alexander Greenlaw (1956)
Inventory of the Urban Core - Volumes I
:d so far at Vijayanagara.
ends in an area of 740 Mts. east-west was was noticed that the original road had e and a half. So far 125 metres length from original paved road as well as the Bazaar sides. Simultaneously the Bazzar mantapas |al shape.
h enclosed area measuring about 122 acres have excavated 14 Palatial structures. The hern end of the area appears to have been hen. For, the main seven rooms constructed s of cyclopean masonry entered through 13
he debris of the structure include Chinese owls of various sizes and decorated with

Page 116
110
typical Chinese figures indicating that the important Chinese visitors.
(c) Palatial structure - 2
To the South-west of the main Struc structure constructed on a high platformal main building was a cloister consisting of perhaps used as an Office of a high dignita in front of the ainstructure are two openh
(d) Rangashala in the Mint area
To the South of the Noblemen's Pal: enclosures. One of the largest structure exc India has been identified as the Rangashal Paes. From the flight of steps found on t indicate that this was probably a double stoc
(e) Sacred Tank
One of the major discoveries in t unearthed by the Archaeological Survey of the south-west of the sacred platform knowl of this stepped tank lies in the fact that it a For, the stone used inte construction of th only 70 metres away to the west of Vijayana stone has a letter, a number and another l and the exact positionns where that member in the royal centre very near the ceremonia used for ceremonial celebrations by the K festivities often nights.
II. Conservation -
While conservation has been a contin Archaeologicla Survey of India and the D. have been conserving the excavated remair the excavations.

inhabitants of this Palace had received
ure described above was another royal so having an enclosure wall. Around the anumber of rooms. The building was ry used for hearing public grivences, as alls.
ace area is an area consisting of double :avated by the Archaeological Survey of a or dancing hall described by Domingo he upper platform of the ain structure preyed building.
he Royal Centre is the stepped tank India during 1985-86. This is located to nas Mahanavamidibba. The importance ppears to be a prefabricated structure. is tank is the choloritic schist available gara. Each architectural member of the etter indicating the direction, the layer is to be setup. Since this Tankis located platform, it appears that this Tank was ing during the Dasara festivities or the
uous process at Vijayanagara, both the rectorate of Archaeology & Museums is simultaneously with

Page 117
One of the important work of con the Dharmashala located in the Mo pillaredhall facing eastis on the main roy to the ford at Tungabhadra. It has five l named Ahmed Khan constructed this Century with the intention that his Roy,
IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES
While the City of Vijayanagara has refer here to some of the important epi had several Watch Towers from where there are no structures indicating wat themselves used as a spot for the wat inscriptions which give the names of t Hampiya Kottala, Hanumana Kottla me Hanuman (the monkey God), Madanal
One of the significant discoverie paper wax negative of the monument Alexander Greenlaw during 1856. Thes in a private collection in Wales; Thanks out the condition of these monuments courtesy of Dr. George Michell, we hav photographed by John Gollings from pulbish the matching pictures of Col G the pictures taken in the last century wil remarkable.
Thus Hampi, which has now been a source of inspiration for scholars and

111
servation which may be cited here is that of orish quarters of the City. This simple ral road starting from Ramachandra temple ine inscription which states that an Officer Dharmashala and a well int he mid 15th al Master Devaraya II, may attain merit.
proved to be a haven for explorers, we may graphs which prove that the Royal Centre the Royal centre was watched. Although ch towers the top of the boulders were chmen. Thus so far, we have located 27 he Watch Towers. For exampel, there is aning the bastion of Hampi, the bastion of Kottala meaning the Bastion of Madana.
s to mention here is that of a series of 70 s of Hampi photographed by Col. John e were discovered by Dr. George Michell to his courtesy we have been able to find of Hampi 130 years age. Again with the e beeen able to get the same monuments Austrlia, during 1983. We were able to reenlaw and John Gollings. The clarity of len photography itself was in its infancy is
included as a World Heritage Site has been aymen equally.

Page 118
11
CAPTION FOR ILLUSTRATIONS.
1. Virupaksh Bazer-View from East
2. --do- -during excavation
3. Mantapa at the Eastern End of the Bazar - before excavatio
4. --do-- -after excavation
5. Southern side - Mantapa - after excavation and before cons
6. --do-- -after conservation
7. Nobleman's Palace No.1 - Mound in the Royal Enclosure A
8. --do-- -after conservation
9. --do- -Mound View from South-east
10. --do-- -after excavations
11. --do- -Chinese porcelain -over view
12. --do- -inner view
13. Nobleman's structure -before excavations - No.2
14. --do-- -after excavations & conservation
15. "Rangashala' in the residential area formerly called The M
16. Amhadkhan’s Dharmashala -before conservation
17. --do-- after conservation
18. Nagareshvara Temple -before conservation - view from No
19. --do-- -after conservation
20. --do-- -before conservation, view from South
21. --do-- -after conservation
22. Massive main entrance gate to The City of Vijayanagar -ca
23. --do-- -after conservation
24. --do- -Temple inside the gateway-before conservatio
25. --do-- Temple - after conservation

ervation
rea
int'
rth-east
illed "Sringarada Hebbagilu" -before conservation

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THE EMERGENCE OF MARI
ASA AND PROSPECTS FOR
B
E. V. Ga
INTRODUCTION
Marine archaeology deals with all the sea. It involves the study of subme settlements, ports and temples; the locati the documentation of maritime history an and even the Socio-ethnological Study ofs such as boat-building.
The multi-disciplinary and inter-di evident from the fact that it includes a sciences, and requires the support of val such as earth Sciences, ocean sciences, di the science of remote sensing and satelli cooperation and coordination amongsta (historians, archaeologists, sociologists a scientists and technologists (geoche geophysicists, Ocean engineers, divers a and photogrammetry) on the other.
The purpose of this paper is to bri marine archaeology in India and to indica archaeology research in South Asia with Finally, areas of marine archaeology ri between South Asia and other countries
BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OFM,
Marine archaeological research in with the excavations by Dr.S.R. Rao at L

NE ARCHAEOLOGY IN SOUTH
REGIONAL COOPERATION
öy ngadharam
aspects of man's activities at or relating to rged man-made structures such as shore on, excavation and retrieval of shipwrecks; ld maritime trade of countries and regions; sea-faring communities and their activities
sciplinary nature of marine archaeology is spects of history archaeology and Social rious branches of Science and technology ving and underwater technology and even ite imagery. This underlines the need for nd between researchers in the humanities nd anthropologists) on the one hand, and mists, coastal and marine geologists, nd specialists in underwater photography
efly review the birth and development of te the potential for cooperation in marine special reference to India and Sri Lanka. esearch with potential for collaboration are Suggested for consideration.
ARNE ARCHAEOLOGY IN INDIA
India can be said to have begun in the '70s athal, about 100 km south of Ahmedabad

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and secured nation-wide exposure with
in Gujarat. The establishment in 1981 o as Emeritus Scientist-in-charge at the
was the first major step taken in India to The state of Tamilnadu has taken early i research at university level when it
Archaeology at Thanjavur in 1983. In similar research Centre 1 for Mar (Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh) and w Indian conference on the Marine Archa held in October 1987 in Jamnaga Gujara founded in 1988, and a marine archaeol N.I.O. Goa in 1989. The organisation ( Marine Archaeology of the Indian C publication of the first issue of Journal of also landmarks in the rapid development
PIONEERING WORK DONE IN GU
Interesting work has already di archaeological research in highlighting The excavations at Lothal, Gujarat in th capabilities of the Harappan civilization dockyard. This dockyard was 210 m long, of handling up to thirty ships at a time. T archaeological and carbon-14 methods near-shore exploration and underwate revealed fortifications and other structure remains of a temple, just off Samudranara on the western coast of Gujarat at the m Archaeological and Scientific dating shov
RESEARCH IN TAMILNADU
In Tamilnadu, the first application localise possible submerged structues a

he excavations at Dwarka in the '80s both a Marine Archaeology Unit with Dr. Rao National Institute of Oceanography, Goa promote marine archaeological research. nitiative in starting marine archaeological established a Centre for Under-water 1987 Andhra University established the ne Archaeology studies at Waltair ork commenced in January 1989. The first eology of th Indian Ocean Countries was t. A Society for Marine Archaeology was Ogy training programme was instituted at f the Second Indian Conference on the )cean Countries at Bangalore and the Marine Archaeology in January 1990, are of marine archaeology in India.
LARAT
monstrated the importance of marine India's maritime and historical heritage. 2 '70s have brought to light the technical to conceive, build and utilise a large tidal 35 m wide and 4 m deep, and was capable is was dated to about 2300 B.C. based on (Rao 1979 and Rao 1985). Detailed r excavation at Dwarka, Gujarat have s such as rock-cut slipways, jetties and the vanTemple and the island of Beyt Dwarka outh of the Gulf of Kuchch (Rao 1987a). these to be of the Mahabharata period.
Df marine geophisical methods helped to d shipwrecks at the famed Poompuhar

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(also known as Kaveri Poompattinam) a investigations have already been comm the N.I.O. group in the off-shore area settlement. The anomalies revealed
suggestive of possible submerged strl Under-water Archaeology of the TI undertaken collaborative interdisciplin the history of traditional navigation, triethnology and the impact of sea l (Rajamanickam and Subbarayalu, Eds.
MARINE ARCHAEOLOGY RESEA
The Centre for Marine Archaeo University in 1987 took shape in 198 Unversity Grants Commission funds a Presently, it has a Coordinator, an Adv A Workshop on the Potential for Ma Pradesh was organized by the Centrein lecture were delivered by Dr. S.R. Rao participants drawn from several univ representing various disciplines. Amon January 1989 are a project to loca Vaisakheswara off Visakhapatnam; information; compiling a marine archa shiwrecks; and investigation of the sites as Kalingapatnam and Motupalli. (Gang studies will be undertaken soon to sec reported along the coast of Andhra ) Data-base compilation of Dr. S.R.Rao.
THE SUBMERGED (VAISAKHESW
This first and major project of the at Andhra University is to verify the stro of the existence of a temple (now not s

141
about 250km south of Madras. Preliminary menced off Tarangambadi (Tranquebar) by just opposite to the old Danish fort and by initial marine geophysical surveys are uctures and shipwrecks. The Centre for amil University, Tanjavur has already ary studies in marine archaeology such as lingual nautical terminology, boat building evel variation on coastal environment 1988) and Abstract Volume 1989).
ARCH IN ANDHRA PRADESH
logical Studies established by the Andhra 8 with the grant of Rs.100,000 from the nd started functioning from January 1989. isory Committee and a Visiting Professor. Irine Archaeological Research in Andhra 1989. The key-note address and a popular and 10 invited speakers addressed about 40 ersity departments and other institutions gst the research activities commenced from te a legendary submerged temple for collection of archival and bibliographic eological database on shipping, ships and of ancient major and minor port towns such adharam 1989a, 1989b and 1990). Archival ure further details of about 17 shipwrecks Pradesh through the pioneering Archival
VARA) TEMPLE PROJECT
; Centre for Marine Archaeological studies ing local tradition and historical indications een several centuries ago on the sea-ward

Page 146
edge of Visakhapatnam. It was conceiv Centre after it commenced work in Janu
Oral tradition, local documents and interpreted respectively. Reconnaissanc organised & Supervised. An existing thoroughly investigated (compilation of a accurate Surveying/mapping of temple; de verify its reported relationship with the le
Recent progress (June 1990) includ sensing imagery of the French satellite S target. Immediate plans diver-search and and land excavations near existing shore to temple is confirmed, the ruins located will recovered. After Suitable conservation a rebuild the temple as closely as possible t
If the project is successful, this wi retrieved in India, and will be a marine ar
MARINE ARCHAEOLOGY IN WEST
The region surrounding the ancie (present Tamluk, about 50 km southw archaeologists. The excavations dated to yielded numerous pots, plaques and seals ( recently described (Sarma, 1990) as depi shaped vessel decorated at both ends with the other shows a three-masted sea-goi Andhra Satavahana period coins of Gau 1980). This and other ancient coastal tr marine archaeological potential. Coming the Sunderbaus of West Bengal are the va which hold numerous wrecks of ships of th

2d and initiated2 and continued at the ry 1989.
inscriptions were recorded, compiled and diving in target area by Navy divers was shore temple near target site is being chival, bibliographic and official records; tailed study and photography of icons) to gendary submerged temple.
's the Analysis of digital data from remote POT shows a persistent anomaly in the underwater photography at anomaly site ’mple. If the existence of the submerged be carefully photographed, mapped and nd restoration, attempts will be made to O Original estimated configuration.
ll be the only submerged temple to be chaeological achievement.
BENGAL
nt maritime trade centre of Tamralipti est of Calcutta) has been studied by the early centuries of the Christian era, Mukherjee, 1989). Two of the seals were ting sailing vessels - one shows a bowl makara-mukhas (crocodile heads), and g similar to the ones depicted on the amiputra Yajna Sri Satakarni (Sarma, de centres of West Bangal have great o the modern times, the Saudheads and t but shallow estuaries south of Calcutta : elsewhere British East India Company

Page 147
of the 17th to 19th centuries, awaiting lo
MARINEARCHAEOLOGY OF ORI
The coastal region from Balasor Pradesh belonged to the Kalinga kingdo era and is known for its Buddhist cultu. include Konagar (Konark), Balasose ar Andhra. On-land archaeological Studie of florishing maritime trade and religiou Lanka one the hand and with the southe Malaysia and Indonesia on the either.
The Chilka lake, a huge coastal lakes century AD Brahmanda Purana ashaving trading between India and southeast asia of Maritime and South-east Asian Studie near Chilka lake which yielded Chinese ware and Ceylonese coins. Systematic near-shore regions ofthese sites will und maritime history of India and southeas wooden ship probably of Danish origin, b in Orissa in May 1990 by the Orissa Department. The boat timbers wer Burhabalang river near Balasore, at a de a very good State of preservation.
SOUTH ASIAN MARINE ARCHAEC
Sri Lanka being the northernmost ocean, served during historic times as th the west and the east. Archaeological (Manikpatna) and Andhra (Vengipura) Lanka but also Buddhist religious links. was a centre of Mahayana Buddhism duri

43
ation and excavation.
SSA
in Orissa to Kalingapatnam in Andhra m during early centuries of the Christian e and maritime trade. Ancient port sites d Palur of Orissa and Kalingapatnam of at these sites yielded extensive evidence s links with southern Indian states and Sri st asian nations such as Burma, Thailand,
Outhwest of Puri was mentioned in 10th , a large port harbouring sea-going vessels (TRIPATI, 1990). The Orissan Institute s, Bhubaneswar, excavated at Manikatna celadon and porcelain, Roman rouletted marine archaeological investigations of oubtedly throw a flood of new light on the t Asia. Remains of a 16th century AD uilt in the Viking tradition, was discovered in Institute and the State Archaeology : found embedded in the bed of the th of about 2 metres, and appear to be in
LOGY
andmass in the central part of the Indian cross-roads of maritime trade routes to studies in Bengal (Tamralipti), Orissa reveal not only maritime trade with Sri For example, Nagarjunakonda of Andhra g3rd-4th centuries A.D. which has great

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14
similarities to the Buddhism of that time il containing an Oval-shaped tansparent ston in Vengipura (present Peddavegiof Andh) is reported to be similar to a carnelian i. monastery (3rd century A.D.) in Anura quoted by Sarma, 1990).
Mahadeva, a Buddhist monk from Lanka for the consecration ceremony of a B.C. personal communication).
These selected examples are only in the east coast of India and Sri Lanka. Th such trade and religious links through countries of South Asia, but also between the rest of the world.
SOUTH ASIANCOOPERATION IN M
It is suggested that exchange of ir ancient cartographic information betweer step in the direction of regional cooperati
Expertise, equipment and facilities could be shared for optimum utilisation an a facility for identification, treatment an being proposed to be setup at Andhara U1 Institute of Wood Science and Technolog preliminary stage, but if it materialises cou to marine archaeologists of South Asia water-logged wood during their research perhaps undertaken under the umbrell SAARC.

1 Sri Lanka. A carnelian intaglio (a locket e) depictingayouthful city goddess found a) dated to 4th century AD (Sarma, 1988) htaglio from the excavations at Jetavana dhapura Sri Lanka (Rohan Gunaratne
Andhra is said to have travelled to Sri great stupa Sometime in the 1st century
dicative of active maritime links between ere is extensive information available on maritime activities not only within the South Asia and Southeast asia as well as
ARINE ARCHAEOLOGY
scriptioned, archival, bibliographic and South Asian nations as an essential first on in marine archaeology.
available in the countries of the region davoidance of duplication. For example, d conservation of water-logged wood is liversity, with the help and support of the y of Bangalore. The proposal is at a very ld provide training and technical support 1 nations who are bound to bring out es. Such cooperative programs could be l of existing organisations such as the

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14.
COOPERATIVE SUPPORT FROM OT
In areas of marine archaeology whe Asian countries, support could be sough USA, and the Netherlands, which have b archaeology in the last few decades. An ( for which expertise and equipment are la is suggested that Sri Lanka could perhaps other countries, which could then be ef region avoiding expensive duplication.
EPILOGUE
Sri Lanka is now posed to enter into development of marine archaeology coulc its strategy for the future. South Asia meaningful cooperation and efficient coo all share a common heritage of age-old sea during historic and colonial periods is inti
Acknowledgement
I am most thankful to Prof.Senake Institute of Archaeology, Colombo and Fundemental Studies, Kandy for expel Archaeological Centenary Celebrations C Institutions in designating me as a Vivitin,

HER COUNTRIES
re technical expertise is lacking in South from countries such as Australia, UK, een centres of active progress in marine xample is underwater photogrammetry, cking in all the South Asian countries. It develop such facilities with the help of jectively utilised by the countries in the
the second century of Archaeology, and ibe made one of the many new facets of n nations stand to gain enormously by rdination in marine archaeology as they faring tradition, and their maritime past mately interwoven.
Bandaranayake, Director, Postgraduate Prof. Cyril Ponnamperuma, Institute of nding invitations to participate in the of Sri Lanka and the hospitality of these g Research Associate.

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REFERENCES
1. Abstract Volume (1989). National Seminar on Sea Lev
Ancient Industries, Tamil University, Tanjavur (June 24-25,
2. Behera, K.S. (1989). Maritime history of Orissa and the Coast Paper presented at the Workshop on Potential for M Marine Archaeological Studies, Andhra University, Waltair
3. Gangadharam, E.V. (1989a). Ancient Ports and Maritime Training Course, 1989. (in press). National Institute pf Oceal
4. Gangadharam, E.V. (1989b), Searching for the lost temple presented at the Workshop on Potential for Marine Archa
Archaeological Studies, Andhra Universtity, Waltair (Octobe
5. Gangadharam, E.V. (1990). The Lost Temple for Vai preliminary report. Paper presented at the Second Indian
Countries. Society for Marine Archaeology, January 20-21, 1
6. Mukherjee, B.N., (1989) Decipherment of the Karoshti-Bra p.4 (Calcutta).
7. Rajamanickam, G.V. (1989). Marine Archaeological Rese for Marine Archeological Research in Andhra Pradesh. Centre
(October 2-3, 1989). (Proceedings planned to be published).
8. Rajamanickam, G.V. and Subbrayalu, Y. (1988) Editors.
Workshop on the History of Traditional Navigation in South
9. Rao, S.R. (1979). Lothal - A Harappan Port Town. Volum
Delhi.
10. Rao, S.R. (1985). Lothal - A Harappan Port Town. Voli
New Delhi.

:l Variation and its Impacg on Coastal Environment. Dept. of
989).
potential for marine archaeological research along the Orissa Irine Archaeological Research in Andhra Pradesh. Centre for
October 2-3, 1989). (Proceedings planned to be published).
History of Andhra. Summary of Lectures, Marine Archaeology ography, Goa.
of Vaisakheswara -The first major project of the Centre. Paper aeological Research in Andhra Pradesh. Centre for Marine
:r 2-3, 1989). (Proceedings planned to be published).
sakheswara off Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India - A Conference on the Marine Archaeology of the Indian Ocean
990, Bangalore.
hmi Scripts. Asiatic Society, Monthly Bulletin, vol.XVIII, No.8,
rch at the Tamil University, Tanjavur. Workshop on Potential
for Marine Archaeological Studies, Andhra University, Waltair
History of Traditional Navigation. Papers presented at the ndia. Tamil University, Tahnjavur, October 18-19, 1989.
I, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No.78, New
me II, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No.78,

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14
11. Rao, S.R. (1887a). Marine Archaeological Explorations of Sciences, Vol.16, March 1987, pp.22-30.
12. Rao, S.R. (1987b). Progress and Prospects of Marine Arc
13. Rao, S.R. (1988) Editor. Marine Archaeology of the Indian on the Marine Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Countries, Ja
Соа.
14. Rao, S.R. (1989). Marine Archaeology in India - An eme Workshop on Potential for Marine Archaeological Research in
Andhra University, Waltair (October 2-3, 1989). Proceedings pl
15. Sarma, I.K. (1980). Coinage of the Satavahana Empire pp.
16. Sarma, I.K. (1988) New light on Vengipura excavations at the 15-21 (New Delhi).
17. Sarma, I.K. (1990). Rare evidences on maritime trade on the Conference on Marine Archaeology of the Indian ocean countr
for Marine Archaeology, Goa).
18. Subbaraju, L.V. and Vora, K.H. (1989). The case history of poompuhar. Tamilnadu. Workshop on Potential for Marine Arc
Archaeological Studies, Andhra University, Waltair (October 2.
19. Tripati, Sila.(1990). Ancient ports of Kalinga. Paper present
of the Indian Ocean Countries, Bangalore (Proceedings to be pi

Dwarka, Northwest coast of India. Indian Journal of Marine
aeology in India. National Institite of Oceanography, Goa.
ocean Countries. Proceedings of the First Indian Conference
mnagar, October 1987. National Institute of Oceanography,
gingfield of interdisciplinary research. Key-note Address, Andhra Pradesh. Centre for Marine Archaeological Studies,
anned to be published).
03, 257-258 (New Delhi)
: ancient historical city in Andhradesa. Puratattva No. 17 pp.
Bengal Coast of India. Paper precuted at the Second Indian les. Bangalore. (Proceedings to be published by the Society
marine geophysical investigations for marine archaeology at aeological Research in Andhra Pradesh. Centre for Marine
3, 1989). (Proceedings planned to be published).
:d at the Second Indian Conference on Marine Archaeology
blished by the Society for Marine Archaeology, Goa).

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LEGANDS FOR FIGURES
Fig.1. Some marine Archaeological sites and centres of re
Tamil University,Thanjarm; 3.Andra University, Waltair)
Fig.2 Sketch map of Submerged Temple Project area, Visa
Fig.3 Digital printout map of Submerged Temple Project:
search. (Courtesy Prof.S. V. L. N. Rao, Centre for Remote
Fig.4Timber of a wooden ship thought to be of Danish origir
Orissa.

search in India. (1. National Institute of Oceanography, Goa; 2.
khapatuam.
area, showing an anomaly in the off-shore region earmarked for
Seusing, Andra University.)
l, estimated to be 16th century, reacently discovered near Balasole,

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52

Page 157
TWO SCHOOLS OF BUDD
B C. Wikra)
01 Histrical Background
Theravada or the elders Buddhist traditio to Sri Lanka in about 250 B.C. A group Mahinda, a son of Indian Emporer u Devanampiya Tissa, the royal family an Buddhism. The first Monastery, called garden, the Mahamegha-vana, adjoining became the headquarters of the orthodo Mahavihara Sect.
In about 89 B.C. agroup of monks b residence at the Abhayagiri Vihara in the as a separate Buddhist sect under the lea (VatsOitroua) Sect, a branch of Puggalava liberal minded Buddhist sect opened their studied Theravada Tripitaka as well as Va
Vaitulyavada (Mahayanisam) first a B.C. King Voharika Tissa (209-231, A.C during the reign of Gothabhaya (249-262 the island and the king banished them to kings were influenced by the Mahavihara Vaitulyavada (Mahayanism) a group of m fear of having connections with Vait Dakkhina-girivihara, and later during t Gothabhaya they formed a new Buddhist: of a monk called Sagala.“ The king M Vaitulyavada and destroyed the Monasteri gave the building erials to the Abhaya monks s sect and their

A IMAGE IN SRI LANKA
magamage
halso called Vibhajavada was introduced of Indian Buddhist misionaries head by Asoka converted the Sinhalese King, d most of the citizens of the Island to Mahavihara was established in the royal the citadel of Anuradhapura and later it x Buddhist Community of Monks or the
roke away from the Mahavihara and took north of the city and later they organized dership of Dhammaruci of Vajjiput taka dins and known as, Dhammarucikas. This doors to all other Buddhists, and Specially itulyavada (Mahayanism)."
ppeared in Sri Lanka in the third century .) Suppressed it. After eighteen years, A.C.) there were Sixty Vaitulyavadins in India'. In these two instances Sinhalese monks. In the Second Suppression of the onks left the Abhayagirivihara with the ulyavadins and Settled down at the he reign of Mahasena, younger son of ect called Sagaliya under the leadership ahasena (274-301 A.C.) accepted the s of opponent monks of Mahavihara and irivihara to build more dwellings for the riends, Vaitulyavadins. This time the

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Vaitulyavadins gained favour of the Sin the island. This form of Vaitulyavadar branches of Mahayana Buddhism, Vajr Mahayana was introduced to Sri Lanka (
From the time of the king Mahas put down the campaign against Vaitulyav their scriptures from being mixed with V away even from Dhammarucikas as well the Vaitulyavadins.
The Vaitulyavada ceased to exist C of the eleventh century A.C. Vijayabahu Soon after he invited the monks who ha higher ordination of the three Buddhist sé and Sagaliya. In the twelth century A. Dhammaruci and Sagaliya sects and the 1 accept either to be absorbed into employment.8 From that time upto now Lanka.
02 History of Buddha image in Sri Lan
Dr. Walpola Rahula (now profes: image goies as far back as the third centu
"...a Sinhalese tradition, currentatl be wholly ignored, traces the histol third century B.C. In relating the ac Mahavamsa refers to a "great and be by Devanampiya-Tissa in the Thupa had the earliest Buddha image in th actually this image made or wheth buddhist king of Ceylon an ancient at Thuparama, we cannot be definit

54
halese king and established themselves in lay be called Mantrayana, one of the two yana being the other. The latter form of luring the ninth century A.C.'
na onward the monks of the Mahavihar
adins but they made every effort to protect aitulyavada and also they themselves kept as Sagaliyas who also had the influence of
luring the Chola conquest in the first half I, ascended the throne in 1055 A.C. and .d been in Burma and re-established the ects namely the Mahavihara, Dhammaruci C. king Parakramabahu I, dissolved the members of these two sects were asked to he Mahavihara or seek government only the Mahavihara sect is found in Sri
or) assumes that the history of Buddha ry B.C.. His statement is as follows:
last in the fifth century A.C., which cannot y of the Buddha image as far fack as the tivities of Jattha-Tissa (323-333 A.C.) the autiful stone-image that was placed of old ama". If we accept this statement, Ceylon : world, whether Devanampiya-Tissa had r a later tradition attributed to the first image of unknown origin that was found !. Merely because we do not find Buddha

Page 159
images among the early Sculptures logical to conclude that there wer century B.C. anywhere else either. new ideas in the island in advance O
In support of the above assumpsion
the Buddha image of King Devanampi (urusilapatima) mentioned above was particularly sacred. King Jettha Tissa thuparama and set it up at a monastery
(334-363 A.C.) removed it from there and (about the end of the 4th century) setje Dhatusena (460-478 A.C.) enected an ec Buddhadasa had been lost, he providedje made. He also had the halo and thcrest m silameghavanna (617-262 A.C.) repaired gems and dedicated to it the Kolavapita ruined temple of the image, and his queen repeatedly referred to by various names silasatthu, silasambuddha. Silamayleuddha
It is interesting to note here that whenever the reference is made to this im: this one was particularly known as "th inscription of Mahinda IV. (956-972 A.C (mangala-mahasilla patima) "the auspiciou slab inscriptions of the same king refer to a highly eulogistic terms. These referencess. of the Buddha which commanded unusual as a relic of immense value. Wickramasin Buddha mentioned in the inscriptions of M king Devanampiya-Tissa set up at the T posibility that this image might have been Hien sawat the Abhayagiri Vihara in the

at Sanchi and Bharhut in India, it is not : no Buddha images made in the third Was there anything to prevent the birth of
the continent?".
Dr. Rahula provides historical records of ya - Tissa:"The great – stone - image" a celebrated Statue which was held (323-333 A.C.) removed it from the called Pacinatissa - pabbata, Mahasena placed it at the Abhayagiri. Buddhadasa wels in the eye – sockets of this image. lifice for it, and as the gems placed by wels for a pair of eyes which were to be ade and the hair studded with blue gems. its old shelter, adorned it with various nk, Sena II (851-885 A.C.) restored the placed a blue diadem onit. this image is such as urusilapatima, mahasila patima, l, silamayamuninda and silamayamahesi.
he word sila (stone) is invariably used ge. There were other stone images, but great stone image". The Mihintale ..) refers to mangul - maha-sila-pilima, great stone image". The Jetavanarama mahasala-pilima, "great stone image" in low that thee was an ancient Stone image great respect, and which was honoured ghe thought that the stone image of the sahinda IV was probably the one which huparama, and drew attention to the the same which the Chinese pilgrim Fa fth century A.C."

Page 160
King Devanampiya tissa ruled th Being the first Sinhalese Buddhist king possible way. IN the Mahavamsa acco Buddha image that he caused to be n Mahavamsa has given the impression Thuparamavas attributed to king Deva construction of that monastery. But wi that the Buddha image was at least kno
The earliest record of a Buddha i found in the Mahavamsa and in the Sam a Pali translation Of Old Sihalatthakatha somewhere in the end of the fifth or 6th Ialsnd up to the end of the 3rd century introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, S important events and this is still mainta the Mahavamsa fro the third centur archaeological evidence. Therefore we which refers to a Buddha made by a Mahavamsa' was brought by his son M included it in the old Sihalattha katha
Mahavamsa. The same story Buddhaghosa (5th century A.C.).' Thi works called Maha Atthakatha of third which was probably composed during th
The Mahavamsa says that empore Mahakala who had seen the likeness of bring him to the palace. Having brought on the Pallanka, a seat, under a white um asked him to show the likeness of the Bu king made a Buddha image endowed w marks, halo, and the ketumala. The em for one whole week."

156
e Island during the period 250 - 210 B.C. he suported the monks and nuns in every unt of this king there is no reference to a nade. 10 This silence of the author of the that a stone Buddh aimage found at the hampiya Tissa as he was responsible for the } must see whether there was a possibility wn during the third century B.C.
mage in the Sri Lankan Pali literature was lantapasadika. Of these the Mahavamsa is Mahavamsa by a monk called Mahanama century A.C. It includes the history of the A.C. It is evident that from the time of inhalese Buddhists had a habit of recording ined. So the authenticity of the records in y B.C. has been very much proved by are compelled to accept that the account
Naga King of Emporere Asoka in the ahinda to Sri Lanka and Sinhalese monks
is found in the Samantapasadika of S is also a translation of an old Sinhalese century B.C. and Mahapaccari Atthakatha e first century B.C.
re Asoka heard about a Naga King called previous four Buddhas and he ordered to him to the palace the emporer placed him brella, and offered him various flowers and ddha (Gautama Buddha). Then the Naga ith thirty two major marks, eighty minor borer was very pleased and he looked at it

Page 161
All this evidence gives the impres, was a demand for Buddha images ar experimented with the Buddha image.
It is recorded that Mauriya rulers sale. No doubt there wee very efficier Asika as evident from the Asokan Pilla decorations.
It is a fact that during the reign of Religion. So it is obvious in such a situa objects.
Already there wre two such accep of the Buddha) and Paribhogika (Bo-T Buddha image was introduced later ir experimentation.
The ommission of Buddha or Bod India indicates that the likeness of the E Therefore it is reasonable to think that include neither the image of the Buddh that it is improper to have an image of was a strong feeling that it is impossible real Buddha is the Dahmma (Dhammak
It took several centuries after the into an anthropomorphic form. Three su characteristics of such as anthropomorp older than the third century B.C. so th third century B.C. may be considered as the anthropomorphic form of the Budd the period of experimentation. Until at of the Buddha was not approved. that argues that situation in Sri Lanka during

157
ion that during the third century B.C. there d the craftsmen of the Mauryan empire
were famlous for producing sculptures for ut sculptors during the reign of Emporere 's - with beautiful animal figures and other
Emporer Asika Buddhism because a World tion that there was a great demand for cult
ced objects namely saririka (bodily remains ree), Cetiyas. The uddesika cetiya or the the pre Christian era after a period of
hisattva image in the early Buddhist Art of Buddha was still in the experimental stage. the sculptors of Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodgaya a nor the image of the Bodhisattva feeling Buddha or Bodisattva knowing that there to grasp the likeness of the Buddha. The aya), or the Body of the Law.
: Parinirvana to transfer the Body of Law ttas of the Pali Tripitaka include the major hic form of the Buddha. These suttas are : period between the Parinirvana and the a transitional period in which the theory of la was formulated. Then naturally comes out the first century B.C. the model form was the situation in India. As Dr.Rahula the third century B.C. may have not been

Page 162
the same as in India.
Several references to Buddha
commentories. (1) The Apadana Atthak be transfered either to a painting or a scu in the account of the Buddha iamge of th people make images of gold, silver etc. b equal to the likeness ()attabhava) of alms-giving to the sangha "Wise men" use and offer food and drink first to the imag to cut a branch of a Bo-tree, it should be image with relics.'
Above mentioned Atthakathas (P. old Sinhalese commentories which were third century B.C. and the first century A into Pali in the fifth century A.C. But historical material to their translations. commentoreis belong to the period from A.C.
Apart from the above mentioned h Lanka the Mahavamsa gives an interesting relic chamber of the Mahathupa by K relavent portion of the account is as follo
"In the midst of the relic chamberth splendid in every way. Around the bodh jewels;... on a throne the cost where of bodhi-tree, he placed a shining golden members of this image were duly made shining. Maha Brahma stood here holdi the consicration with the vakayuttara shel Kalanaga with the dancing firsland the tl and train followers"

images have been found in the Pali atha says that the Buddha nature cannot lpture.16 (2) The same belief is reflected e Manoratha Purani. There it is said that ut ther are none who can make an image he Buddha." (3) On the occasion of d to place an image or a casket with relics e or the casket.o (4) When it was lawful cut only if it interferes with a stupa or an
ali commentories) are the translations of prepared during the period between the .C. These commentOreis were translated the trnaslators did not include any new So the Buddha images referred to in the the third century B.C. to the first century
istorical records of Buddha images in Sri g account of a Buddha image placed in the ing Duttha gamani (161-137 B.C.) The
WS
e King places abodhi-tree made of jewels, i-tree ran a vedika made of all manner of was one koti, errected to the east of the Buddha image seated. The body and of jewels of different colours beautifully ng a silver parasol and sakka curring out , Pancasikha with his lute in his hand, and housand handed Mara with his elephants

Page 163
The historicity of above account doubtless because during the second cen the historical events and such records we was then called Sihalatthakatha Mah Mahavamsa. This work was translated int A.C. King Dutthagamani was the natio builder of large monuments like the ni and the Mirisavati Stupa. His national ar consideration in the first part of the grea to accept the fact that Sri Lanka produc B.C.
All the existing Buddha images in Sri La iconography. One of these schools produ bleshy protuberence, the Mahayana usni of the other school have no such abnormal the iconography of the Buddha given in ti the Mahavihara tradition. The latter n Buddha image.
The dolamite standing Buddha im District has no protuberence on it's head. twin pond and the Abhayagiri stupa at standing Buddhaat Rasvehere, Anuradha Another bronze Buddha statue was une Abhayagiri Vihara project of the UNES Similar two other bronzes have been archaeological museum, Anuradhapura There is a painted Buddha figure of the summit of the Dimbulagala, Tamankadus to the Mahvihara School which was at thi the Dhammarci sect.
Bronze Buddha statues found at V. the colombo National Museum have no p are crowned with a flame-like symbol (pl.

59
f the Mahvamsa, the Great chronicle, is ury B.C. there was a practice of recording re carefully included in a chronicle which avamsa, the Sinhalese commentory of o Pali by Mahanama in about sixth century lal hero of Anuradhapura period and the he storyed brazen palace, the Mahathupa d religious activities had given the highest t chronicle. Therefore we are compelled ed Buddha images in the second century
nka belong to two schools on the basis of lced Buddha images without a boney and sa on the top of the head. Buddha images cranial bump on top of the head following ne Pali Tripitaka, and its commentories of nay be called the Mahavihara school of
lage at Mahailuppallama, Anuradhapura The Saimadhi Buddha(pl. 1) between the the Abhayagiri Vihara, and the colosal pura District also belong to the same type. arthed by the archaeological team of the CO-Sri Lanka cultural Triangle in 1987. found earlier and now they are in the and in the Colombo National Museum. same tupe in one of the two caves on the a District. These Buddha images belong beginning shared even by the monks of
cheragala, Anuradhapura District now in otuberence on top of their heads but they 2) This symbol has been identified as the

Page 164
1.
ketumala of the Pali commentories and t itis called siraspata” The ketumala is on of the Sinhalese Buddhism.” The Culava ramsiculamani to old Buddha images O Viharas from the second half of the fifth c of the Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetav fifth century A.C.23. It indicates that them of the Abhayagiri Vihara and the Sagali featuer of the Buddha image. It further were produced without this symbol.
Buddha images with the protubere Mahauana tradition - or the Buddhist S Buddha images of this tupe found in Sri Paranavitana as belonging to Andhara scl
The Abhayagiri stupa was built by th Kanittha Tissa (167-186 A.C.) built it's V grants to the stupa carvings of these Vaha of Amaravati in Andhara. So we are com the Vahalkasas of the Abhayagiri stupa ar sculptors. Carved sculptures of the Vahall the same school of art. This stupa was bui King Mahasena is the first Sinhalese ri Buddhism. So the stone sculptures of Abl to the Andhara School of Art. Sro dur Buddha image of Andhra school must ha standing Buddha images with the Abhay their heads are very much similar to th school. Most probably these three Bud Andhara sculptors.
Later Buddha images with th ... a-Anuradhapura school. This Ma tipture florushed in Sri Lanka betweei itentury A.C. This was the school of art (

he ramsiculamani of the culavamsa. NOW e of the eighty minor marks of the Buddha msa says that some Sinhalese kings set up f Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana entury A.C. * It indicates that the monks 'ana Viharas from the second half of the Lonks of the Mahavihara, Dhammarucikas yas of the Jetavana Vihara accepted this indicates that the oldest Buddha images
ince on the top of the head belong to the ects influenced by Mahayanism. Oldest Lanka have been identified by Senerat hool of art.24
he King Gajabahu 1 (114-136 A.C.)25 and 'ahalkadas (frontise pieces)26 and made lkadas are quite similar to the bas-reliefs pelled to think that the stone carvings of e the creations by the hands of Amaravati cadas of the Jetavana stupa also belong to lt by the King Mahasena (274-31 A.C.)27 iller who was converted into Mahayana hayagiri and Jetavana Vahalkadas belong ing the second century A.C. Mahayana ve been introduced to Sri Lanka. Three a Mudra and the protuberance on top of e Mahayana Buddha images of Andhra lha images may have been produced by
e Mahayana usnisa belong to the hayana oriented School of painting and 1 second century to the end of the tenth of Dhamaruci sect of Abhayagiri Vihara.

Page 165
16
among the finest Buddha images produced Toluvila stone Buddha colossal recumber Dambulla, colossal Buddha at AVukana,b] in the Colombo National Museum, and th Kandy District. all these belong to the pel A.C. Among these except th epainted Avukana Buddha all others were crowned in the usnisa of each. The original Siraspa and there are photographs with a fragment the modern siraspata of this image was se
In conclusion it is worthy of note Buddha image in Sri Lanka; of these the o seems to be a local one and it's history goes other one is the Andhra-Anuradhapuras second century A.C. Both the schools de independently and produced excellent pie school strictly adhere to the othodox Buc school is a Mahayana oriented one. The ceased to exist by the end of th tenth centl

by this school are the pankuliya Buddha, t buddha in teh Maharaja Vihara cave at onze Buddha found in Badula (pl. 3) now e painted Buddha figures at Hindalgala, iod between seventh and eight centuries Buddha figures at Hindagala and the with siraspatas as indicated by the cavities a of the AVukana image was fallen down of it at the foot on the lotuspedestal and up in 1870.
、 *
hat there are two distinctive schools of dest one is the Mahavihara School which far back to the second century B.C. The chool history of which goes back to the :veloped their techniques and the skills ces of Buddha image. The Mahavihara ldhism and the Andhara-Anuradhapura former is still in existance and the latter Iry A.C.

Page 166
Notes
1 Paranavitana, Senarat, Mahayanism in Ceylon, Ceylon Jou1
31st, 1928, pp 38-71.
2 Mahavamsa, ed. by W. Geiger, (PTS), London, 1958, ch.
3 libidi ch. 36.vv.111-112
5 lbid p ch. 37.vv.11-12
6 Nikenyasamgraha, C.M.Fernando's translation, Colombo
7 Culavamsa, translated by W. Geiger, Colombo, Ch. LX. v
8.lbid, ch. 78. vv. 12-27
9. Rahula, Dr. Walpola, History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Set
10 Mahavansa, 1958, Chs. 13.20
11. 1bid Ch. 5. vv. 87-94
12 Somantapasadika (PTS)
13 Mahavamsa, 5.87-94, vv. 12-27, pp. 163-104.
14 Rahula, Walpola, op. cit. pp. 122-124.
15 Mahavamsa, 1958, Ch. 5. vv. 87-94
16 Padana Atthakatha (H), Colombo, 1930, p.63
17 Manorathopurani, (PTS), London, 1973, pp. 115-116

162
nalof Science, Sec. G. Vol. II, pt. 1, ed. by A.M. Hocart, December
xxvi, v.41
1908, p.18
v.4-8, pp. 214-215.
cond edition Colombo, 1966, pp. 122-124.

Page 167
1(
18 Rahula, Dr. Walpola, 1966, P. 125
19 Manorathapurani, (PTS),II, London, 1967, pp. 6-7
20 The Mahavansa, translated by W. Geiger, Colombo, 1950,
21 Fernando P.E.E., "The Siraspata in Buddha images of the A 1986, pp. 21.
22 Milinda Tika, ed. by PadmanadhJaim, (PTS). London, 196
23 Culavamsa ed. by - W. Geiger, (PTS), London,1927 Ch.38
ch. 53.v.49.
24 Paranavitana, Senarat, Art of Ancient Sinhalese, Colombo,
25 Wikramagamage, Chandra, "Abhayagiri Stupaye 1 tihasoya H 1986, pp. 10-18.
26 Nikolus, C.W." Historical Topography of Ancient and mediev, Society, New Series, Vol. Vi, special Number, Colombo 1963, p.
27 bid, pp. 146-147.

Ch. xxx, vv. 62-65
nuradhapura Period, " Nava Samskirti Vol. I, No. 1
, P.18
rv. 61-64,-65-67; ch. 48.V.140; Ch. 51 V. 87: Ch. 52.vv.1 2, .65;
|971, p.13
Ha Ehi usa Pilibanda Adhyayanayak", Ancient Ceylon, vol. 6,
al Ceylon", Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic
42.

Page 168

山位唱

Page 169

165
Pl. 2

Page 170
1.
Pl. 3
 

Page 171
An Expseriment. In The of Pottery a case stu
Anuradhap
* Abeyratine M. * Research Labc
UNESCO- Sri Lć
1 Introduction
A rapid survey done in 1965
Codrington of Institute of A an excavation in the citadel yeild the requisite data on
the early historic period,' by Bell and Parker.' Th who was the first to attempt se cuence for Ceylon, indica: possessed a stratified depcs
with pre Christian pottery
Mathematical Reconstruction by orton C. R (1973)' . In a way in which the Mathemati can be applied to the pot ter of 1969.
2 Theory and Mathematical Mode
1 ) Establishing the relatio andd base categoro.cs bel ve55 s eli. "FThen eaqoch categ defined in terms of c i 2 ) Estabolis iling the relatio and base diameter in eac 3) Estimating the height of
and rim diameter, and reconstru

athematical Reconstruction y: Citadel Excavations of
a 1969
Abeyratne C. P. C.
ratory
nka Cultural Triangle Project
codnvinced Prof. K. De B. rchaeology in London that
area of Anuradhapura would the Cultural evolution of ) The citadel was located e published data, by Deraniyagala
the formulation of a pottery ed that the Gedige area it of considerable depth
in its lower levels.
pf pottery has been reported
this paper we like to outline cal recdonstruction of pottery
y found at the citadel excavatio is
ship between different rim nged to the same class of ty of vessel can then be
and a base category. ship between rim diameter category of the vessel. vessels of a chosen category
ting the profi43.

Page 172
168
Al --- Straight or curved
lip A2 - -- Horizontal rime Wit
neck or lip
A3 - - - Everted rims with Sl
B1 - - - Bases with convex pl B2 - - - Bases with concavity
X = rims
X = number of vessells repres
J (Different lots) i ( diff
Which category of rim belong
This is done by counti9ng the category in each lot. Becaus is common in lots where a cer and rare when this category o this rim would have combine W
We can now build up a mathema
We start by consideriding numb lot. If in a lot J a certain with rim category l base cate
We could write
Y51 - X1 In addition, a proportion P21 2 haad base category 1. We c
Y. = X. P. jl jl j
The proportions P11 et C. C
No vessels of rim category 1
All ves s els O As there are 2 base categorie express all the relationships
Yı = Xjı Pı1
Yu2 X1 P12

ims, with no shoulder neck or
groove for a lid no shoulder
oulder, neck or lip
ofiile
in the profile
X = bases ented by rim (X) = number of vessels
represented by base (Y) erent rim categories ) h (different
base categories to the base
number of rims and bases of each e the certain category of base tain category of rim is common f rim is rare. Then we can say ith the base describe above . tical model for this idea.
er of ves sels represented in each proportion P11 of the vessel Jory
11
of the ves s els with rim category uld write instead
* x 1 P21
n be 0 or 1
ase category 1
rim category l and base category 1 and 3 rim categories we can in two equatiodins.
* 2 P21" x 3 P31
- X. P
2 P22 * X3 P
j3 32

Page 173
169
P + P. = 1 O ategory” i2
C i rim categori: base category 1 base catego:
Using Matrix notation:
Y = Y P Matrix standing for Matrix
Y standing
jl
* In practice it is not simple. plreesent in a lot will vary fro 1) Number of sherds into which 2) The propotion of those remai * Some may be lost
* Some may be counted
Equation relates to whole
Vessel deposited
We introduce terms f "brokenness'
base categories . Therefore we ca
found to the number of ve s S els re
ži — Хji fi * ајі
= Y --
Y jjh - Yih 9h * ejh Assuming Variables to be uncorre
and variance 青h will be e qual tc
Therefore can be written in a man
X = Xf + d
Initial ma
Y
Yg + e
Y = X P By algebrair manipulati

matrix standing
21 for propotions
The number of the rim sherds m vessel to vessel depending
each vessel has been broken
n in the lot
To a equation of sherds
excavated
" of the different rim and
an now relate number of Sherds
presented by means of equations
Random errors
lated d will be e qual to X. f
ji* 1
*յh 9h
trix natation
trix of X and Y starts here
DI)

Page 174
Y = BX+C) (B) Calculation S
Then matrix P isestimated by fag
significant )
(Pih = քi a:h / 9:
Stage ( 2) The relatinship between rim diame category by plotting cumalative í
rim fits which base.
Stage (3)
Heights of vessels aqnd reconstru
Taking as axes the vertical axis axis in its base the (Y).
We can fit curves to the shapes c
ү
d(x) (base)
(Same
Υ2 جيمس d2 (X - h) (rim )
If two Curves meet . dx= d2 (X -
( Quadratic equations because eas
Y = a1 X2 + b X + c (ba
Y = a (X - h)? + b (X - h)
2
Subscript li base
Subscript. 2 rim

170
how if we estimate f' g = a
1 (Anova tables checking results
:ter and base diameter in a vessel
frequency curves. We can get which
iction profile
of the pot (X) and a horizontal
of the sherds
gradient at the point they meet)
7 to use and fit the shape)
Se)
+ C (rim)
+ C = a (x - h)2 + b (X - h) + (
2

Page 175
171
- a) X + (b - bi + 2.
If h = hl equal roots
neglect h = - ve
h is height of the vessel

h) x + C - с + bh - a h
== -- Ve
2

Page 176
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JEHOd 18 696. NOILYAW0x3 TAGWLIO KOS,
MaeYYŁ W LYo o£.

(፵)
į,!,|-*&ぬ%4w %
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z 2寺2있z9ぬ『ᏓᏃZo [ !9E?6 || V \, 히sgg|へg|9g gg|3 og 6きgf Af|9|ぬき f gf|tきow6g g g g ggぬい!%

Page 177
173
0 3 - Jul -90
A1 A2 A
O
1
2
3
4 O. 16
3 O. 24
6
7 , 28 1. 08 8 O. 37
9 O 73 2. 15 10 1.91 1.59 4. 30 11 3. 38 7. 9. 8, 60 12 5, 33 13. 49 17. 20 13 6, 71 15. 87 18. 28 14 8, 95 9, 84 2 l ... 5 l 15 10, 17 23. 81 23. 66 16 11. 92 26, 19 24. 73 17 13. 62 29. 37 25. 81 18 16. 55 34, 13
19 19.03 37。30 26, 88 20 23. 83 46,03
21 29, 20 48. 41
22 3, 17 5 O, O.O 27, 96 23 1.1 .. 20 54, 76
2. 53.84 58, 73
25 6 O. 72 62. 70
2 : 68. 4 O
27 73. 89 65. 87 37. 63 28 81. 1 7 67. 46 47, 31 29 85. 32 69。84 55. 9 30 88. 65 72. 22 59. 14 3. 90,77 73. 81 66.67 32 93. 13 71。60 72. O.1 33 94.59 77 , 78 75 27 34 95 81. 82. 34 79. 57 35 95, 85
36 97。36 85.71 84.95 37
38 98.21 88. 89 92. 1 7 39
4 O 98.66 9. 27
41
42 96.77 43
4 99.51 93. 65 97.85 45
46 99.59
47
48 99.67 94. 44 98, 9.2

ENCAVATION DATA
B1
67.
90.
95. 97.
98.
59
25 - 0 Ù
5 O. OO
t
5
O
O
1 OO. OO

Page 178
6
99,怨1 }{;ے. زi
않 3), 9 9 . (5
99. 2
Ot). OO
1 Ꭴ Ꭴ .. Ꭴ Ꭷ
() {

74
OOOO
). () }

Page 179
4. Calculations and ret
ris category
43 56 95 609 38 55 1278 285 lots 71 3 母
69 1O 8 155
ዛ31 6o9 1278 71 69 xx - 56 艾3 18 ჯგ - 10
95 தத 285 l 15
21997.28 71185 49506 XʻX a 12632 5013 1185ל b59566 12632 93355
|x'ıl - 2199728 (5013 - 9355 - 12632 x 12 *39506x126交)+ *又3506(71185 x 1:
2199728(3O8421191) - 71185(109த6த
276029 15
Adj(x') -/ 308421191 -1093635883 -602O115883 1219ОО83ң -1304034658 Ÿዛ992705ገዛሒ
(xx) Adi (X'X)
| x'x|
1. 3O842119 - -60201158.
2-74612029 13 =1ጛOዛOጛዛ6፡
1123' clos s3.982462k. s -398. -O5 ዛ•ዛ39O2O186 1274259735 05- 5 ؛ با 7 به پا

Sults
base category
5 Ο
6 1.
as 35
lots 1 1.
1 1 / 52
431 56 gத 609 38 தத 1278 18 285
71 3
69 10 8 / 5x3
332) - 71185(7118s x 93355 - 2632 - 39506 x 5013)
8う)* 4395o6(-1ヌo4o34658)
=130ዛ03,658 1O ጙ9927O51ዞሒ
5959932259
-1093635883 -130403658 33 219 هاOO63بال E 1o 2992705 با 58 3499270514 5959932239
-05 ے | 3615 پا 66ها7 ها بهO5 s-ol. 1.274259735 E-ol. E -O- 2,170309968 E-Ol

Page 180
176
ዛኝ1 6O9 1278 71 69 ** " | 56 28 18 , o
95 55 235 டி 8/தகு
50679 5861
1151 125 10792 12O7
2
11231161 is -05
isos 5 261 با 786 ها
(xx'y'ry
-3982
ዛ•ዛ39
1。27。 50679 586 \
x 1151 123 10792 1207
OO1O872
a01321668 0.032300,
2
22 1 جة
*31 32 JSX2
(0.01.0872O2779
Oooos 126os97
(xx) r" .
f
sO-13216
-OO2500
146.801
17。258。
1.
1 || 25
Sr.' ... (1287.051851
1ዛ6-8O17515
5 6 3
O 1
5
1
1288 1ዛ8
18 1922

(8)
5 Ο 6 1
35 ,
1. 1
1 1.
76248 -05 3615و با 06ها7 است || o O2O186 col 127259735 slot 259735 sol 2a17OO9968 sol
0.003611260597 8779ג
309 -O-O2500983.459 Mს5 -6-8819446 c -o
6809 0.0323oo715 2x3 پلis o 6 الهلو 681 ه 6 - 93959
ଜ୍ଞା 75683) 22
/5 O
6 1.
35 l
1. 1
1 t / 52

Page 181
177
O.9l8149 1, 19824.86 1, 1982-86 ጥs7ዛ126317 Residual sum of squars
r"Ꮧ - iᎿ'Ꮧ .(
si ● *3
This implies that in lot base category 1
1 : 5. As there is only 7 base sherd in all predict the combinations of base 2.
#8 2 ל
f 228 o.o.1087208779 - 1 ኣ" -ኞ °°ooo7” ኣ•፥• = 0,56741495 258
ל
ioeo the O55 of propotion the vessels with rin category T 126
had base of category 1.

(9)
2x2
combines with the rin category lots, it is not feasible to
= ዛሓ?
g, as 48
= 2 12 3 . 3
0.003611260597 s 50.0823007145
O.766
io eo the O. 76 propotou of the vessels with
rima category 3 had

Page 182
表
Ο
y
(DÒ
-
A
-
KWA
O
O
178
溪
T f3 ti
○ C. - u w一
.--عه w ,-س X تصور ! a ya __D ! ք այՎ }{?
 

(10)
*íj
(r ; ī
() す t_1}
ad
(፫ዝ Φυ す。 H =
.. مما ζυ {“ጏ
Ո {` !
Cr-! - !-
十
t «Ն
I .
ti i s i i u i. s !r“፣

Page 183
5
17
Conclusion
This is a very preliminary appr of pottery from the citadel exc three in establishing the heigh
worked out in more details in f
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Dr. S. Darani
data from his excavation at cit
Miss B. Welihinda for preperati
References
l) Deraniyagala S. The citade 1969. Excavation of the Ge
2) Orton C. R. An experiment
of the Pottery from a Roman Wood, London. University o
of Archaeology Number eleve:

oach in solving rconstruction avations. Specially in stage t of vessels. This has to be
uture.
yagala for allowing me to use adel Anuradhapura and also to
on of data for calculations.
l excavations of Anuradhapura
dige area.
in the Mathematical Reconstruction o-British Kiln Site at Wighgate f London Bulletin of the Institute
In 1973.

Page 184


Page 185
AUSPICOUS SYMBOLS IN
THA
E
Nandana
The use of auspicious symbols has since the very early times. Literature a data on the variety of usages"which coul
(1) in association with the phu (Mahapurusa) - the denominatio Buddhas, Tirthankaras and other di (2) as motifs on the ornaments personages;
(3) as motifs to attach sanctity and a to induce good fortune for those ass
Auspicious symbols of Indian origin the impact of Brahmanism and Buddhism in art, regularly depicted to induce good f in sets which accumulatively represe auspiciousness, connected generally with most usual set, consisting of a symbols, is Buddhist tradition often expands the sum Different tokens, however, are recorded i
In Dvaravaticulture - the first homogenec favour for the wheel emblem, an ancient II and the universe, used extensively by the and his Dharma. Dvaravati culture is free-standing depictions of stone wheels objects pf worship equal in importance t cultural sphere.

DVARAVAT CULTURE OF AND
у Jhutiwongs
been a well-known phenomenon in India ld archaeological remains provide much d be summed up as follows:
sical appearance of the Great Man n which is applicable to the gods, the vine and Saintly persons;
worn by divinities and other exalted
uspiciousness to objects and edifices, and sociated with them.
appearinall cultures which have received ... They usually became traditional motifs ortune and properity. They often appear :nt the many conceivable aspects of good fortune, fertility and regality. The (nown as the astamangala, while the later total of the most auspicious signs to 108. n different traditions.
us culture of Thailand we notice aspecial hdian symbol for the sun, the cosmic cycle early Buddhists to represent the Buddha particularly rich in exquisitely carved, (PL.1) which probably were important o the Buddha images made in the same

Page 186
The Wheel symbol also marks th Dvaravaticultue. No other auspicious si earliest depictions of the Buddha's foot
The wheel appears again in the rem on a Stone slab from Nakorn Pathom, c Here it forms part of a set of 4 symbols, both associated with water and fertility, Sri-Laksmi, the Goddess of Fortune. The male figure, clad in a simple loin-cloth a wild look of his loose and curly tresses personage probably represents Kuvera, tl popularly worshipped by the Buddhists Seated in a similar pose but wearing well-known features in the Buddhist art
Two more sets of auspicious symb toilet trays. The first one (PL3)." which from ca. 7th-8th century A.d., is unfortur slab of 13 cm. Square, carved with an op serve as the main receptacle for powder Goddess Sri-Laksmisprinkled by the ele stalk is seen behind the only elephant fig with delicate but stylized lotus flowers em central lotus, in line with the gajalaksmi fluttering flag, a part of an ankisa, and a f slab, among stylized lotus plants and flow for the powder remains to be seen in the of gakalaksmi and the lush lotus plants a background recall the early depictions O. Sanci, while the presence of many auspi toilet trays from Taxila. The depictions purnaghata also regularly form part of found in ancient India and Sri Lanka."

pair of the Buddha's footprints found in gns accompany it, which feature recalls the marks in Indian art.
larkable 7th-8th century engraving (PL.2) nce a major centre of Dvaravati culture. together with a purnaghata and a conch - and a Srivatsa - the mark that stands for a four signs are positioned around a seated ld wearing simple ornaments. The rather Suggests a yaksa-like personality, and the he king of the yaksas and the god of wealth, and Brahmans alike. Images of Kuvera, a crown and other rich ornaments, are Of Dvaravati.
ols are found in two Dvaravati style stone is more finely carved and probably dates lately incomplete. It was originally a stone 2n lotus in the centre which was meant to . Above this is depicted the motif of the hants (gajalaksmi). A tree or a thicklotus lure which remains in tact. A purnaghata erging from its mouth, Stands beneath the . A bird holding lotus bud in its beak, a ish are seen on the existing portion of the rs. One of the four subsidiary receptacles Dne extant corner of the tablet. The motif ld flowers which appear to have filled the Sri-Laksmi at the stupas at Bharhut and ious symbols reminds us of some Indian
of Sri-Laksmi, nanner, ankusa, fish and some traditional sets of the astamangala

Page 187
The second toilet tray (PL4) is A full-blwon lotus that was meant to re centre, while a segment of the same ki the tablet for the samepurpose. The er divided into two halves by teh central f enthroned figure of Sri-Laksmi being elephants, each of which is holding up flowers emerges. The goddess herself h hands, and two camaras Stand on either on the other side of the central powde: is positioned a purnaghata with a cros; what looks like an elaborate lid or a la of symbols are seen on either side of the chattram ankusa, vajra, rosary, conch a This toilet tray should be dated around the 7th-8th century as has been sugges
Many auspicious symbols foundo the purnaghata, conch and fish, are ( traditional sets of astamangazla in all p. ankusa, nevertheless, regularly forms pa India and Sri Lanka while the camara a Sri Lanka only. The fan, chattra and v astamangala" and also in Sri Lankan re. symbols.'
Sri Lankan Buddhists showed m and combined this with the 4 direction the cosmological symbolism in general. present day the emblems anfattributes the 8 cosmic directions who preside ove The schematic arrangement of the 8 syr the compass also served as a standard p the ancient Sri Lankan shrines, that col larger number of auspicious symbols.(1

183
rectangular in form and about 15 cm. wide. ceive the cunna-powder again occupies the ld of flower is positioned in each corner of tire decorative design appears to have been lower. One halfi practically filled with the sprinkled by a pair of richly caparisoned a water pot where from a bunch of lotus olds a pair of long-stalked lotus buds in her side of her lotus throne. Opposite Laksmi, -receptacle and parctically resting upon it, -band decoration on the body, Supporting rge and stylized flower. Two identical sets purnaghata, consisting of a ceremonial fan. nd a fish, all being symmetrically arranged. the 8th-9th century A.D.(8) and not from ted elsewhere.(9)
n this toilet tray, viz. The Sri-Laksmi motif, :ommon elements one encounters in the arts of India and also in Sri Lanka.(10) The rtoftheastamangalasets known from south ppears to be a special feature pertaining to 'ajra sporadically appear in Indian sets of presentations of larger groups of auspicious
lch favour for the use of the astamangala, ll animals, the Sacred lake Anavatapta and In Sri Lanka, the 8 symbols remain to the of the 8 planets cum guardian divinities of the destiny of man and the entire universe. bols in accordance with different points of attern for the garbhapatra (deposit slab) of ld be systematically expanded to include a
3)

Page 188
The number of the auspicious syn toilet tray (Pl.4), clearly exceeds that bhadrapitha - the two constant element India and Sri Lanka are conspicuously al symbols on the Dvaravati toilet tray I astamangala as prescribed by the Manas the purnaghata are given the most prol grouped around them as auxiliary eleme
This emphasis laid on the Sri Laks both Dvaravati-style toilet trays and des reminds us of the earliest depictions of Sanci in North India." In such cases, th seen seated on a lotus which emerges fro1 the source of life, fertility and felicity. T the carving on tray no. 1 (plu.3) are also Sri-Laksmiscenes at Bharhut and Sanci. fecundity (sankha and fish) and regality ( been added to the main motifs of Sri-L applying the most auspicious symbols evidently persisted on in Thailand during existing examples. It would be wrong to for feminine use. Toilet trays are among well as religious and ritual purposes, a tokens would have been most appropriat emphsis on the themes of the goodess of measure of good fortune and well-being while paraphernali pertaining to regal 1 social status. The cunnapowder, essenti would have been deposited in the lotus by the mainfold auspicious forces.
It is further noticeable that the sel cunnareceptacle in tray no. 2 (PL4), con in available lists of auspicious emblems sankha and ankusa standing next to it a

hbols found on the second Dvaravati-style of the traditional 8, and the Svastika and in all common sets of the astamangala in sent. Nevertheless, the arrangment of the ecalls the pattern of distribution of the ara text, in which the Sri Laksmi sign and minent places while the other objects are nts.**
mitoken and the purnaghata, observed on cribed in the Brahmanical Manasara text, the goodess such as sseen at Bharhut and le goddess-sprinkled by the elephants - is mapot that symbolizes the primeval water, he water plants filling the background of reminiscent of the lush background of the But more auspicious symbols emphsizing camara, chattra, fan and banner) have now aksmi and the purnaghata. The custom of to the toilet trays existed in India' and the Dvarvati periodas shown by these two classify these objects as utensils destined articles that could have served secular as hd those bearing such an array of sacred e for ceremonial ablution (abhiseka). The fortune and the purnaghata adds up to the to be induced by the usage of the object, night evoke high rank, fame and exalted all for ritual anointment and lustral bath, receptacles, Surrounded and made sacred
of symbols lined up on either side of the ains one particular item which is unknown from India and Sri Lanka: a rosary. The e among the most common 8 auspicious

Page 189
signs and the vajra is also sporadically fo the contrary, appears to have no place at and well-being. We wonder if the sets of for cunna-powder in this case might stan of the four most important gods known in indications of the coalition of religious e is quite conceivable that, in this instance for Siva, the rosary for Brahma and the powers would thus have been invoked ceremony.
Indra and Brahma are well-kn attending on the Buddha on various occa made to acknoledge the spiritual sup paralledlcan be foundin Sri Lanka, where

und in larger sets of such. The rosary, on llamong the traditional tokens of fortune 4 symbols flanking the central receptacle for the emblems and hence the presence Dvaravati culture. Considering the many lements in Dvaravati Buddhist culture, it , the Sankha stands for Visnu, the ankusa vajra for Indra. The four supreme divine to preside over and bless the ablution
own figures in Dvaravati iconography, sions (17) while Siva and Visnu were also eriority of the Buddha. (18) A similar theravanda Buddhism also predominates.

Page 190
Notes
1 For these see Coomaraswamy 1927, pp. 175 - 188; Joshi 196
2See also Yupho 1965.
3 See Diskul 1986, pp.30-31.
4 Also published and discussed in Boeles, 1964.
5 See Marshall 1951, Vol. II, pp. 452 and 504; Vol. III, Pls. 134 1972, p. 31, fig.9.
6 See Commaraswamy 1927, pp. 179-185; Joshi 1965, p. 314, L. Agrawala 1965, Figs. 40-41; Karunaratne 1978, pp. 107-115.
7 Also published and discussed in Boeles, 1964; also in Yuphc
cat.no.10.
8 See Diskul 1980.
9 Krairiksh 1979, cat. no. 10
10 See Karunaratne 1978, pp. 107-115. See also te series engrav
11 See Fabri 1930 - 1934, PL.xxxvii, d; Coomaraswamy 1927, taf
12 Karunaratne 1984, pp. 152-154, pls. 6,7,9.
13 See Karunaratne 1984.
14 See Karunaratne 1978, p. 112.
15 See Coomaraswamy 1956, Figs. 122-124; Yupho 1965, fig 29

, pp. 311-317; also Agrawala 1965.
NO.56) and 146 (NO.133); also in Van Lohuizen - de Leeuw,
onghurst, 1938, PLXIX(a); sivaramamurti 1983, p. 28, PL.28;
1965, fig. 30, quaritch Wales 1969, PL.26B, Krairiksh 1979,
ed on a gold vessel excavated at Jetavana.
29, nos. 23-24.

Page 191
16 See note 5.
17 See Yupho 1967, figs. 8-9.
18 See Yupho 1967, fig. 4.

37

Page 192
Bibliography
Agrawala, P.K.
1965 Purna Kalasa or the Vase of Plenty, Varanasi
Boeles, J.J.
1964. The King of Sri Dvaravati and his Regalia, Journal of th
Coomaraswamy, A.K.
1927 Notes on Indian Coins and Symbols, Ostasiatische Zeits
1956 La sculpture de Bharhut, Paris.
Diskul, S.
1980 Rivew of P. Krairksh, Das Heilige Bildnis/The Sacred Im
1986 A Pair of the Lord Buddh's Footprints at Sa Morakot, D 12, no. 3, pp. 30-31.
Fabric, C.L.
1930-34 Excavations at Nagarjunikonda, Archaeological Surv
JOShi N.P.
1965 Use ofauspicious symbolsin Kusanaartat Mathura, Feli
317.
Karunaratne, T.B.
1978 The Astamangala Figure on an Attani Pillar of Sena I Fr
Leiden, pp. 107-115.
1984 Garbhapatra: Ritual Deposit Vessels of Buddhist Shrin
Krairiksh, P.
1979 Das Heilige Bildnis/The Sacred Image, Koln. Van Loh
cultural Relationship, Aspects of Indian Art, Los Angeles, pp.
Marshall, J.M. .

e siam society, Vol. LII , pt. 1, April 1964, pp.99-114.
chrift NF, 4 Jahreg, pp. 175 - 188.
hage, in Hournal ofthe Sian Society, Vol. LXVIII, part 1.
ong Si Maha Pho, Prachinburi, in Muang Boran Journal, Vol.
ey of India, Annual Report, pt. I, pp. 107-111.
citation Volume presented to V.V. Mirashi, Nagpur, pp. 311 -
om Kivulekada, Sri Lanka, Paranavitana Felicitation Volume.
es in Ancient Sri Lanka, Ancient Ceylon, No.5, pp. 125 - 219.
uizen - de Leeuw, J.E. 1972 Gandhara and Mathura ; Their
27-43.

Page 193
1951 Taxila, An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excava
Guaritch Wales, H.G.
1969 Dvaravati, The Earliest Kingdom of Siam (6th-11th cen
Sivaramamurti, C.
1983 Panorama of Jain Art, South India, New Delhi.
Yupho, D.
1965 Dharmacakra or the Wheel of the Law, Bangkok.
1967 Brahma with four Faces, Bangkok.
List of Illustrations. 1) Dharmacakra, National Museum Ut Pathom, Naitonal Museum Bangkok. Neg. Prof. Dr. J.E. Van L. Neg. Prof. Dr. J.E. Van Lohuizen - de Leeuw. 4) Tilet tray, Na
de Leeuw.

ions, 3 Vols., Cambridge.
ury A.D.), London.
hong Neg. N. Chutiwongs. 2) Engraving on stone, Nakorf huizen- de Leeuw 3)Toilet tray, Private collection, Bangkok
tional Museum Bangkok. Neg Prof. Dr. J.E. Van Lohuizen

Page 194

9)
Fig.

Page 195

19
*ļ

Page 196
Fig 3
 

92

Page 197
1.
 

Page 198

194

Page 199
THE ORIGIN OF THE CAVEIN SRI LANKA FROM EA B.
Malin
Introduction The advent of Buddhism to Sri Lanka is arrival of Thera Mahinda, son of Emperol Tissa (250 B.C. - 210 B.C.). The Kir establishment of the religion in the isla chronicles - Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa a After the introduction of Buddhism, a la incised under the drip-ledges of caves, ma the third century B.C. and bear testimony Sangha in Sri Lanka.'
Nature of the cave-dwellings
The caves, converted into dwelling five types of recommended dwellings of th text lists five kinds of lenas or dwellings fit Addhayoga, Pasada, Hammiya and Guha“ classified under the Guha-type were on« society from the royalty to the ordinary m
In Sri Lanka we do not find chambe but caverns made fit for human habitatio) script describe the caves as lenas in t Etymologically, lena means a private abod root li to hide.
Maharajha Gamani Tissa bariya U
The cave of the female lay-devotee
4 Tissa is given to the sangha.

DWELLINGS OF THE SANGHA RLY BRAHIMI INSCRIPTIONS
Dias
placed in the third century B.C., with the Asoka in the reign of King Devanampiya g's conversion to Buddhism marks the nd and it is highlighted in the earliest is the most significant event of its history. ge number of early Brahmi inscriptions, ke their presence for four centuries, from to the origin of the cave dwellings of the
s are simple abodes and come under the e Buddhist Sangha. Cullavagga, a Vingya for the sangha under the names:-Vihara, The caves of Sri Lanka, which could be :e donated by members of all strata of en and women.
rs excavated into rocks as found in India . The inscriptions of the early Brahmi he conventiuonal form of the vinaya. and is equivalent to layana derived from
asika Kitakaya lene sagasa.
Kitaka, wife of the great king Gamani

Page 200
The above mentioned inscription records that the lena or the abode was gi
These inscriptions do not state a the sangha but one or two caves are desc in view for the donation of caves was to a
The early Brahmi cave inscriptions stereotypedformula - agataanagata catuc quarters, present and not present.) A simil cave inscriptions of a Buddhistic nature i
1. Vedidataputasa wekamasa Rama 2. Chhakalepakiyasa lenam deyadh 3. Sasa bhikhu sainghasa niyatitam|
The merchant Ramanaka a chhaka to the community of monks from the fourp giftio
The epigraphs indicate that the ca made by the kings to show their patrona Some of these kings are identified in the bear the epithts fgiven to them in the chro his brothers Uttiya have been identified ir of king Uttiya may be quoted here.
De[va] napiya-maharajhaha Gamani Ut
The creation of..... Gamani Uttiya, the gr
1)
Officers of high rank had participat sangha. Apart from this class, many sexes-upasakas (men-lay devottees) anc

is engraved on the brow of the cave and ven to the sangha.
ly particular purpose of donating caves to ribed as comfortable abodes. The object cquire merit for a better future birth.
form a class by themselves and carry the lisa Sagasa (given to the Sangha of the four arphrasealogy could be found in donative l contemporary peninsular India.
anakasa
ammam chatude 1).
lepakiya, the son of velidata, made Over Joints of horizon this cave as a meritorious
ves on which they appear are donations ge towards the commumnity of monks. inscriptions with difficulty as they do not aco Kings such as Devanampiyatissa and the act of donating caves. An inscription
1. , (ha) nimane
eat king, friend fo the Gods.......(7) (plate
ed in the practive of offering caves to the
thousands of lay-worshippers of both upasikas (women-lay devottees) were

Page 201
19
prepared to provide the sangha with dwel
The origin of the cave-dwellings in such as caves by the kings, nobles and the to be recorded on the brow of the caves. collasal buildings constructed by kings i.e. They fail to mention that a large numbero and the people for the benefit of the con chronicles record that sixty-eight caves w for Thera Mahinda and his companions a this, it may be conjectured that the ca residential buildings were commission appropriate to consider two factors at this some sort of an abode to the monks as w same time buildings of royal standards hav Sangha.
While discussing the nature of the offered explanations on the cave-dwel Paranavitana in his Inscriptions of Ceylo
"These caves and the inscriptions numerous members of the Sangha who w as to take up their abodes in caves in meditation(8)".
Walpola Rahula in History of Buc
"A cave thus appointed was a resic unsophisticated aeathetic sense and quie place for deep meditation".

lings and other requisites.
Sri Lanka The donation of simple abodes people should have had some significance The chronicles lay emphasis only on the Devanampiya Tissa, Uttiya and so forth. fcaves were prepared by the kings, nobles munity of monks. On one occasion the are prepared by king Devanampiya Tissa sabodes for the rainy-season. In view of ves were prepared Mihintale after the 2d in the city. therefore, it would be stage - one, that the caves were given as fitnessed by the inscriptions - two, at teh ye been constructed for the benefit of the
cave inscriptions several scholars have lings of the sangha as well. Senarat n observes that,
indited in them prove that there were are so ernest about their spiritual culture secluded spots and spend their time in
ldhism in Ceylon denotes,
lence pleasent to live in for a person of t temperament: it was be sides an ideal

Page 202
Lakshman S. Perera speculates
"There were however large institu and also simple collections of caves rem monks lived their lives of meditation".
All these scholars subscribe to the sangha formeditation. There is also a cor residences apart from the cave dwelli Therefore Paranavitana States;
"At the time caves were being esta mainly of wooden construction, were be Of Anuradhapura"."
Senake Bandaranayake in his Sinh
"It is apparent both from the arc records that the caves Wre not the only mo and elsewhere a free-standing archi monasteries from an early date.
He agrees that the caves were sim sophisticated buildings in and around Speculates thus;
The picture which emerges from a of the chronicter's poetry, is one of some the one hand, simple, rudimentary dwell the other, buildings of royal standards, urban centre".
We may non examine the stateme king Devanampiya tissa commenced the for the monks on the Maha Megha Vana

utions such as obtained in Anuradhapura oved from the haunts of men in which the
view that the caves were dedicated to the senous of opinion to the fact that monastic ngs were established at the same time.
ablished in secluded places, large edifices, ing built in monasteries at the capital city
|alese Monastic Architecture observes.
hitectural remains as well as from literary nastic dwellings and that in Anuradhapura tecture developed alongside the cave
ple dwellings and wonders why there were Anuradhapura at the same time. He
ll this, despite the miracles and metaphors what mixed architectural porspectives - on ings such as the caves at Mihintale, and on normally at a suitable distance from the
nt of the Mahavamsa which explains how work of building of edifices as residences l, the royal park.

Page 203
19
Rammam Maha Meghavanna Tis Thero so patiggayha maliddhiko.“
Andas the great and mostwise The the pleasent Mahamegha-grove, the Tisa.
A question, as a result, follows: wi Uttiya engaged themselves in the donatio chronicles as well as in the donative recoi Devanampiya Tissa initiated the work to his companions to spend the vassa or the I specifically state that sixty-eight caves we Thera Mahinda. The relevant passage fri
Tumhakam gamanasanki agator agatamhati bhasiya
Vassipanayikani thero khandhakam khai
Nitthite lenakammamhi Asathipar viharadakkhinam“
The theras answered "we are come hw who was versed in the rules (of the o commencing the vassa..... when the king with the work of building sixty-eight Kanbaka-cetiya (afterwords stood) he rel the rock-cells was finished, on the full m came and gave the vihara to the theras as
- The inception of cave-dwellings as Sri Lanka was commenced as a practice t were temporary abodes put up for th permanent residences in the city and else

Salaala Maha mata Maha Mahinda
'a, Mahinda of wondrous power, accepted
rama.“
hy kings such as Devanampiya Tissa and n of caves? The reply may be found in the 'ds. Both the chronicles explain how king prepare caves as abodes for the thera and ainy-retreat at Mihintale. The chronicles re prepared by the king at the request of om the Mahavamsa is as follows:
mhitibhasite Iddheva vassam vasitum
mdhaki vido kathes, ranno .......
namaasiyam gantva adasi theranam raja
to spend the rain-season even here", and rder) expounded to the king, the chapter on that same day, had made a beginning rock-cells about (the place where) the urned to the city, ........ when the work on oon day of the month of asalha, the king a consecrated offering.(16)
Vassa - retreats of the Buddhist monks in hat was laid down in the vinaya. the caves e rainy-season while there were many where for the monks to reside during the

Page 204
rest of the year. They were not suppose their task was to go from one place to Buddha.
Residing in caves during the rai performed in them refer to a practive v time(17). During the formative years o rainy season in secluded places where th ora town. In India when the heavy mons The wandering reclusesX spent their time nearly villages and towns. Mahavagga, made provision for the monks to reside bearing the people talking maticiously need to the customs. According to both H for the vassa and pajusan respectively v weather the people may trend on and during this season. 'The Brahmanial san abode a fixed residence in the rainy observance among wanderers of all religi time.
Donation of caves to spend the rai could be traced back to the time of AS inscriptions. In the Barabar Hill cave i given a cave in the rainy season.
Laja Piyadasi ekunaviSati vasabhisiste jalagho Sagama thata[me) iyam kubha Supiyle kha......... [di)
al
When king Priyadarsi had been an pleasent kha[latika mountain] was giv{ season.(19)

'd to stay in one place for long periods for the other preaching the doctrines of the
ny season and the ceremonies that were which had come down from the Buddha's f Buddhism the practive was to spend the e monks could get their food near a village Don rains set in, people had to stay in doors. 2 in huts and caves and collected alms from a vinaya text described how the Buddha in One place during the rainy season on about them going in the rain without any Buddhistand Jain sources, the main reason was the fear that when walking in the wet kill the insects and worms that come out nyasins called it the dhruva sila or the fixed Season seems to have been acustomary ous sects in India even before the Buddha's
ny season for the recluses of various faiths Oka and his grand son Dasalatha through inscriptions of Asoka, the Akivakas were
ointed nineteen years, this cave in the very 2n by me for (shelter during) the rainy

Page 205
Dasalatha's Nagarjuna hill cave i for the same reason.(2)
The caves allocated to the monks was seen in the Mahavamsa Statement sixty-eight caves as vassa residences According to the chronicle the caves : before the monastic buildings were put
The occurence of the vassavasa suggests that the caves were prepared by season. A few records found among t treated as prima facie evidence to the in texts of two inscriptions found at a place as examples. Dusatara-gamsi patake P ima le[nasi) na[sa vasita) sama[na]ye A the gift of Gamanisiva for the benefit of in this cave.” (plate 1)
In another inscription the donor n the monks during the rainy-retreat.
1. Uti-teraha lene sava - natikana-ataya 2. Sagah-athaya vasa-vasika sahathake a 3. Dakabari-gamaka-vaviya invasaka-D
The cave of the elder Uttiya has be of all relatives. For the purpose of prov retreat to the members of the sangha, ar enjoy what is left after providing these, tank of Dakabari-gamaka have been giv
In this inscription an attempt has observed vassa from the other medicam garments to begiven for the vassafirst wł left-over garments later.(24)

scription states that the caves were given
are easy to be prepared at short notice. It where king Devanampiya Tissa prepared or the monks at Mihintale in one day. it Mihintale were prepared as vassavasas lp there.'
in the donative records found on caves people for the minks to reside in the rainy he early Brahmi cave inscriptions can be lentification of caves as rainy - retreats. the : called Yataha Lena vihara can be quoted ntalagamasi pa[ta]ke Gamani-Sivasa dane lot in Dusatara-gama.A lot in Patalagama a monk who resides during the rainy season
nakes a contribution towards the robes for
niyale tireka bhiku saga pariblujitu ataha pati ima-lenahi uvanikite.
en dedicated to the Sangha for the benefit iding of under-garments during the vassa d so that the community of bhikkhus may the shases of the lay devotee Datta in the in as an endowment to the cave. (plate)
been made to distinguish the monks who ents. The monks have been offered the ile the other mendicants were offered the

Page 206
20
Another inscription reads: Utaraha vavi Tisateraha kumiya niyate va
The tank of Uttara and the water custer for the vassa residence......25
In this inscription, the monks were and the water cistern for their living in t monks who settled down in the cave for th was called an avasa. this leads to an invest dwellings - arama and avasa. The word aı not too near and not too far off a city and first of its kind accepted by the Buddha wa to him by King Bimbisara an Avasa was a vacated by the monks at any time. In the M as rainy retreats which could be dismantl section of the Mahavagga is set apart ti demarcation of an avasa, its construction a it. The arama in ornear a town ora city, by its owner and the avasa in the country-si themselves." There is evidence in the founded in the parks and groves in and aramas. the first of itsjind was established vana. The Dipavamsa mentions it as Tissarama.” According to the Mahavar Mahinda on his arrival were the Hall of th Maha Megha Vana. Anarama builtby th to the Thera sometime later.
In the Mahavagga we find monks description of the caves as vassavasas in th were mainly avasas where the monks co possible to vacate the caves once the ra monks are mentioned in the donative re prepared by the monks themselves andwe the following inscription registers the dol

savasike .......
of the elder Tissa have been dedicated
provided an income from the reservoir he cave known as rainy-retreat. These e vassa were called avasikas and the cave igation of the two main types of monastic ama denotes a pleasure garden, situated Owned by a king or a wealthy citizen. The as Veluvana in Rajagaha which was given temperary set-up, which could have been ahavagga we find monks setting up avasa ed at any time after evacuation. A long o describe avasas and it deals with teh and regulations to the monks who lived in situated in its enclosure was looked after de was built and maintained by the monks chronicles that the monastic residences around Anuradhapura city were called by Devanampiyatissa in the Maha Megha a Sangharama and gives its name as nsa, the first buildings offered to thera le state Elephant and a royal lodge in the e king and named after him was donated
setting up avasas as rainy-retreats. The e donative records also suggests that they ld come and go as they pleased. It was ny season came to an end. Apparently ords as Owners of caves. the caves were regiven to the monks of the four quarters. lation of a cave by a monk.

Page 207
1. Damaruci-terasalene chatu-disa-sag 2. Samatapasadake nama
The cave of the elder Dhammaruc, (the cave) named Samantaoasadika.“ (p
The evidence found in these early B that the caves were temporary dwellingst from the four quarters. On the basis o. beleive that the donation of caves were r the Soul purpose of meditation as sugges Bandaranayake.

sa dine
is given to the Singhe of the four quarters ate)
ahmiinscriptions is sufficient to conclude hat were donated to the monks who came the information derived from them we hade as vassavasas and that it was not for ted by Paranavitana, Rahula Perera and

Page 208
Notes
1. such inscriptions are found, inscribed on caves at sites such
inscriptions have been discovered so far
2. Cullavagga, (edited) H. Oldenberg, London, 1880, VI, 1,1.
3. The use of simple caves as dwellings was a fairly widespreac
4. S.Paranavitana (edited) Inscriptions of Ceylon, Volume I (1
5. Nasik Cave Inscriptions, Archaeological Survey of Western
6. For example king Uttiya of the chronicles is “Uti” in the insc
7. Inscriptions of Ceyoon, volume I, No.47.
8. Ibid, Introduction, CII.
9. W.Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Colombo, 1956,
10. L.S.Perera, "The institution of ancient Ceylon from inscripti
thesis) 1949, p.279.
11. Inscriptions of Ceylon, volume I, Instroduction, p. CXXII.
12. Senake Bandaranayake, sinhalese Monastic Architecrture
13. P.Buddhadatta, Mahavamsa, 1959, Panca dasamo parieced
14. Mahavamsa, (trnaslated).W.Geiger, London, 1934, Chapt
15. P.Buddhadatta, Solasamo pariccedo, vv,8,9,14.

as Mihintale, Ritigala, Rajagala etc. About 1500 early Brahmi
practice; the evidence emerges from all parts of the island.
970), No.4.
Indian, volume IV, pp. 40-42.
riptions.
p.114. ,
ons (from earlierst timesto 1016 A.D.), volume I, (unpublished
Leiden, 1974, pp. 46-47.
la, ν, 174.
rXV, V, 174.

Page 209
16. Mahavamsa, (translated) W. Geiger, b. 115. known as va.
17. The retirement for vassa season lasts for three months at
pavarana ceremony solemnizes the conclusion of the vassa sea
18. The Buddhist monks resided in one place for three mont rainy-retreat. Their rules regarding its observance are laid dow
Sacred Books of the East volumes XXII, XLV.
19. Hiltzsch, E., (edited) Corpus Inscriptions Indicarum, Vol.
20. Indian Antiquary, volume XX, p.346.
21. Mahavamsa, (trinaslated). W.Geiger, Chapter 16.
22. Inscriptions of Ceylon, Volume I, No.793.
23. Ibid. N. 796a.
24. It should be noted that two categories of monks hav sangha. Paranavitana observes "The word bhikku means "begg
enough for the members of the Sangha in ancient Ceylon "See
25.Inscriptions of Ceylon, volume I, No.1228. See Foot Note
details about the vassavasa.
26. See S. Dutt, Buddhist monks and monasteries of India, Lo
27. Dipavamsa, (edited and tansalated) K. Gnanawimala, colo
28. Inscriptions of Ceylon, volume I, No.552.

Supanayika.
d can be entered earlier or later in the month of asatha. The
SO.
is during the rainy season. The Jairas observed a four month
n in the Kalpa Sutra. See Jaina Sutras (translated) M. Jacobe,
Ime I (new edition) Oxford, 1925, p. 182.
2 been mentioned in this inscription; sangha and bhikkhu ar' and does not appear to have been considered respectful
Inscription of Ceylon, Volume I,Introduction,p cvi
on this inscription. The missing words may have given more
ndon, 1962, p.84.
mbo, 1959, Chapter 13, vv, 30-34.

Page 210


Page 211
THE DISCOVERY OF TWO N INSCRIPTION FROM
B
Malin
Of the inscribed slabs discovered from J. we discuss here is a recent find. It was un premises by the Cultural Triangle. Thes
The inscription found on the slab c fairly good state of preservation except in 6 ft. 3 in. in length and 7 1/2 in, in breadth 3 inches. The text of the inscription is as
1. atidi vasana venaja Sivasiha kasivaya... Devanapiya-Tisa maha. 2. kahavana dinamaha mahapala sawasata ( Dalha, the two merchants from Atidi, havi gave one hundred kahapanas for the Devanapiya-Tisa monastery. May the me
When deciphering this inscription, the sixth century, we have come across ty found in any of the inscriptions of Sri Lank i in the Nilagama inscription "The letter si But we find a similarity to the characters O 2 copper-plate inscription of the Vakatak. A.D..
The letters i and si appear in our e when compared with these two letters we f inscriptions of Sri Lanka has taken plac inscription the letter i is a horizontal line under the two sides. The letter sa has gone A.D. reappears in the 7th century A.D. in

EW BRAHMI LETTERS IN AN JETAVANARAMAYA
Dias
tavanaramaya in Anuradhapura, the one arthed in an excavation conducted at the ab is broken in to two.
onsists of two lines and the writing is in a three places. The inscribed slab measures ... The letters vary in height between 2 to follows:
Isi(v)ara ca Dalha.... apa dejanamo.... dagapihi biku-sagahi niyate ekasiyaka di(nimaha). We, Sivasiha Isi(v)ara and ing spent money (on a meritorious deed) benefit of the bhikkhu-sangha of the rit be shared by all beings.
assignable to the fifth or the first half of vo characters viz. i and si which are not a. The closest that we could find was the is quite foreign to the script of the period. f the inscriptions of India; particularly in king Pravarasena II of the fifth century
arly Brahmi inscriptions, no doubt. But nd that the evolution of the letters in the in a different way. In the Nilagama curved in the middle two dots appear out of vogue in the 5th and 6th centuries he inscriptions such as Kuccavelio

Page 212
The monastery, mentioned in this inscri the monastery named Devanapiya Tisa. the chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahav Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka. the same monastery which king Devanar may also be suggested that this monaste where the inscribed slab was unearthed.
Built under the patronage of king assumed important as the headquarters Order in Sri Lanka, When the monastery Tissa whom the king favoured. But he monks of the Mahavihara and was expel inception, Jetavanarama was independen the reputation of a major centre of B inscriptions that can give information oft century inscriptions refer to it as Denave unique discovery of seven gold plates col Pancavisati-sahasrika-pragna-paramita i that the Mahayana form of Buddhism fav
The merchants causing from India in the inscriptions by which they mad merchants named Isivara and Dalha, gav Devanapiya-Tisa vihara, as stated in this i an inference that the two merchants who use the two characters is write their nam
In India in the contemporary Gupt corporations was seen.4 We may presun principal ports such as Mahatittha, Gok merchants coming from abroad. A state merchants were involved in the trade ac capital city of Anuradhapura. He states elders and Sabean merchants whose hom

ption is Devanapiya-Tisa maha Dagapa or The name Devanapiya Tisa is attributed in amsa to king Tissa who reigned when We may infer that this monastery could be npiya Tissa offered to Thera Mahinda. It ry could have belonged to Jetavanarama
Mahasena (276-303 A.D.). Jetavanarama of the Jetavana fraternity of the Buddhist was built it was offered to a monk named was charged with a grave offence by the led from the Order. From the time of its tofthe Mahavihara and continued to hold uddhist learning. There are not many he history of the monastery but some tenth hera, when making immunities to it. The ntaining extracts from the Mahayana text, n the premises of this monastery reveals toured with the inmates of the monastery.
on a visit to the country can be identified
e donation to the monastery. The two e one hundred kahapanas to the monks of inscription. Here we are tempted to make came from India instructed the scribe to
CS,
a period, a development in the mercantile he that the mercantile corporations at the anna in Sri Lanka had dealings with the ment made by Fa-hien shows that foreign tivities and that they were residing in the ....... in the city there were many Vaisya hes are stately and beautiful.

Page 213
We mayadd that the merchants fr its importance as an international trade period.
Notes
1 Epigraphia Zeylanica, Oxford, 1934-43, Volume IV, No.37.
2 Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Allahabad, 1914, Volum
and plate xxxiv
3 Epigraphia Zeylanica, London, 1933, Volume III, No.18.
4 See K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, G. Sirinwasa chari, Advanced Hi
5 J. Legge, The travels of Fa-Hien,Oxford, 1886, p. 104

m abroad were attracted to the island for entre and entreport in South Asia in this
III, No. 55
story of India, p. 217

Page 214
21

Page 215
THE PREHISTORIC CHRC
B
S. U. Dera
Potentially, some of the oldest quatern Ratnapura Beds (Deraniyagala ip:ch.3.2) strike valleys in the lowlands of the SC Ratnapura (map). They consist of sands, in depth, with gravel intercalations in occasionally yielded artefacts of a nonRatnapura Industry, made on quartz and fauna, the Ratnapura Fauna, which palaeoloxodont elephants (Elephas hysud be confirmed), two rhinoceri (species to Hexaprotodon palaeindicus (syn. H. sinhal aggradational cycle of the Pleistocene allu Narmada tract (v. de Terra and Pater depositional episode has tentatively been tracts in southeast India (and hence b artefactual dating of its Mousterioid indu with Acheulean artefacts) to ca. 200,000significance in the Ratnapura Fauna is a which has been compared to Gigantopithe localities of the Ratnapura Beds. The controversial. Then there are bovine foss water buffalo orgaur, which could be ance
However, despite the indubitably Beds, the chrono-stratigraphy of these se artefactual and faunal inclusions, and so indicated that some of the beds have under the stratigraphy.
Moving on to another set of Ouaterna semi-arid ecozone (particularly in the nort sheet-gravels capped by clayey sands whic resulting in a distinctive colour range of bul

NOLOGY OF SRI LANKA
| niyagala
try deposits in Sri Lanka comprise the These are alluvial sediments filling the uth-western Wet Zone in and around silts and clays ranging up to 30m or more the basal levels. These gravels have lescript 'chopper industry, termed the chert (Fig.1). The gravels also contain a includes extinct forms, notably two ricus and E, namadicus; identification to be confirmed) and the hippopotamus yus). The last occurs in the second major via in peninsular India, as on the central son 1939; Sankalia 1974). this latter dated (ibid.) by correlation with coastal y eustatic altimetry) and through the strial complex (overlying Aggradation I over 40,000 BP. A discovery of potential incisor tooth of a probable hominoid, us, anda hominid premolar, in separate identification of both these forms is ils, Smaller than anything assignable to stral to modern Bos indicus. Pleistocene element in the Ratnapura diments is still far from clear. Certain mewhat dubious uranium assays, have gone redeposition, thereby complicating
y sediments, the coastal tracts of the ) are characterised by large expanses of n have undergone latosolic weathering to crimson (ibid.:ch.3.3, map 11). these

Page 216
2
two beds in combination are referred to sands have conclusively been identified: into aeoleanities termed Red-Yellow La in facies, and thus hypothetically amenal Asperan explicit sampling strate antiquity of three separate sets of deposi south: sites 45, 49 and 50 (map). The se based on the absolute heights of their th level- ca. 25m at site 45, 15m at site 50 a. that each one of these levels representec Pleistocene, such as the Cromerian, mai Monastirian) and 8m (Late Monastirian Although all three sets of sedimen Overlying sands at each site, turned out (ibid.app.III)yielded onlypartial chrono were concerned. One could, however, es at ca. 75,000 BP by correlation with the Li terrace at site 50 is datable to the Main 45, its complex depositional environment But some 322 artefacts sampled from possibly be as old as the Holstein inte whether these gravels are in fact of ath dating of any burnt artefacts that m conceivably clarify these points.
With regard to the latosolic dunes: excavated (ibid.:figs.48,50-3), as with the preserved thus precluding radiocarbon thermoluminescence to the dating of san date the aeoleanites in the IFm. Samples and 50 (app.), but site 45 was omitted colluvial admixture. The sands at site 49 upper horizon of the sands at 50. The low of ca. 74,000 and 64,000 BP, and there : between the two levels at site 50, suggest The above data seem to suggest t the last interglacial (ca. 125,000 BP),

12
as the Iranamadu Formation (IFm). The as being ancient coastal dunes, weathered tosols. The basal gravels are coastal alluvia ble to eustatic altimetric studies. gy (ibid.:ch.2), it was decided to assay the ts of the IFm in and around Bundala in the lection of these sites for investigation was alasso-static basal gravels above meansea nd 8m at site 49-- since it was hypothesised la discrete altithermal episode during the n Eem, and final Eem at 75m, 15m (Main ) respectively." ts, as well as both the basal gravels and the to be implementiferous, the excavations logical resolutionas faras the basal gravels timate the age cf the basal gravel at site 49 ate Monastirian. Similarly, the 15m gravel Monastirian at ca. 125,000 BP. As for site blurs its chrono-stratigraphic significance. the lower horizons of the gravels could rgracial at ca. 300,000 BP, depending on alasso-static facies. Thermoluminescence ight occur in these assemblages could
ands overlying the basal gravels at the sites basal gravels no organic remains have been
assaying. However, the application of d dunes (Singhvi 1982) made it possible to were submitted for assaying from sites 49
since its upper member had secondary yielded an age of ca. 28,000 BP, as did the "er horizon of the latter provided two dates are indications of a buried soil occurring ting a stratigraphic break (id. et al. 1986). hat a period of high sea level, probably of witnessed the alluvial deposition of the

Page 217
implementiferous basal gravels at site containing prehistoric occupation deposit -64,000 BP (?Late Monastirian; ?Amersfic pedogenesis. An episode of alluvial aggra BP, as represented by the implementifero coeval dunes at site 50 were in turn sealed during a marine regression at ca. 28,000B) the occupation deposits in the sands components, thus ensuring the strict cont against infiltrated elements. Similarly, th would have had to be at least as old as the infiltration could not occur in the contex ( The evidence from sites 49 and 50 di IFm are amenable to thermoluminescence the basal gravels within much of their rang 50, 30, 15 and 10-8m + msl (Deraniya hypothesised that the 50 and 30m deposi ?Holstein respectively) altithermals. Ther at site 40, are implementiferous. It can b human settlement in Sri Lanka from at evidenced at site 50, with the possibility ( phase assignable to the Holstein at ca. 30 commencement of the Middle Pleistocene Technologically, the lithic assembla IFm at site 49 and the upper levels of the conspicuous for their geometric microlith trapezoidals on quartz (fig.2), a few bei produced backed and form-trimmed nonnot be as old as 74,000-64,000 BP as po formation at site 50. The basal gravels at S 75,000 and 125,000 BP respectively, y water-worn at times) characterised by Sm 4.5cm) with a few larger elements. These ( possibly with Mousterioid traits akinto tho the gravels of the IFm (fig.3). So far, Palaeolithic complex, now dated appa

0. These were sealed by coastal dunes during a marine regression at ca. 74,000 ort), and thereafter the dunes underwent dation would have occurred at ca. 75,000 ls basal gravels at site 49. These and the by coastal dunes with occupation deposits (end of Paudorf interstadial). Note that of sites 49 and 50 did include in situ ampiraneity with the dune deposition, as 2 artefacts found within the basal gravels deposition of the gravels themselves, as of such coarse sediments. pes indicate that the latosolic sands of the dating. It appears as if the elevations of ge of distribution are quadri-modal at ca. agala ip:app.III). Hence, it could be ts represent pre-Eem (?Cromerian and e are signs that Some of these deposits, as e concluded that the IFm bears traces of east as early as the last intergracial, as of the existence of a Lower Palaeolithic 0,000 BP (eg, sites 45, 40) or even at the
at ca.700,000 BP. ges excavated from the dune sands of the sands at 50, dated to ca. 28,000 BP, are lic component of lunates, triangles and ng on chert. The lower horizon at 50 geometric microliths, which may or may stulated for the earlier phase of dune. tes 49 and 50, with estimated ages of ca. elded lithic assemblages (somewhat all flakes and discoidal cores (leSS than ould be designated Middle Palaeolithic, e displayed in certain surface finds from nothing resembling the Indian Upper rently to over 40,000 BP, has been

Page 218
forthcoming.
To the landward aspect of the IFm, characteristic set ofsediments, the Reddi comprises a basal member of gravels or overlain by colluvial clayey loams of (ibid.:ch.3.3.3, map 11). The colluvia, usu numerous phases frequently occurring i basal gravels are associated with prehist Embilipitiya (site 43).
Site 43 was excavated with a view to between the basal gravels of the RBEFmat coast, so as to establish their contem geomorphology and sedimentology of th continuum with the Hungama Fm constit 56). The assemblage of artefacts excavat identical with those from the ca. 28.00 correlative age is proposed for 43. Howe at Anuradhapura (site AG-85), which yie been radiocarbon dated to ca. 5900 BP wh as representing apluvial episode, with the altithermal and more specifically a rai Fairbridge, after Bryson and Singh, 1976) The presence of geometric mucro perhaps 43 poses the problem as to how Sri Lanka, whereas in Europe it does not BP with the final Upper Palaeolithic and t reason for concern on this score, as radio and Kitulgala caves for Strata with geom the evidence from the IFm at 49 and 50 (v Mesolithic is being applied in the cont technological sense, signifying the occurr proportions among the trimmed artefa. postglacial) or subsistence-related (ie. gathering) connotations as it is apt to has The most reliable radiometric chi from several radiocarbon dates on charc

14
in the lowland Dry Zone, is another very sh Brown Earth Formation (RBEFm). This a stone-line(s), representing a lag deposit, the Reddish Brown Earth soil group ally, are of mixed facies, with artefacts of h a single profile. However, some of the oric habitations, as at Anuradhapura and
) securing a techno-stratigraphic correlate 43 and those of the IFm along the southern poraneity, which is suggested by the e two sets of deposits appearing to form a uting a transitional facies (eg, sites 54, 55, ed from site 43 (fig4) proved to be almost 0 BP horizons of sites 50 and 49 and a ver, latterly, the basal gravel of the RBEFm :lded a Mesolithic industry (id. 1972), has ich correlates this lag deposit, interpreted : Older Peron high sea level of the Atlantic ಸ್ಥtail peak postulated for Rajasthan (v.
bliths at ca. 28,000 BP at sites 49, 50 and this techno-trait could be quite so early in come into prominence prior to ca. 12,000 he early Mesolithic. However, there is no arbon dates on charcoal from Batadomba etric microlithic assemblages corroborate ... below). It should be noted that the term ext of Sri Lanka's prehistory in a purely 2nce of geometric mucroliths in noticeable cts, and that it has no chronological (ie, , small game hunting, fishing, shellfish e in Europe.
onology for Sri Lanka's prehistory stems 'oal, notably from the habitation contexts

Page 219
of Fa Hien, Kitulagala and Batadomba c Hien (W.H. Wijepala under prep.) has y 31,000BP;andanother ofthreefor the upp to the excavator (W.H.Wijepala 1986: pe among the artefacts, which may be attrib while bearing in mind that on an average any given assemblage rarely exceeds 0.2p is noteworthy that human remains were BP. These have been examined (K.A.R. one of the earliest assemblages of anatc comparable material being from Les Co Egypt (30,000 BP) and Dolni Vestonic Deraniyagala 1989).
The sequence filom Kitulgala Belicave cc
up to ca. 3400 BP. The associated artefa horizon upwards, are Mesolithic with (W.H.Wijepala under prep.). An excelle found from a context dated to ca. 13,000 BP remains of plants and malacological evid studies with pioneering effectiveness (De being worked on by M.D. Kajale for dat studies are under way for the faunal Karunaratne.
Batadomba cave has produced a com Kitulgala, namely 10 dates from ca. 28,50 include typically Mesolithic geometric mic (figs.5-10, Deraniyagala and Perera unde throughout the sequence is noteworthy a 28,500 - 16,000 BP, which thus constitute points and beads known from anywhere satisfactory Sample of human remains wa cave. One assemblage, dated to ca. 28,50 modern humans known from South Asia much larter assemblage was foundin a laye

lves in the lowland Wet Zone (app.). Fa elded a series of three dates: ca. 34,000er contexts: ca. 7900 - 5400 BP. According S. comm.) no geometric mucroliths occur uted to the smallness of the sample size the proportion of form-trimmed tools in er cent (Deraniyagala ip:ch.5.2.8). But it ound in the context dated to ca. 31,000 cennedy 1987) and could well represent mically modern man known to Science, ttes, France (31,000 BP), Nazlet Khater, 2, Czechoslovakia (29,000 BP) (id. and
imprises 25 dates, from older than 27,000 ct assemblages, from the pre-27,000 BP characteristic geometric mucroliths nt series of human skeletal remains was (Kennedy et al. 1986; 1987). Carbonised 2nce have been used for palaeo-climatic raniyagala ip:ch.4). The food-plants are a on Subsistence practices while similar emains under the supervision of P.B.
parable series for the earlier range at 0 to 12,000 BP. Once again, the artefacts roliths from the earliesthorizon upwards prep.). The occurrence of bone points nd so are the beads (on shell) from ca. Some of the earliest specimens of bone in the World, AS With Kitulgala, a Very
excavated from secure contexts in this ) BP, represents the oldest anatomically (Kennedy and Deraniyagala 1989). A dated to ca. 16,000 BP and this, together

Page 220
with the material from Kitulgala, Bella populations, have been interpreted as morphological traits from at least as early to the Vaddas (Kennedy et al. 1987). Th tiger at ca. 13,000 BP, are being investigate material by Kajale.
All three caves, Fa Hien, Kitulgala Asia in having yielded large quantities of contexts and much can be expected from there is no question about it, technologic least to ca. 28,500 BP in Sri Lanka, accor contexts in Kitulgala and Batadomba and 49 and 50. Supporting evidence has been where geometric microliths have been rac antiquity (van Noten 1977), the Bamba Africa, dated to ca. 30,000 BP (Sampson 1 transition in Iran and Iraq (Hole and F occurrences indicate the existence of g. 30,000 and 20,000 BP in West Asia and tro and Pakistan should serve to fill in the l suggested that caves in the Southern west produce the requisite evidence, basing th where the caves in the Dry Zone are c deposits whereas the high rainfall region ( with them. As van Noten (1983: pers. geometric microlith' has indeed lost its certainly with regard to Sri Lanka, surfac be assigned as a matter of course to post evidence to indicate that they do not repre The same applies to the occurrence of sm Middle or indeed Lower Palaeolithi components of less than 3cm from the ea onwards (Svoboda 1987). This naturally surface finds in Sri Lanka and, of course,
Further radiocarbon dates are avail. (a) ca. 10,350 BP for Alu-lena Attanagoda

6
n-bandi Palassa and recent Vadda relict
displaying a remarkable continuity of as 16,000 BP up to ca. 6500 BP and thence 2 faunal remains, which includes a lion or :dby P.B. Karunaratne etal. as is the plant
and Batadomba, are exceptional in South organic remains from Upper Pleistocene their interpretation. On the other hand, ally Mesolithic assemblages date back at ding to the evidence from securely dated the thermoluminescence dates from sites forthcoming from Matupi cave in Zaire, liocarbon dated (on charcoal) to a similar a and Umguzan complexes of Southern 974) and the Upper Baradostian/Zarzian lannery 1967; Smith 1971). These latter eometric microlithic industries between pical Africa. Systematic sampling in India acuna between Sri Lanka and Iran. It is 2rn Ghats would be the most likely locito is hypothesis on the Sri Lankan situation Onspicuously lacking in early habitation of the southwest (over 2500mm) is replete comm.) has aptly commented, the term earlier chronological significance' and, 'e finds of such microliths may no longer -Pleistocene cultures unless there is firm sent Upper Pleistocene cultural horizons. all-flake assemblages: these could well be c (cf. Lower Palaeolithic small-flake rly Middle Pleistocene, at ca. 700,000 BP, adds a new dimension to the viewing of on the Indian sub-continent as well. ble for the Mesolithicin Sri Lanka (app.): , and (b) ca. 8230 BP for Beli-lena Athula;

Page 221
2
both caves are in the lowland Wet Zo semi-arid lowlands of the northwest has for the levels immediately preceding a Radiocarbon dates on lagoon molluscs, for three shell middens which may in fac technology: (d) site 50a IV at site 50, c associated with a Grumusol, ca. 3200 BP, the IFm, ca. 2950 BP. Site 57 is overlain terminus post quem for the Mesolithic in S (?too recent) due to their having been se provide a clue as to the range of the mo Lanka, thus Supporting the Matota dates. date of ca. 6500 BP for the Mesolithic quartz;Wintle and Oakley 1972) which re. aSSay.
The upper boundary of Sri Lal chronologically defined. None of the cont to protohistoric transition is representec usually been stripped for fertilizer and a evidence of the erstwhile existence of Sl historic Black and Red Ware at Kitulgala a extensive surveys (eg, Sarasin and Sarasi 1911; Solheim and Deraniyagala 1972 transitional horizon, while there is no dear contexts in the form of Stone tool assemb
The closest one can get to locating Lanka's prehistoric periodisto date the lo This has been effected at only one sit (Deraniyagala 1972; 1986; 1990). Probe chronology of this 100ha site, with its 10m that by ca. 2800 BP the protohistoric Iron at least at Anuradhapura, with no vestige Iron Age contexts excavated. Hence, the l period may tentatively be assigned to ca. dates from site 57 and Anuradhapura. It continued to employ stone tools. The occ

le. (c) Matota (Mantai) in the coastal yielded three dates of ca. 4200-3800 BP Mesolithic camp on the lagoon shore. he above being on charcosl, are available be associated with Mesolithic stone tool l. 5260 BP; (e) Henagahapugala, site 57, and (f) Arnakallu, site 30, on a Latosol of by a Mesolithic horizon and provides a i Lanka. These dates are not very reliable cured on lagoon shells, but they suffice to re recent dates for the Mesolithic in Sri Finally, there is (g) athermoluminescence habitation at Bellan-bandi Palassa (fired uires to be checked against a radiocarbon
nka's prehistoric period has yet to be extsidentified sofar indicate that the prei. In the caves the relevant layers have ull that remains are tantalising shreds of uch strata, as in the occurrence of early und Ravanallacaves. As for the Dry Zone, n 1908; Seligmann and Seligmann 1908; ) have once again failed to isolate a thof discrete pre-proto- and early historic ages, pottery sites and Stone epigraphs. the chronological upper boundary of Sri wer boundary of its protohistoric episode. e so far, the citadel of Anuradhapura , designed specifically to elucidate the thickness of habitation deposits, indicate Age had quite Superseded the Stone Age, Df Stone tools occurring in the numerous pper boundary of Sri Lanka's prehistoric 200-2800 BP, based on the radiocarbon s likely, however, that relict populations urrence of 7 stone flakes associated with

Page 222
the Iron Age cemetery at Pomparippu (B derived from the implementiferous IFm primary context cannot be ruled out. It technology became readily available t mechanisms of barter soon after the ince eficiency led to the supersession of Stc vestiges of this process in the archaeolog

18
egley et al. 1981) seems to be secondary, and alluvia of this particular area; but a is hypothesised that the products of iron O Stone Age hunter-gatherers through otion of the former and that their superior ine Age technology rapidly, leaving few cal record.

Page 223
NOTES
1. The nomenclature of Gunz-Cromerian-Mindel-Holstein-R
of expression (as have Butzer 1971:43-4 and Cooke 1972:7).
1975:862-3; Isaac 1975:876) have cast doubts as to the validit
more recent restoration to favour of the Milankovitch mo.
approximation. Since this is not an attempt at avantgarde Plei
of a convenient substitute for the classic Gunz et al. scheme, t
latter.
2. This was necessitated by the lack of radiometric dates fo establishing this chronological correlation was to be able to tra
to the IFm which had for a longtime proved resistant to such
3. The altithermal = pluvial correlation has been further co
conditions at ca. 3800 BP which correlates with the Younger
(v. below; Fairbridge 1976).

iss-Eem-Wurm is being employed as aheuristicdevice for clarity
Recent advances in Pleistocene chrono-stratigraphy (Butzer
y of the definition of the pre-Eem episodes, although the even
jel would appear to revalidate the Gunz et al. scheme or its
stocene chrono-stratigraphy at a global scale, and in the absence
he present writer has had no compunction about employing the
r the basal gravels of these sediments and the purpose behind
Inspose the palaeo-environmental interpretation of the RBEFm
interpretation.
rroborated at Matota where its sedimentology indicates pluvial
Peron high sea level and humid conditions in Monsoon Africa

Page 224
APPE
List of Radiometric Da
The present i st sets out, t available with reference to S Calibrated dates are given f dates where Ver feasible,
corresponding to the standard the tables in Radiocarbon 28 ( (a) the Physical Research Lab made avai labe by courtesy of Sahni Institute of Pal aeobo Vishnu-Mittre and B. S. Ve University of Frankfurt r through R. R. Protsch and (d)
laboratory (BM) through R.
assays on the Latosols of th Singhvi of the PRL. The prese to these scholars for their Beta Analytic Inc., the comme
Site 50, dune sands dated by
al. 1986):
180 cm below surface: 28, 400 cm below surface: 64
Si te 49 , dune sands dated by t
1 1 Ocm below surface : 22,
Ocm below surface: 28,
reliable Sample.
Fa Hien cave (code YF) is sit 60 38' 55"N. at . Ya Bulathsinhala, Kalutara Distr probably the largest cave ir Ki tull gala in si Ze. The sit present writer in 1968, at
col lector H. Jayasundara wh De rani yagal a F O r decades
Department. Excavations wer

220
ENDIX
tes: Preh istoric Period
he rad i ometric dates that are r i Lanka” s preh i stor i c per i od . or the respective radiocarbon including the age range error in the 1 4 C age (as per 2B ) of 1 986 ) . The ser V i Ces of Oratory (PRL), Ahmedabad, were D. P. Agrawal, (b) the Birbal tany laboratory (BS) through nkatachala, (c) the Goethe adiocarbon laboratory ( Fra ) the Br i t i sh Museum rad i OCarborn Knox . The the rmo l um i nescence e IFm were undertaken by A. K. ent writer is greatly indebted ass i stance . Beta refers to ci al laboratory in Flori da .
thermol umi nescence (Singhvi et
| 480 BP | 380 BP ; 74, 200 BP
thermol umi nescence ( i bi d. ) :
600 BP 260 BP. This is the more
uated at 800 12' 55" E. 1 ong . by tagamp i ti ya village Դe a r՞ ict, low and Wet Zone. It is the Country, exceeding even te was first examined by the the suggestion of the veteran o had been assisti ng P. E. P.
i r the National MuseumS e undertaken by W. H. Wijepala

Page 225
2
(under prep . ), Director (Exc Survey Department, in 1986 a probed . Area A comprised rock with vest i ges Of cons i de rabol e ant i qui ty at ca is proposed that this is ass exceptional intens i ty W C i r Cu l at i on re sul ted i convectional trunder St. OrmS cl i matology v . De rani yagal a 1 arge-scale desquamation. Suç COrre Tate with the Eem inter more i ke y, with the Holste no datab li e mater i al was foi other hand, area B yielded C ri ch in Charco a 1 - The Conte X ex Cavator i s as fo | lows :
Χ superficial, di stu 1
2 habitation, ca. 50 2a do. Ca. 55 3 do. ca . 25 3a do.
4 do.
4а do.
5 do . .
6 bed- rock
Rad i ocarbon as says Qon Char coa results: Context 2, sample YF-86/B-N5 (
4750 + 60 BP ca. 5400 Cal BP (after AS SCC i at i ons : fract i orna i ndi v i dua s, coated w Context 3, sample YF-86/B-M6 (
6850 + 80 BP Ça . 76 80 Cal BP ( after Associations: fractiona
OCh re . Context 3a, sample YF-86/B-N6
7100 + 60 BP ca . 790 O Cal BP ( after Context 4, sampl e YF-86/B-M7 (

vati ons ) of the Archaeological | Cd 1 988 . Two a reas A and B were se Veral mettres of des quamated preh i stor i c occupation Of
6. 2m bel Ow the SurfaCe. It gnable to an a t i the rima i Of hern increased atmospheric corresponding y intense
(for Sri Lanka's pa l ae Oip: Ch. 4.4, app. I) which led to :h an i rnten se a t i the rima il Cou l d gl ac i al at Ca . 125, OOO BP or, in at ca. 3OO, OOO BP. However, in in this Context, . On the a. 3, 75m of habitation deposits t sequence, as supplied by the
r bed
Cm th i CK
Cn
Crs
l have y i el ded the follow ing
2 ) , " ab. no. Beta- 33297
Pears On et al 1986)
human interment of two ith red ochre. 2 ) , 1 ab. no . Beta-33293
- i rn i ck et al ... 1 986 )
human interment, without red
2a), lab. no. Beta-33298
bo i d . ; Krome r et a 1 . 1 986 ) 3 ) , l ab. no. Beta-33295

Page 226
22
24, 470 + 290 BP ca. 25, 200 BP at 1/2-li Context 4, sample YF-86/B-N7 (
30, 060 + 380 BP ca. 31, OOO BP at /2 i. Associations: fractional horizon, without red ( Context 4a, sample YF-86/B-M7
32, 060 + 630 BP ca. 33, OOO BP at 1/2 - i. Context 5, sample YF-86/B-M6 (
33, 070 + 410 BP ca. 34,000 BP at 1/2 - i. Accordi ng to the excavator , observed in the artefact San upwards fal 7 well with in the Sri Lanka . This anomaly mea greness of the artefact s form-trimmed specimens in mc aC Count for no more than Ca . total (ie, 2 specimens in component is a part. A more is required on this score.
The human remains frc 31, 000 BP, appear to represe (K. A. R. Kennedy 1990 : pers. antiquity of the earl i est s Cottes, France , Ca. 31, Der ani yagal a 1 989 ) . The two from context 2 are exceptiona been documented in Sri Lanka found in Ravana a cave.
The faunal remains a re to shed important light on 34, 000 and 25,000 BP. The remains. This will ideal Batadomba, which range from ca
Batadomba-lena cave (Bod) and
been described by the preser
Per era under prep. ) . Its cc
season of excavat i on is as foi
superficial fill

Fe 5 73 O. 3 ) , 1 ab. no. Beta- 33299
fe 573O
human interment i n ) ower oCh re . ( 5 ) , 1 ab. no. Beta- 33296
Fe 5 73 O. 5 ) , 1 ab. no. Beta-33294
Fe 573O
no geometric microliths were nple, although context 3a and time-range of this category in could be a function of the sample. It is noteworthy that ost assemb1 ages in Sri Lanka 0. 2 per cent of the artefact OOO), of which the geometric representative artefact sample
om context 4 , dated to ca . int i anatomi cal Il y modern humans
comm.) and they equal the uch human known so far (Les 000 BP) ( v . Kennedy and red och re Coated i ndi v i dual s all since this practice has not apart from the frontal bone
wel 1 preserved and are like ly
the environment between ca.
same appl i es to the floral ly complement the data from a. 28, 500 to 12, OOO BP.
its stratigraphic sequence has ht writer (ip: ch. 3. 4, id. and ontext sequence for the 1982
lows:

Page 227
2
di sturbed, habit do. dic habitation de pos and lower (4b habitation de pos’ habitation de pos’
and I ower ( 6 b 7a. habitation de pos
preceding 7b. 7b habitation depos 7 Շ do. do. 8 bed-rock The rad i ocarbon dates, on cha Context 4a, 1 ab. no. PRL-855
11, 200 +330/–320 BP ca. 1 2 , 230 cal BP ( afte ca. 11,500 BP at 1/2 1 if Context 4b, 1 ab. no . PRL- 856
12, 770 +470/–45C BP ca. 13, 200 BP at 1/2-1 i Context 5, lab. no. PRL-860
13, 130 +440/–420 BP ca. 13,500 BP at 1/2-li Context 6a, 1 ab. no . PRL- 859
13, 880 +370/– 360 BP ca. 14, 300 BP at 1/2-1 i Context 6b, ab. no. PRL-858
15,390 +610/-570 BP ca. 15, 900 BP at 1/2 - i Corn text 7a, l ab. no. Beta-332
16,220 + 300 BP ca. 16, 700 BP at /2 - i There i s some possi b i l li
intrusive from 6b. Corn text 7b, il ab. no . PRL-920
20, 150 + 740/– 680 BP ca. 20, 800 BP at 1/2 - i Corn text 7b, il ab. no . Beta-332
20, 320 + 500 BP ca. 21,000 BP at 1/2-li Corn text 7b, 7 ab. no. BS-784 22, 360 + 650 BP ca. 23,000 BP at 1/2-li

tion-der i Ved
.
t, sub-divided into upper (4a)
hor i Zorns .
じ
t, sub-divided into upper (6a)
hor i Zorns .
t in rubble overly ing
t
rcoal, are as follows:
} r Stuiver et al. 1986), e 573O
fe 5 730
fe 5 730
fe 5 73 O.
fe 5730
fe 573O ty that this sample is
fe 5 730
fe 573 O.
fe 5 730

Page 228
Cortext 7C, ab. no. PRL-857
27.700 +2090/– 1660 BP ca. 28, 500 BP at 1/2 - lif All contexts, 7 c - 1, have y component, making this Asia's with such implements. Small p( similar time-range and shell b
Kitul gal a Bell i — lena cave ( KB ) besi de Ing - Oya estate in Kitu over Several seasons under Wijepa a (under prep .. a) . synthes i sed in 1983 is as fo l l
Х superfi G ial Xa ( 3 ) dO. Xa ( 2 ) O Ο Xa ( 1 ) do. IX a ( 1 ) do. VI I II a ( 1 ) dump VIIa ( 2) pit-fi 1 1 , M VIIa (1) do V Ibo ( 1 ) habitation VIa(1) do . Wa ( 3 ) do . Wa ( 2) do. Wa ( 1 do . IVb { 3 } do. IVb ( 2 ) do . Ιν Ο ( ) CdC . IVa ( 3 ) do. IVa ( 2 ) do . IVa ( 1 ) do . I IIC ( 4 ) do . II Iς (3) do . l II I C ( 2 ) do. II I Ç ( 1 ) dO. I I Ibo ( 1 ) do. I I II a ( 3 ) do . I I II a ( 2 ) do. IIIa (1) do.
Meso ith III ster i 1 e a
I bed- rock

e 573O el ded a geometr i c microll i th i c e ar 1 i est rel i ab 1 y dated si te ) i nts on bone and ant er had a eads were found in 7c and 6.
is very extensive and located gala . It has been excavated the f i el d d i re Ct i Corn Of W . H . The context secuence aS
OWS :
, d i stur bed
CdC .
do .
do.
do .
les Q lithic
do . deposit , Mesol i thic
do .
do .
do.
do .
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do .
do.
do .
do.
do . , lowermost C ha bo i tat i on . uvial gravel

Page 229
22
The rad i ocarbon dates, on cha! Context VIIa (2), lab. no. Beta
3640 + 60 BP 3980 cal BP ( after Pears 4080- 40 1 0 , 400- 3880 cal Corn text VIIIa ( 1 ) , 1 ab. no . PRL
3170 + 120 BP 339 O cal BP ( i bi d . ) 350-3430, 3390-3270 call Context VIb (1), lab. no. Beta
8160 + 80 BP ca. 9070 cal BP (after K Context VIa ( 1 ) , l ab. no. Beta
7040 + 80 BP ca. 7880 ca 1 BP (ibid.) Context Va (3), sample KB-79 (2)
10, 200 + 170 BP ca . 1 1 , 180 cal BP ( after 10, 500 BP at 1/2 - life Context Va ( 3 ), sample KB-79 (3) BS - 288 .
10, 280 + 170 BP ca. 1 1 , 260 cal BP ( i bi d . − 573O. Context Va (3), sample KB-79 (4) 289.
1 0,010 + 160 BP ca. 1 0 , 980 cal BP ( i bi d.
573O. Context Va (3), sample KB-79 (4) PRL-861 .
11, 910 +430/–410 BP ca. 1 2 , 980 cal BP ( i bi d .
573O. Context Va (3), sample KB-79 (5) 29 O.
11, 550 + 180 BP ca. 1 2 , 600 cal BP ( i bi d.
573O. Context Va (3), sample KB-79 12 nO , Fra- 9 1 .
11, 780 + 220 BP

rcoal, are as follows: れー 18448
son and Stui ver 1986)
BP, at sigma = 1 (ibid.)
O 12
BP (ibid.)
84.46
romer et al. 1986)
18445
lab. no. BS-287
Stui ver et a 1 . 1986), ca. 573O.
beneath -79 (2), lab. no.
), ca. 10,600 BP at 1/2-life
beneath -79 (3), lab. no. BS --
ca. 10, 300 BP at 1/2-life
beneath -79 (3), lab ի O ,
ca. 12,300 BP at 1/2-life
beneath -79 (4), lab. no. BS
ca. 11, 900 BP at 1/2-life
planum 9 Tayer- ( 5 ) , T ab.

Page 230
ca. 1 2 , 840 cal BP ( i b i c
5730. Context Va (3), sample KB-79 (6 29 .
11, 570 + 210 BP ca. 1 2 , 620 cal BP ( i b i C
573O. Context Va (2), sample KB-79 (7 292.
11, 520 + 220 BP ca . 1 2 , 570 cal BP ( i b i C
5730. Context Va ( 1), sample KB-79 (8 293.
12, 240 + 160 BP ca. 12,600 BP at 1/2-li Context IVb (3), lab. no. Beta
1 1,860 + 70 BP ca. 12,920 cal BP (ibid
573O. Context IVb (2), sample KB-79 ( lab . no . BS-294 .
11, 750 + 390 BP (sample ca. 1 2 , 81 O cal BP ( i bi d
573O. Corn text IVb (2), 1 ab. no. Beta
13, 210 + 80 BP ca. 13,600 BP at 1/2-li Associations: several; (e.g., in grid sauare this instance). Context III c ( 3 ), lab. no. B that this sample is intrusive
13, 150 + 90 BP ca. 13,500 BP at 1/2-li Context IIIc (2), sampl e KB-79 nO , Fra- 1 6 3 .
15, 780 + 400 BP, subjec
laboratory. ca. 16, 300 BP at 1/2-li Con text IIIc (2), sample KB-79 layer (8) , lab. no. Fra- 164.

26
... ), ca. 12, 1 OO BP at 1/2-life
) beneath -79 (5), 1 ab. no. BS
|.), ca. 11,900 BP at 1/2 - life
) beneath -79 (6), lab. no. BS
... ), ca. 11,900 BP at 1/2 - life
) beneath -79 (7), 1 ab. no, BS
fe 5 73 O.
一33287
... ), ca. 12, 200 BP at /2 - life
10) beneath -79 (8) and (9)
si ze apparentl y margi na l ) ... ), ca. 12, 1 OO BP at 1/2-life
一33286
fe 5 73 O. secondary human interments
9 F, which is di rectly dated in
eta- 33285. Some probability
from IVb (2).
fe 573 O.
1 1 I pol anum 8 layer ( 8 ) , 1 ab,
t to fina ] confirmation by
fe 5 730
1 1 I planum 9 (beneath 8)

Page 231
22
16, 400 + 650 BP, subject
laboratory ca. 16, 9 OO BP at 1/2-life Context IIIc(2), ab. no. Beta
18,050 + 180 BP ca. 18, 600 BP at 1/2 - life Context IIIc (1), 1 ab. no. Beta
17,810 + 170 BP ca. 18, 300 BP at 1/2-life Ccorn text IIIb ( 1 ) , l ab. no . PRL - 1 17,870 +570/–530 BP ca. 18, 400 BP at 1/2-life Context IIIb (1), lab. no. Beta
18, 900 + 350 BP ca. 19,500 BP at 1/2-life Con text IIIa ( 3 ), labo . no . Beta
20, 560 + 1 30 BP ca. 21, 200 BP at 1/2 - life Context IIIa (2), lab. no. Beta
O der than 26 , 425 BP Over 27 , 200 BP at 1 /2 - if Associations: this is the this si te with geometri occurred in IIIa ( 1) as been dated due to the p application of AMS is a The occurs rence of Chiar aClte r i st. ' tool assemblages from the ( IIIa ( 1)) upwards at KB corr sites 49, 50 and Batadomba that of an antiquity in excess of 2 is some probability ( e 20%) tha represents a transitional epis and the Iron Age. However, t dump ) does not encourage optimi with later material.
Al u-lena Attanagoda (ALK) , nea cave in the lowland Wet Zone. Season by W. H. Wijepala (under the lowermost habitation depos considered und Sturbed. The charcoal.

to final confirmation by
5730 18443
573O 18442
5730 O 13
573O 18441
573O 3.3283
573O 18439
e 573O
earliest context dated at ic micro liths. although they well, the latter has not aucity of charcoal -- the
strong possibility. ically Mesolithic type stone basa habitation Context Oborates the evidence from , geometric micro liths can be 7, OOO BP in Sri Lanka. There It context VIII ( undated yet) sode between the Mesol i th i C he depositional facies (ie, sm that it is uncontaminated
r Kegalle, is another large It was sounded over a single prep. b) . Only context ( 3 ), sit overlying bed-rock, was
rad i ocarbon date is Of

Page 232
Context ALK ( 3 ), lab. no. PRL
9410 + 150 BP
ca. 1 0 , 350 cal BP ( af
97 OO BP at 1/2 - life 5
Associations : Mesol ithi
Beli - lena Athula is a Sma Avis sawell a. It was excavat who encountered a Mesol it rad i ocarbon dated on charcoa habitation depos its has yet t Context: 45 cm below the Surf a
7450 + 110 BP ca . 823 O Cal BP ( after Context: 45 cm below the Surf a
7190 + 155 BP ca. 7900 Cal BP ( i bi d. ) Associations : Mesol it hi
Anu radhapura oitadel , Gedige the RBEFm contai ni ng Meso i 1972; 1986). The uppermost sucCeeded by a Consider ab (erosi on surface) , yi el ded a provided the only radiometr RBEFm's basal gravel. Context: A G-85 uppermost ( 13)
5040 + 80 BP ca . 585 O Cal BP (a ter Assoc i at i ons : Mesol i thi Context: AG-85 uppermost ( 13)
5040 + 50 BP Ca. 5850 cal BP ( i bi d. ) Associations : Mesol ithi These two dates for context corroborating the hypothesis least some of them) were rep by pluvials caused by an inte C i r Cul ati on ( De rani yaga) a app. III). The date of ca. 58 O) der Peron high Sea leve which also witnessed high le

228
976
ter Stuiver et al. 1986), ca.
730. c with geometric micro liths
ll cave at Maniyangama near ed bri efy by Gunaratne (1971) hic depos it which has been al. The lower boundary of the o be probed . ce , 1 ab. no. TF-1 094
Li n i ck et al ... 1 986 ) ce , 1 ab. BS (no number )
C
(AG-85), has a basal gravel of th i C artefaCtS (Deraniyagala level of this deposit, which is le stratigraphic un conformity sample of charcoal which has i c dat ing that we have of an
}, 1 ab. no . , BM-25 1 0
de Jong et al . 1 986 ) c Stone tools }, 1 ab. no. Beta- 1 8435
C Stone tools (13) have proved invaluable for that global altithermals (at resented in trop i cal South Asia insification Cof atmospheric i p : Ch . 4. 2 . 3 , 4. 4, 4. 6. 3, 350 BP is in agreement with the of the Atlantic a tithermal vel s in the mid-N i 1 e and Lake

Page 233
Victoria and it coinci des al peak of pluviality in Rajastr
Bell 1 an-bandi Pal assa is a near Embi l i piti ya. It was by P. E. P. De rani yagal a in ” sixties ( De rani yagal a 1 98 radiocarbon date on Char archaeo og i Cal depos i t. Corn text: archaeol og i cal depos U. S. A. by courtes y of H. Shap Natural History, sample no.
2070 + 200 BP ܵ ca . 2050 cal BP ( after ca. 2335 - 1 825 cal BP ( i The sample was contamin and cotton wool pack i pers. Comm. ) . Hence probably far too youn h i stor i cal stratum th habitation depos i t at v. Deraniyagala and K COr7 text: burnt quartz four Mesol i thic human skeleton BP thermoluminescence by Wint le
6500 + 700 BP The thermo luminescence date precedence over the rad i oC enunciated above. However , ser i es of rel i a bol e rad i ocarbo
Matota (MA-82) or Mantai is c having been Sri Lanka” s m histor i Cal times. Excavat i c M. E. Prickett and the prese a Mesolithic open-air campbeen the lagoon shore (pit D) Secured on charcoal from the that of the habitation. Th these could be interpreted as with, or almost so, with the
Carswell and Prickett association with a matri X of

229
most exactly with the Holl ocene an (Fairbridge 1976).
Mesol ithic open-ai r camp-site excavated over se veral seasons the late ’ fi ft i es and earl y O). It has yi el ded one coal W h i Ch app l i es t○ the
i t , l ab. Isotopes Inc . , iro of the American Museum of
394.
Stuiver and Pearson 1986 ) bid. ) ated by shel lac consol i dant ng (P. E. P. De ran iyagal a 1963 :
it has produced a date that is g or el se i t refers to the at over l i es the Mesol i thic
this site (for strat i graphy ennedy 1972).
d in di rect associat i on with 3/15a. This was assayed for and Oakley (1972).
may be considered to take : arbon date for the reasons this important si te deserves a n dates.
locumented in the chronicles as a in port in early and middle ons conducted by J. Carswell, nt writer in 1982 revealed si te on what would have then Three rad i ocarbon dates were levels immediately preceding stratigraphy was such that being Contemporane OUS atter (for s i te v . 1984), which, judging by its an inter-ti dal shore facies as

Page 234
indi cated by its fauna, corr
e Vell . Context: upper 40cm of clay 10.20m below mound surface), S BM-234O.
3520 + 45 BP ca . 3830 Ca 7 BP ( after Pe ca. 386 O-382O; 38OO-3730 Context: middle 15cm (40-55 cm sample MA-82. D (2), lab. no. BM
3550 + 70 BP ca. 3850 Cal BP ( i bi d. ) Ca. 396 O - 389 O cal BP ( i b i Context: lowest 20 cm (55-75 cm sample MA-82 . D ( 3 ) , 1 ab. no. BM
3790 + 70 BP ca. 4170 ca 1 BP (ibid.) Ca. 4 3 1 0 - 4 - 7 O Cal BP ( i bo i The uppermost sample provi des Ca 。 3800 BP for the upper bc Matota . It also correlates W Peron high sea leve 1 ( Fair br i dg of this context suggests p correlati ng with this alt i therm
Pati rajawel a site 50 occurs kilometres of Bunda l a . ך" | constituti ng the Red Latosol a dat ing) is overlain by a She app. III ) . A rad i ocarbon assa casta lagoon-habitat shells. Context 50a IV she il midden, 1 ab
4500 + 1 70 BP
ca. 5260 cal BP ( after Pe
Henagahapugala si te 57, a Grum habitation underlain by a she probed and found to be devoid assay has been made on Me She s. Context: shell midden (Deraniy. PRL- 1 O 8 .
2960 + 1 60 BP

elates with a 1 m high sea
stratum (top of which l i es sampo) e MA-82 . D ( 1 ) , ) ab. no.
ar son and Stuiver 1986) cal BP ( i bi d . )
below top ) of Cl ay stratum, |ー2341 。
d. )
be low top ) of cl ay stratum, |- 2342.
d. ) a firm terminus post quem of »undary of the Me: ol i thic at ith the date of the Younger le 1976). The sedi mentology ) luv i al C i matic cond i tions all as at AG-85 (13).
in the IFm with in a few re pre historic d'une Sands t this site (v. above for TL 1 ) midden (De rani yagal a i p : y has been made on Meretrix
} : nO - PRL - 1 O 7
ar son et al . 1 986 )
uso containing a Mesol ithic midden. The atter Was of artefacts. A radiocarbon retrix casta lagoon-habitat
agal a i p : app. III ) , l ab. no.

Page 235
390 cal BP (after Pear 3370- 2880 cal BP ( i bi d. This date prov i des a term 7 boundary of Sri Lanka's Me dates on shell tend to be t from the same Context tend to
Arnakalu site 30 in the IFm Latosol dune Sands overla radiocarbon assay has been ma on Arca granosa 1 agoon- habita Context: shell midden, lab. In
2830 + 80 BP 2947 call BP (after Pear 3058–2854 cal BP (ibid. Associations: no artefa being Mesol ithic , alt protohistoric Iron Ag

son and Stuiver 1986)
) nus post quem for the upper sol ith i c . Note however that so young and different spacies
give different ages.
of the northwest comprises Red in by a shell m i dden . A de, by Courtesy of R. Gardner, t shells.
O UM-1 534
son and Stuiver 1986) )
cts were found. Suspected of hough it just could be e.

Page 236
23
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
Begley, V., J.R. Lukacs and K.A.R. Kennedy
1984 - Excavations of Iron Age burials at Po
Butzer, K.W.
1971 - Environment and archaeology, 2nd ed 1975 - Geological and ecological perspectiv ed. (1975:857-73).
Butzer, K.VV. and G.L. Isaac ed.
1975 - After the Australopithecines. The Hag
Carswell, J. and M.E. Prickett
1984 - Mantai 1980: a preliminary investigat
Cooke, H.B.S.
1972 - Pleistocene chronology: long or short de Jong, A.F.M., B. Becker and W.G. Moo. 1986 - High-precision calibration of the radic 28(2B):939-42.
Deraniyagala, S.U.
1972 - The citadel of Anuradhapura in 1965
2:48-169.
1980 - Prehistoric research in Sri Lanka, 188: 1986 - Excavations in the citadel of Anuradh
Ceylon 6:39-48. 1990 - The proto- and early historic radioca ip - The prehistory of Sri Lanka: an ecologi Lanka: memoir 8.
Deraniyagala, S.U. and K.A.R. Kennedy
1972 - Bellan-bandi Palassa 1970: a Meesoli
Deraniyagala, S.U. and N. Perera under perp. - Excavations in Batadomba-len
de Terra, H. and T.T. Paterson
1939-Studies on the Ice Age in India and assc
Institution.

imparippu, 1970. Ancient Ceylon 4:49-142.
. Chicago: Aldine.
es on the Middle Pleistocene. In Butzer and Isaac
gue: Mouton.
ion. Ancient Ceylon 5:3-80.
? Maritime Sediments 8(1):1-12.
k
ocarbon time scale. 3930-3230 cal BC Radiocarbon
: excavations in the Gedige area. Ancient Ceylon
5-1980. In Gunawardana et al. ed. (1980:152-207). apura: Gedige 1984, a preliminary report. Ancient
rbon chronology of Sri Lanka. This volume. cal perspective. Archaeological Survey Dept., Sri
thic burial site in Ceylon. Ancient Ceylon 2:18-47.
COWe.
ciated human cultures. Washington DC: Carnegie

Page 237
Fairbridge, R.W.
1976-Effects of Holocene climatic change o Research 6:529-56.
Gunaratne, H.S.
1971 - Beli-lena Athula: another Stone Age Gunawardana, T.T.P., P.L.Prematilleke and R. Si
1980 - P.E.P. Deraniyagala commemoration Hole, F. and K.V. Flannery
1967-The prehistory of south-western Iran: Society 33:147-206. Isaac, G.L.
1975 - Sorting out the muddle in the middle: Butzer and Isaac ed. (1975:875-88). Kennedy, K.A.R. and S.U. Deraniyagala
1989 - Fossil remains of 28,000-year-old 30(3):294-8. Kennedy, K.A.R., S.U. Deraniyagala, W.J. Roertje
1987 - Upper Pleistocene fossil hominids Anthropology 72:441-61. Kennedy, K.A.R., T. Disotell, W.J. Roertjen, J. Chi 1986 - Biological anthropology of Up Batadomba-lena and Beli-lena caves. Ancie
Kromer, B., M. Rhein, M. Bruns, H.Schoch-Fische 1986 - Radiocarbon calibration data fo 28(2B):954-60. Linick, T.W., A. Long, P.E. Damon and C.W. Ferg 1986 - High-precision radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon 28(2B):943-53. Pearson, G.W., J.R. Pilcher, M.G.L. Baillie, D.M. ( 1986 - High-precision 14c measurement of I AD 1840-5210 BC. Radiocarbon 28(2B):91. Pearson, G.W. and M. Stuiver
1986 - High-precision calibration of the radi

nsome tropical geomorphic processes. Quaternary
habitation in Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica 32(1):1-4.
va ed.
volume. Colombo: Lake House Investments.
a preliminary report. Proceedings of the Prehistoric
an anthropologist's post-conference appraisal. In
hominids from Sri Lanka. Current Anthropology
n, J. Chiment and T. Disotell
from Sri Lanka. American Journal of Physical
ment and J. Sherry
per Pleistocene hominids from Sri Lanka: nt Ceylon 6:67-168.
r, K.O.Munnich, M.Stuiver and B. Becker
r the 6th to 8th millennia BC. Radiocarbon
LISOI)
of bristlecone pine from 6554 to 5350 BC.
Sorbett and F. Qua rish oaks to show the natural 14 variations from
L-34.
ocarbon time scale. Radiocarbon 28(2B):839-62.

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Sampson, C.G.
1974 - The Stone Age archaeology of souther
Sankalia, H.D.
1974 - The prehistory and protohistory of Ina
Sarasin, P. and F. Sarasin
1908 - Ergebnisse Naturwissenschaftlicher F Wiesbaden: C.W.Kreidel.
Seligmann, C.G. and B.Z.Seligmann
1908 - An itinerary of the Vedda country, S. 1911 - The Veddas. Cambridge University P Singhvi, A.K.
1982 - Thermoluminescence dating of sand Singhvi, A.K., S.U. Deraniyagala and D. Sengupta 1986 - Thermoluminescence dating of Qu: Planetary Science Letters 80:139-44. Smith, P.E.L.
1971 - The Palaeolithic of Iran. Melanges Paris: Bibliotheque Generale. Solheim, W.G. and S.U. Deraniyagala
1972 - Archaeological survey to investigate Ancient Ceylon occ. pap. 1. Stuiver M., B. Kromer, B. Becker and C.W. Fergus 1986 - Radiocarbon age calibration back to 1 oak and U.S. bristlecone pine chronologies. Stuiver, M. and G.W. Pearson
1986 - High prevision calibration of the radio 28(2B):805-838.
Svoboda, J.
1987 - Lithic industries in Arago, Verteszol comparison and evolutionary interpretation Wijepala, W.H.
under prep. - Excavations in Fa Hien cave
under prep. a - Excavations in Kitulgala Bel

n Africa. New York: Academic Press.
ia and Pakistan, 2nd ed. Pune: Deccan College,
2rschungen auf Ceylon, 4, die Steinzeit auf Ceylon.
polia Zeylanica 5(20):155-70.
CSS.
dunes. Nature 299:376.
aternary red sand beds in Sri Lanka. Earth and
de prehistoire, d’archeocivilisation et d’ethnologie.
Southeast Asian prehistoric presence in Ceylon.
O
3,300 BP and the 14c. age matching of the German Radiocarbon 28(2B):969-79.
carbon time scale, AD 1950-500 BC. Radiocarbon
los and Bilzinsleben hominids:
Current Anthropology 28(2):219-27.
-lena.

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2
under prep. b - Excavations in Attainagoda Wintle, A.G. and K.P. Oakley
1972 - Thermoluminescent dating of firec Archaeometry 14(2):277-9.

1lи-leта.
rock-crystal from Bellan-bandi Palassa, Ceylon.

Page 240
Map.
Prehistoric sites : ALK At
Beli-lena Athula; Bbp Be Batadomba-lena; KB Kitulg
Yatagampitiya Fa Hien 's cave

tanagoda Alu-lena; BA Maniyangana illan-bandi Palassa; Bd KuruWita ala Beli-lena; Ra Ravanalla; Yf
ё

Page 241
S
ANURA HAPURA
+
O 8 u
AK
為 * --مr
sh RATNAPURA &a YF
O 6
 
 
 
 
 

237
3. : : | 9 O O — I 5 O O m . | a 500 m
O 40 km,

Page 242
Fig . 1 Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus
incisored hippopotamus, ir estimated at ca. 150,000 B
 

238
(syn. H. palaeindicus): six
dex fossil of Upper Pleistocene, P (P.E. P. Deraniyagala del- )

Page 243
large stone tools frt
Fig. 2
estimated age over 100
 

239
? Middle Palaeolithic;
000 BP.
in the Ifm

Page 244
Fig. 3. Stone artefacts from the
Industry.
 

e Ratnapura Beds: the Ratnapura

Page 245
241
葱
த "t. ပုံ ... ́°, `႔. 4. 淞 /* ,י ' للمص ངk نق نوع شاخه الان:
25 26 ہے “۔
O 2 C
!-----
Fig. 4. Small stone artefacts from si 16) bladelet nuclei; (20-23) Balangoda point; (28-30) micr
 

~്. 、། 3. 4. و س- : ~- س -- سے
---- །།
y s'
A.
. : | °、卤 } | . .
: O نی: ) لا
خسسه ۔ ^ سمسمصص 2 دست صبح که
e 49, Ca. 28,000 TL, BP : (13discoidel micro-nuclei; (26) lithic lunates.

Page 246
19 సె
- \ Iናናዪ }}i {i} (\ỷ Cls 26 27
25
Fig. 5. Small Stone artefacts fr
microlitihic lunates; (5,6
(16,18) Palangoda points;
 
 

242
om Site 49 ca. 28,000 TL BP (1,4) i , 8-10) microllithic semi-lunates;
(1920, 22) microlithic triangles.

Page 247
Fig. 6. Small stone artefacts fra nucleus; (26,27) Balangoda
 

243
m Site 43: (18) discoidel micro
points.

Page 248
244
− Fig. 7. Small stone artefacts fro lunates; (5,14,18-20) E
microlithic triangles; (22)
 

m Site 43 (3,6-8) microlithic
alangoda points; (16,17-21) microlithic trapezoildal.

Page 249
Fig. 8. Batadomba-lena Stratum 4, miCrolithic lunates; (2, bladelet ; (6-16) bone poir
 

Cコ 16
ca. 13,000-11,500 C-14 BP. (12) 4) microlithic semi-lunates; (5)
htS.

Page 250
Batadomba-lena Stratum 5, microlithic semi-lunate; (5) t (7-18) bone points; (19) pe bivalve; (21) cowrie.
 

Ca. 13,500 C-14 BP : (1) packed bladelet; (6) bladelet; rforated shell; (20) marine

Page 251
Fig. 10. Batadomba-lena Stratum
microlithic lunates; microllithic semi-luna' bone points; (23,24) s.
 

247
g
<ロフ 23
兰冥当堡=呈°(±一竺八 (6) microllithic trapezoidal (7-9) es (18) backed bladelet; (19-22)
ell beads.

Page 252
Fig. ll
ترمیم،..؟
Cフ
Batadomba-lena Stratum 7a microlithic lunates; (3- (10,ll) backed bladelets; (
spine.
 

Ca• l7,000 c-14 BP : (12) ) microllithic semi-lunates; 1619) bone points; (20) rays

Page 253
Fig.12 Batadorrba-lena Stratum
microlithic lunates; (8) backed bladelet (16) Balla
 

وهو قسيسه
b, ca. 22,000 c-14 BP: (1-5) microllithic semi-lunates , ( 15) goda Point; (17-19) bone points.

Page 254
27
Fig.13 Batadomba-lena stratum
microlithic lunates; microlithic trapezodAL
bladelet (16-18) micr
points; (29) shell bead.
 
 

Page 255
THE PROTO AND EARLY
CHRONOLOGY
E
S.U. Der
The Mesolithic of Sri Lanka was superse per data from over a century of prehi absence of an intervening Neolithic or Cl factors, the heavy soils of the island, clot farming with Neolithic or Chalcolithic tec (id.ip). However, with the advent of the I adequate for taming Sri Lanka's recalcitr, and gathering economy appears to have b paddy cultivation and miscellaneous SV husbandry coupled with a progressively hunting and gathering Vaddas contin iron-producing Sinhalese and Tamils, ba which seem to have quite supplanted those the mainstream of the island's cultural evo from its formative protohistoric episode u commencement of the present era.
The chronology of the Palaeolithic
been delineated, bringing into focus the cl BC, the latter being the most recent relia for the chronology of the proto- and archaeologists have, so far, tended to rel ancient chronicles (Dipavamsa, Mahava centuries AD, deriving from earlier historic (Nicholas and Paranavitana 1961). The ge these sources comprised (a) the proto contemporaneously with the so called a northern India during the 6th century BC ( historic period, characterised by the app other traits thought to have been derivedf valley at ca. 250 BC (v. Deraniyagala 197 apparent that the acceptance of the ortho

HISTORIC RADIOCARBON OF SRI LANKA
niyagala
ed by the protohistoric early Iron Age, as toric surveys (Deraniyagala 1980). The alcolithic may be attributed to ecological hed in rain-forests being unconducive to hnology as manifested in peninsular India on Age, the new technology proved itself ant environment. The Mesolithic hunting een rapidly replaced by farming, based on vidden crops, supplemented by animal decreasing component of hunting. The ued to survive in symbiosis with the rtering forest produce for tools of iron of stone from very early times. However, olution followed a clear path of evolution p into a mature form of urbanism by the
and Mesolithic periods of Sri Lanka has ltural sequence from ca. 130,000 to 1800 ble date available for the Mesolithic. As early historic periods, historians and y primarily on data incorporated in the msa) as set down in the 5th and 6th s, and from numerous epigraphs on Stone nerally accepted periodisation based on historic period, commencing roughly rival of Vijaya and his followers from Mahavamsa), succeeded by (b) the early arance of writing in Brahmi script and om the Asokan epicentre in the Gangetic ). However, it has become increasingly lox chronology for the lower part of the

Page 256
2
early historic and the protohistoic p progressively murky) is unsatisfactory wi methods -- which thereby places the onus Areview of Sri Lanka's proto- and e sincertain terms, that the citadel of Anurac for securing the requisite information. W historic cultural configurations and the hypothesising in the absence of an adequa from the cemetery complexes assigned to recently discovered small village beside t Anuradhapura happens to be the only S protohistoric habitation component. The levels of the port at Matota and in the anc south (map 1) have not indicated the pre has Kandarodai in the Jaffna peninsula (a been excavated (with meso-stratigraphic 100ha citadel of Anuradhapura. These tes have been sent down to bed-rock through 1,2,4,5). The sample of cultural material t the requirements of the primary research radiocarbon chronology for the site in represented in its artefact assemblages.
A total of 45 reliable radiocarbon da Anuradhapura. The results are set out calibrated ages as estimated on the basis O (2B) (1986). Each sondage is dealth withs a general treatement of the site. The rac Sequence at KandarOdai is also considerec and consistent one from Anuradhapura. T early historic episodes, based on the call Sealed contexts, is as follows:
Period I, Mesolithic, with geometric mici for Matota at ca. 1800 BC (Deraniyagala i

52
'riods (when the chronicles become hout testing its accuracy by independent on radiocarbon dating.
arly historic archaeology indicated, in no hapura was the most Suitable site to assay hile one may discuss protohistoric/early r dynamics in the abstract, by way of te data base, the fact remains that (apart he protohistoric period, and possibly the he Ibbankatuva cemetery) the citadel of ite to have revealed the existence of a probes sent down into the early historic ient sub-capital at Tissamaharama in the sence of protohistoric horizons, and nor pp.). Hence, a series of 13 sondages have definition) in various sectors of the ca. tpits average ca. 10m each, and 11 Such 1 ca. 9-10m of occupation deposits (figs. hus secured has been adequate to meet 1 goal, that of establishing a preliminary he context of its cultural evolution as
tes have been secured on charcoal from in the appendix that follows, with the f the tables published in Radiocarbon 28 parately and the results synthesised into iocarbon chronology for the habitation in the context of the more wide-ranging e periodisation of Sri Lanka’s proto- and orated dates secured on charcoal from
pliths. The most recent date available is
α).

Page 257
25
Period II, Mesolithic/Iron Age transition. at any of the sites investigated so far. Thes Age burials at Pomparippu (Begley et al. secondary contexts. The Supersession of appears to have been a rapid process, the this transition in the archaeological recor
Period III, protohistoric Iron Age' : ca. 90 the appearance of iron technology, pott protohistoric Iron Age Black and Red Wa paddy cultivation. None of the numerol Anuradhapura has yielded Stone tools, th iron technology over that of stone by ca. 9 The earliest known protohistoric set in extent by ca. 800 BC, as per the evid Sondages. More of the latter could revealt all, 11 pits of 10m, each, totalling some 1) that exceeds 1 million m'. Nonetheless, 10 Age Settlement. It is estimated that the ear would have been villages with an area of old as ca. 1100 BC, thus conforming with th India. It is possible, but somewhat unlikel within the perimeter of the citadel at An 30) need to be excavated down to bed-rocl before it is possible to decide on this poin By ca. 700-600 BC the protohistoric se Over an area of at least 50ha. This could t spectacular increase in size between the 9 a concomitant of increased centralisation ( the 'capital’ settlement of the island. Its lo of the northwest and northeast, within hinterland, (notably Seruvila, the island's surrounded by irrigable and fertile Red worked by iron tools, and defensible again right up to the coasts, would suggest delib authority. In other words, the positioning

This episode has not been isolated as yet tone tools found in association with Iron 1981) are being interpreted as being in stone tool technology with that of iron reby leaving few discernible vestiges of i.
0-600 BC. This period is distinguished by ery (notably the Sri Lankan variant of re (BRW)), the horse, domestic cattle and is contexts assignable to this period at uus signifying the total predominance of 00 BC. tlement at Anuradhapura exceeded 10ha ence from the widely spaced scatter of hat the Settlement was much larger: after 0m, constitute a tiny Sample from a site ha is a considerable size for an early Iron liest among Such settlements in Sri Lanka less than 3ha and that these could be as le earliest Iron Age horizons Of Southern y (v. below), that such a settlement exists uradhapura: many more sondages (over kina wide-ranging Scatter within the Site t. ttlement at Anuradhapura had extended hus be designated a town. The apparent th and 8th centuries BC could have been of authority in what appears to have been cation, equidistant from the major ports each of the mineral-rich zones of the premier iron and copper ore deposito) dish Brown Earths amenable to being st invaders with its deep buffer of forests erate selection of locus by a centralised of Anuradhapura as the capital does not

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25
indicate an organic growth from humble site catchment; it does seem to have landscape. If it was so, the chances of dis within the citadel would be slim.
As to the processual elements whic of Sri Lanka, little can be said in the abs the sub-continent. It is proposed that iron and that it was imported, perhaps during probably in association with the horse equatorial rain forest habitat of Sri L dominance by ca. 1000 BC in most of India a closely associated (if not invariable) cor
The basic early Iron Age cultural n regional variants and sub-variants, unsur that these were represented by interactin hierarchical model may be roughly formu
MACRO-SPHERE I. Protohistoric Iron Age of India and Sri
Sub-spheres 1. Southern India and Sri Lanka
Variants (a) Sri Lanka (b) Tamilmadu (c) Kerala (d) Andhra Pradesh (e) Karnataka 2. Western India
(a) Maharashtra (b) Gujarat (c) Saurashtra 3. Central India
(a) Madhya Pradesh 4. Northern India
(a) Rajasthan

origins at village level with a small-scale been a sophisticated imposition on the covering a pre-9th century BC settlement
h gave rise to the protohistoric Iron Age ence of an adequate corpus of data from technology was not an indigenous growth the final part of the 2nd millennium BC, which is a steppe animal alien to the anka. This iron technology had gained and it seems as if there too the horse was comitant.
natrix seems to have manifested itself in prisingly. One may tentatively postulate g and overlapping 'culture spheres'. The lated as follows:
Lanka.

Page 259
(b) Uttar Pradesh
(c) Bihar 5. Eastern India
(a) Bengal
(b) Orissa 6. Pakistan, with its a array of early Iron
The above model requires adjusting bas the early Iron Age, to be subsequently smaller taxa. It does not suffice to effectsu it to a modal analysis of selected discrete traditions (eg, “Megalithico complex) or ( examine these intensively, the resultant in totality of the cultural assemblages interpretations synthesised into progress intoa hierarchy of models. This having bei the Indian context against the West and further expanding the scale of concept Unless such an expansive approach is ado of lumping everything relating to the sout
complex will continue its unimaginative ( archaeology.
Period IV, basal early historic : ca. 60 from/protohistoric to the lower early histc context 75 in Anuradhapura indicates tha during this phase (fig.3), thus qualifyin, Corroborative evidence of the occurrence to the protohistoric Iron Age (“Megalithic 1949), and possibly Kodumanel (Ragupat evidence, although circumstantial, in the bone point in India (types 1a, 1b of AG-6 found with a protective cap to its delic: 1000-600 BC (eg, Painted Grey Ware level Polished Ware horizons of Ujjain and Nag

Age complexes
ed on a pan-Indian comparative study of ine-tuned into Sub-variants and perhaps cha comparative investigation by limiting raits such as those pertaining to mortuary certain ceramics. While it is necessary to terpreations can easily mislead unless the are analysed and compared and the ively bigger-scale hypotheses and thence enachieved, it would be necessary to view Central Asian early Iron Age Scene, thus ualisation into a Supre-regional model. opted, the present hide-bound orthodoxy hern early Iron Age into the Megalithic' xistence to the detriment of progressive
0-500 BC. This constitutes th transition Iric episode. The evidence from AMP-88 t writing in the Brahmi script was extant g its being termed basal early historic. of Brahmi in contexts otherwise assigned ') stem, notably, from Arikamedu (Casal hy 1990). There is further corroborative occurrence of a well-defined category of 9; Deraniyagala 1972), which is at times itely rounded working tip, dated to ca. s of Hastinapura and pre-Northern Black
da). These could well be writing styli and

Page 260
25
they are ubiquitous from early historic co above-mentioned strands of evidence d 600-500 BC antiquity for early Brahmiin A need to be regarded as deserving of furth
Two ceramic traits occur for the firs assigned to the basal early historic: (a) rim and (b) a low-lustre, fine paste, medium-li can be recognised is an 'archaic varial hypothesised that the occurrence of Brah in some manner to an extraneous cultural this period, and it is tempting to see a con followers an event attributed to the 6th chronicles." Should the inscription on representing Prakrit (vs. Tamil) it would
Period V, lower early historic: ca.500-25( of what was perceived as incipient in peri tupe 8 of AG-69 and the supersession of and characteristic from by type 35a(ii) wi of Brahmi have been recorded from this 'styli’ were indeed found in Ag-693 whi The Brahmi found on a seal at Anaikko period.
The Sondages in Anuradhapura ind More reliance can be placed on the chro historic. Worthy of special note is the ref BC) and the formal planning of the 'city' a a quarter for the Yonas who are thought t (Mahavamsa). The last, if true, would inc with Aramaic, the dominant trading scri When Alexander the Great’s naval capta specific reference to 35-ton boats plying ( India (v. Nicholas 1959; 1959a), it is pro information from sailors already trading b with the Gangetic valley is evidenced in th Ware (NBP) in period V, albeit in small qui

ntexts throughout the sub-continent. The o seem to indicate that claims of a ca. Anuradhapra are not fanciful and that they er systematic enguiry. t time (in very small numbers) in contexts type 8 of AG-69 (ibid.) on necked vessels; ghtgrey ware, of which the only from that it of bowl type 22b(i) of AG-69. It is mi and these two ceramic traits are linked impulse which reached Sri Lanka during nection with the legend of Vijaya and his 1 century BC as set down in the ancient figure 3b (...tayakute) be interpreted as add credence to the latter speculation.
) BC. This represents the half-blown phase od IV. Diagnostic is the profusion of rim roof-tyle type 35b(i) with its dense febric th its porous body. So far, no specimens period at Anuradhapura, although bone ch is assigned to the lower early historic. ddai could also (conceivably) be of this
icate an extent of over 50ha for period V. onicles when it comes to the lower early :rence to Pandukabhaya (late 5th century t Anuradhapura, complete with gates and ) have been Ionian or West Asian traders licate the presence of people acquainted it of this period from as early as 850 BC. in Onesicritos described Sri Lanka, with bn 20-day voyages along the west coast of bable that he might have had access to etween the island and West Asia. Contact e Occurrence of Northern Black Polished antities. What is particularly intriguing is

Page 261
that there are some indications that the c Ware (RIW) had its inception (as aware, early on in this period. If this point shou RIW had its origins in the medium-fir characteristic gun-metallustre reflected the Gangetic valley and perhaps others Mediterranean.
The radiocarbon dates from Kanda type 4 of AG-69 occurring in one of its sondages excavated down to bed-rock i horizon, unless the two anomalously ea scarcely permissible. The earliest levels at historic period. It is also probable that co. and Matota, if one is to trust the account down to sterile in MA-80, MA-82 (Cars anything pre-dating the mid-early histori one trench) and it must be assumed that perhaps of periods IV and III) lie conceale historic accumulation that blankets the historic' at certain sites in Southern India within the range of period V at Anurdadh and Amaravati at ca. 400 cal BC (v. Sen assemblage found in association with the Megalithic) and hence lends firm suppol
Period VI, mid-early historic: ca. 250 I Anuradhapura was full-blown by now, c according to the Survey being conducte comm). It thus would have represented ol Asia, and it is worth bearing in mind that fraction of this size. Historically, this pe ample evidence of close cultural interactic Bihar. Archaeologically, however, surpris once again the primary evidence stems fr by the кур-70 site report which continues are RIW, Brahmiscript (on pottery, seal

ramic popularly referred to as Rouletted devoid of the rouletted decoration) quite d be confirmed, one could postulate that e grey ware of period IV and that its echnical inputsfrom the NBP tradition of rom further afield in West Asia and the
odai, and my personal observation of rim Owermost contexts, indicate that the two n KTD-70 did not reveal a protohistoric rly dates are taken seriously -- which is KTD-70 are assignable to the lower early relative horizons exist at Tissamaharama in the chronicles. However, excavations well and Prickett 1984) failed to reveal (with the exception of the Mesolithic in he traces of the lower early historic (and d somewhere beneath the massive middle mound. Horizens referred to as 'early have radiocarbon dates dates which fall apura: eg, Kanchipuram at ca. 500 cal BC eviratne 1984). Presumably the cultural latter sites is typically early historic (VS. t to the present scheme of periodisation.
C -100AD. The early historic citadel of overing an extent of ca. 100ha or more i by M. Choya from Tokyo (1990:pars e of the largest cities of its time in South mid-early historic Arikamedu was but a iod is relatively well documented, with n with the Asokan empire centred about ngly little is known from Sri Lanka, and m Anuradhapura (to be complemented to pend). The index fossils for this period and Stone), coinage (eg, punch-marked

Page 262
and “elephant and swastika” types), laksh (notably type 10b(i) of AG-69), glass, prominence of burnt brick as a buildi compressed mud, and wattle and daub, i. that ceramics attributed to Hellenistic sou (4a)) have been discovered in context Deraniyagala 1985; identification conf comm.). Trade contacts with India on the Mediterranean on the other appear to ha quantitative treatment of its data for Anu thus created would seem to have been at phase of mega-irrigation projects for pa large-scale public monuments such as the l appears to have reached its maximum ext surface scatter of RIW. However, th Tissamaharama, Ambalantota, Matota an mid-early historic period suggests centra against the hierarchical network of settlem period. This supports the view that the id that had been initially imposed and thend is a noteworthy lack of an organic hierarc centre and periphery from the commence VII. This could well represent a function O evidence to the contrary the above hypot
Period VII, upper early historic: ca. 1 achieved prominence, at least in the citad material. The bricks themselves are usual size." The stratigraphy in the citadel for robber trenches from antiquity with jumbl numerous contexts which only serve to pro (eg, AG-69(6)). The indexpossil in Red PC make there first appearance in the seque “tree and Swastika”, Indo-Roman and RC ware appear for the first time as forerun middle historic times, and there is some

ni plaques, a proliferation of bead types
gaming dice, and the gradual rise to ng material (vs. the predominance of 1 the preceding periods). It is significant rces (types 21a(i), 23a(i), 24a(i) of AG-69 s assigned to period VI (Bouzek and irmed in Paris, J. Gaucher 1985:pers. one hand and West Asian and thence the ave expanded tangibly, a topic deserving liradhapura (under prep.). The surpluses least partially channelled into the initial Iddy cultivation and for the building of Mahathupa (Ruwanwelisaya). The citadel ent during this period, as attested by the e great dearth of sites, apart from d Kandarodai, that can be assigned to the lised administration from such nodes, as hents that characterise the middle historic ea of a town or city was an alien element 2veloped in the Sri Lankan context. There hical continuum of settlements between ment of period III up to the end of period finadequate surface surveys, but pending hesis must necessarily take precedence.
00-300 AD. This was when burnt brick el of Anuradhapura, as the prime building ly large and tend towards a uniformity in this period is complecated by extensive ed fills of brick residue and artefacts from vide termini ante quem as dating evidence lished Ware (RPW) and its variants which ance. Coins tend to be rather numerous: man types. Pale blue Sassanian glazed her to the darker blue glazed varieties of evidence of their being coeval with the

Page 263
appearance of glazed roof-riles (type 36a in South Asia and which could have had th (v. chemical analysis in Deraniyagala 197 contexts at Anuradhapura, although poss appear as if BRW was indeed in use up to 300 AD, as appears to be corroborated Kuchchaveli, Ilankaiturai and PanamaDeraniyagala 1972); and the analysis offi of MA-84 trenches G and H should clarify The end of the 3rd century AD appears to tradition in Sri Lanka, with the inverted fil of pottery shapes from ca. 900 BC to 300 A forms in the transition from proto-to earl is often ignored and there is a popul Megalithic'.The postulated upper age bol (coincidentally or otherwise) with the end Sri Lanka as enunciated in the chronicles, link between these two phenomena.
Period VIII, middle historic : ca. 300-12 period which witnessed the commenceme civilisation of Sri Lanka, the causal factors upon by armchair archaeologists but the e massive upper levels of Matota. Once agai stratigraphy in the citadel beyond redempt in period VII and appear to have been di members of ashlar, as can be adduced . fragments among the residual pit-fills.' TI reflectincreased affluence. The latter is cle evidence of massive expansion during the of West Asian ceramics making their app supplemented by Chinese wares from th Prickett 1984). This affluence, which is so of the religious complexes in Anuradhapu the direct result of the East-West trade w. as an entrepot.

(i) of Ag-69) which are said to be unique eir origin in Sassanian glazing techniques 2). RIW is frequently found in period VIII ibly in a derived state. However, it does the end of the upper early historic at ca. by the finds from the eastern ports of moderagala (id.ipc; id. in Solheim and nds from the undisturbed lower contexts this point. (Carswell et al. under prep.)." represent the upper boundary of the BRW ing technique cross-cutting the evolution D, noteworthy being the changes in BRW y historic periods. (This latter distinction ar tendency to categorise all BRW as undary of BRW at ca. 300 AD synchronises of the Mahavamsa dynastic succession of and one wonders if there could be some
50 AD, up to the end of the Polonnaruva nt of the final devolution of the Dry Zone of which have frequently been speculated vidence for which awaits retrieval in the n, robber pits have damaged much of the ion. These are even more extensive than 1g to extract pillars and other structural from the frequent occurrence of stone he supersession of brick by ashlar could arly in evidence at Matota which displays middle historic period, with a profusion arance in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, e 9th to 11th centuries (Carswell and isible in the middle historic monuments ra as one sees them today, was probably th Sri Lanka, specifically Matota, acting

Page 264
It appears to have been during the contemporaneously with the onset of the settlements crop up in various parts of the (v. Solheim and Deraniyagala 1972), estab been a vertically integrated hierarchy in a of the agriculturally fertile Reddish Brow. Dry Zone (notably bintenne) seem to have and gathering life-style of the Vadda banc
Conclusions: The periodisation of Sri Lar derived from the calibrated radioca supplementary evidence from the lower ea effect has succeeded in radically transfor been extant for these periods. The p) Protohistoric A in Deraniyagala ip) is no period of ca. 900-600 BC. There are strong of the dawn of the historical period at ca. what appears to be the appearance of writ new traits in ceramic technology. The latte historicperiod (Protohistoric Bofibid.) of in the basal levels of Kandarodai and po Kanchipuram and Amaravati.
The full-blown early historic i.e., mid AD conforms with the orthodox view of M registering in southern India and Sri phenomenon was polycentric as agains assessed. During the the early part of them of a hitherto unsuspected degree of contac as indicated by the occurrence of Helleni the West appears to have been accentuate 100-300 AD as clearly evidenced by the period.
The settlement data from Anuradah considerable extent already during the pr The causative factors behind this phen evaluated, in the light of parallel data fro

50
latter part of the middle historic period,
brisk East-West trade, that several new Dry Zone, notably in the eastern sector lishing for the first time what could have settlement network covering the entirety n Earth regions. The infertile parts of the provided the final refuge for the hunting ds.
ka's proto- and early historic episodes as rbon dates for Anuradhapura, with arly historic occupation at Kandarodai, in maing the Orthodox chronology that has rotohistoric Iron Age (referred to as w considered to span the pre-Vijayan' indications (awaiting final confirmation) 600-500 BC, the basal early historic, with ing in the Brahmi Script, accompanied by rare clearly in evidence in the lower early ca.500-250 BC, which is also represented ssibly in the 'early historic horizons of
-early historic period) of ca. 250 BC-100 auryan impulses deriving from the north Lanka, although to what degree this t diffusionist has yet to be accurately id-early historic period, there is evidence it with West Asia and the Mediterranean stic-derived ceramics. This contact with d in the upper early historic period of ca. Tumerous finds of Roman coins of this
apura indicate that it was a town of Some otohisotirc Iron Age at ca. 800-600 BC. omenon have yet to be systematically m Indian contexts. It is suspected that a

Page 265
major factor would have been the manufa
Sri Lanka and perhaps southern India as w
point has been succinctly argued by Scho
here hypothesised that it had its be Corroboration of this proposition li
metal-working slag in every sondage tha Anuradhapura, from the basal protohisto historic, as exemplified in AG-69, AC ASW-89(76). The metallurgical analyses th these contexts (G. Juleff under prep.) wo ths topic. On suspects that we are on the research which, if assayed incisively, coul cultural interaction processes in South millennium BC.'The protohistoric Iron A probably not manifested in a mere scatter on rudimentary irrigated farming, as is ge sophisticated network of settlements link West Asia and beyond*
FOOTNOTES
1. The term “Megalithic' culture has been Age (syn. early Iron Age) of Sri Lanka. TI with certain early Iron Age settlements (Wheeler 1948) need not necessarily be Age of peninsular India and Sri Lanka. H can be misleadeing and the present wri until its general usage as a synonym fol southern India and Sri Lanka can be Megalithic mortuary traits applied to representing, for instance, a certain terminology is validated by the absenc complex in association with Anuradhapu it could await discovery or that the kno distances from the site (Seneviratne 19 as loci with specific ritualistic connot secondary interment. Considering that

ture and export of high-quality iron from ell. For the mid-early historic period this fin his seminal paper (1915) and it is innings in the protohistoric period. os in the widespread occurrence of it has been excavated in the citadel of ric levels upwards into the upper early -84, AG-85 (Deraniyagala 1986) and at are being conducted on samples from uld no doubt shed the requisite light on edge of a vast and unexplored field of d serve to transform our perception of Asia during the latter part of the 2nd yge in Sri Lanka and southern India was of small village-scale settlements based nerally assumed, but by an extensive and ed by trade in manufactured iron with
loosely applied to the protohistoric Iron he Megalithic mortuary traits associated , such as Brahmagiri, in Southern India a concomitant of the protohisotric Iron ence, to refer to the latter as "Megalithic' ter has opted to dispense with the term the protohisotirc Iron Age complex of justified. It is quite possible that the a mere facies of the overall culture, ocial group. This stance towards the of any trace of a Megalithic cemetery ra- although one needs to concede that wn cemeteries, situated at considerable 4), could have serviced Anuradhapura tions which functioned as centres of here appears to have been a tendency

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Footnotes
1. The term 'Megalithic' culture has been loosely a Age (syn. early Iron Age) of Sri Lanka. The M early Iron Age settlements, such as Brahmagi necessarily be a concomitant of the protohisot Hence, to refer to the latter as “Megalithic' can to dispense with the term until its general usage as of southern India and Sri Lanka can be justified traits applied to a mere facies of the overall cu group. This stance towards the terminology is val cemetery complexin association with Anuradhap await discovery or that the known cemeteries, (Seneviratne 1984), could have serviced Anuradl which functioned as centres of secondary interm a tendency . for protohistoric cemeteries to have retained th as instanced by the Buddhist complexes at Kol Vehera (Kataragama), thus demonstrating a cer site of the earliest Buddhist complex at Anuradh protohistoric cemetery if excavated down to its t 2. For example, Halingali in Karnataka at 955-1C in Andhra Pradesh at 1200+ 140 14C BC (PF Korkai in Tamilnadu at 805 + 9514CBC (TF3. The masses of slag visible at Seruvila suggest mir a bigger scale than is archaeologically in evidenc of uankaiturai (deraniyagala in Solhein and dDe coin, steel and copper to the eastern seaboa Anuradhapura, would have monopolised the wesi scale.
4. The site of Anaikkoddai in the Jaffna peninsula is the present writer's brief examination of the site w potterm forms (eg, rim type 8 of AG-69) inclines at earliest, lower early historic) phase. Absolu Anikkoddai before concluding on their status in
5. One cannot help but remarking (pace anti-diffusi

pplied to the protohistoric Iron
egalithic mortuary traits associated with certain ri, in southern India (Wheeler 1948) need not fic Iron Age of peninsular India and Sri Lanka. be misleadeing and the present writer has opted asynonym for the protohisotirc IronAge complex . It is quite possible that the Megalithic mortuary lture, representing, for instance, a certain social idated by the absence of any trace of a Megalithic pura -- although one needs to concede that it could situated at considerable distances from the site napura as loci with specific ritualistc connotations
ent. Considering that there appears to have been
eir ritualistic associations in early historic times, kebe Weli Vehera (near Pomparippu) and Kiri tain continuity of function, it is proposed that the lapura, the Thuparama, could yield evidence of a basal cultural levels.
1014C BC (TF-573), Veerapuram RL-728) and 920 + 40 14C BC (PRL-730). and 987).
ing and melting operations on delsewhere om the island. The neighbouring part -raniyagala 1972) probably serviced the export of ird of India whereas Matota, controlled from
tern trad which would have been on a much bigger
another possiblility, although ith its extended primary burials and early historic him to assign this site to a mid-early historic (or te dates are required for both Kodumanel and the present scheme of periodisation.
ionists!) on the paralledl rise of

Page 267
the PGW-NBP fine ware tradition in northern discovery in protohistoric Iron Age peninsular 7. Vijaya is chronicled as having sent written missi may not set too much store by such possible an realm of possibility. 7. Further investigations could reveal that, as with
made its first appearance in period IV.
8. There are considerable deviations fromthe town Kautilyain his Arthasastra and it is unlikely thatt in this regard. It might be possible to trace a historic south wall that is visible in places. 9. Over 1000 sherds of RIW have been secured
Anuradhapura. 10. One wonders if there could be a correlation bet Satavanana influence in peninsular India and t Anuradhapura. It would be interesting to compa India, Andhra Pradesh and period VII in Anura suggests that this is not idle speculation. 11. Note the total absence of BRW in the 5th, and p of Sigiriya (S. Bandaranayake 1989:pers. comm. 12. Unlike in period VII, the residual matrix in the
greyish brown, devoid of the pervasive brick-dust former. 13. The term Hund - (sic, ?Hind-) waney which the u steel they used on their famous Damascus blac Sinhalese term wane for steel. 14.It is proposed that an intensive comparative stud protohistoric Iron Age contexts (eg., the cemet SCOC.
15. Who were the authors of the early Iron Age inst While politely avoiding the Aryan/Dravidian con this period, one may not duck the issue of the ph Kennedy's comparative work on skeletal mate convinced him that there are major differences be

ndia, It is conceivable that further parallels await ndia.
es to South India. Although one
chronisms, they deserve to be noted as within the
imtype 8, roof-tile type 35a(i)
planning norm as classicised by le chronicles indulgedin anachronistic plagiarism ower early historic city wall beneath the middle
from the 13 sondages in
ween the rise of Saka and
he increase in the scale of brick architecture in re the sizes of bricks from 100-300 AD in western dhapura. The occurrence of RPW in period VII
erhaps 4th, century AD contexts
.
robber pits of VIII is a dark
and redeposited gravelly construction fills of the
Arbs used for the finest Indian
es (Schoff 1915) is an obvious reference to the
" of beads from Sri Lankan
ries) would provide subfailure evidence on this
uthern India and Sri Lanka?
oversy, in the absence of written records during sical traits of early Iron Age man in this region. al (eg, in Begley et al. 1981) has apparently veen the physical traits ofSri Lanka's Mesolithic

Page 268
BalangodaMan on the onehand and early Iron Age a majorintrusion of new blood into the local scenev Palassa at ca. 4500 BC as a terminus post quem. V iron technology swept into Sri Lanka at the comm that anti-diffusionism is not the answer to all such

man on the other (1989:pers.comm.). This signifies ith the date of the skeletal series from Bellan-bandi hile not directly postulating that horseriders with encement of the Iron Age, one needs to be aware
questions (pace again!).

Page 269
APPE List of Radiocarbon Dates: Proto- an The present list sets out the radiocarbon Sri Lanka's proto-and early historic peri been secured for the middle historic peri tables published in Radiocarbon 28(, corresponding to the Standard error in th more potential calibrated dates and the ( are otherwise Supported by contextual evi present writer is obliged to R. Knox of the of the Physical Research Laboratory in facilities at the radiocarbon laboratories i to Beta Analytic Inc., the commercial labi The bulk of the dates stem from th Anuradhapura (code, A). The ones fi adequately until the excavation report is a is set out based on personal communicati the project with V. Begley. The citadelof A ca. 8-10m thickness of habitation de (Deraniyagala 1972) and subsequently pr so as to delineate an overall chronology f dates have been Secured on charcoal for so are set out below, with the listing of each with the most recent uppermost and associations, all of which have been inter contexts, are sketched in wherever feasibl site reports and they need to be viewed as as regards context but which require fillin Anuradhapura Gedige (AG-85): th enlarged (minimally) so as to secure a rep major cultural horizons (id. 1986). The follows:

NDIX i Early Historic Periods idates that are available with reference to ods, supplemented by the few that have od. Calibrated dates are given as per the B) of 1986, including the age range e 14C age. On occasion there are two or nes that fit the respective series best, or dence, will be denoted with asterisks. The : British Museum (BM) and D.P. Agrawal Ahmedabad (PRL) for securing dating n their respective institutions. Beta refers oratory in Florida. e excavations conducted in the citadel of rom Kandarodai cannot be evaluated vailable; although a tentative correlation ons with B. Bronson (1977) who directed linuradhapura extends over ca. 100ha with posits. It was first sounded in 1969 obed with 10m2 sondages at various loci or the site (map 2). Several radiocarbon me of the more important contexts. These series ordered as per the context matrix the earliest lowermost. The cultural preted as being within sealed habitation ', pending the the completion of the final preliminary statements that are accurate g out by quantification. s 2 excavatin pits of the 1969 season were resentative sample of charcoal from the radiocarbon dates, on charcoal, are as

Page 270
Context 11 (middle), sample AG-85 (4
2060 +/– 80 BP ca. 96 cal BC (after Stuiver a 187 cal BC - 16 cal AD, at sig Associations : Rouletted Ware Correlation: stratum 4b of 196
Context 11 (lower), sample AG-85 (4
2110 +/– 70 BP ca. 160 cal BC (ibid. ) 308 -250, 213-54* cal BC (ibid) Associations. Rlw Mid early Correlation : stratum 4b of AG
Context 13 (upper) , sample AG 85 (5)
2050 +/– 70 BP ca. 73 cal BC (ibid . )
169-26 cal BC (ibid. ) Association : RlW, seal with B Correlation : stratum 4b of AG Context 14 (upper), sample AG-85 (6)
2290 +/– 90 BP ca. 390 cal BC (ibid. ) 405 -352 , 3 05-232* cal BC (ibid Associations : RLW , Kalkshmi plia Correlation : stratum 4A of A
Context 14 (middle), sample AG-85 (6
2140 +/ー 60 BP ca. 187 cal BC (ibid. ) 354-3 04 , 238 -105* cal BC (ibid ASSOciations : Rl W. Correlation : stratum 4a of A Context 14 (middle), sample Ag-85 (6
2130 +/– 50 BP ca. 178 cal BC (ibid) 3 08-263 * , 213 -104 cal BC (ibid Associations : RlW Correlation: stratum 4A of AgContext 15 (upper), sample AG-85 (7)
2170 +/– 50 BP ca. 265 cal BC (average ; ibid 362 - 258 * , 254 -164 cal BC (ibid Associations: Lower early hist Correlation: stratum 3b of AGcontext 15 (upper) . sample AG-85 (7)
2270 +/– 100 BP ca. 383 cal BC (ibid. ) 4 03 — 270 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: NBP (n=1) Lower Correlation: stratum 3b of AGontext 15 (lower), sample Ag-85 (7)
2360 +/– 70 BP ca. 402 BC (ibid. ) 506 - 412 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: rim type 8, roof
historic. orrelation: stratum 3b of AG-69

a), lab. no. Beta-18438.
ind Pearson 1986) Tma = 1 (ibid.)
(RlW) early historic 9 excavation (AG - 69) a), lab. no. Beta-15347.
historic ;ー69
lab. no. Beta-15346.
rahmi inscribed Mid early historic -69 , lab. no. Beta-15345.
)
que. Mid early historic G-69
), lab. no. Beta-18437.
..)
G-69 ) , lab. no. BM-2505.
... )
69
lab. no. BM-2506
..) ..) Dric NBP,
59
lab. no. Beta-18436.
2arly historic 59
lab. no. Beta-15342.
-tile type 35a of AG-69. Lower early

Page 271
Context 17, sample AG-85 (8), lab. n
2440 +/– 70 BP ca. 523 cal BC (ibid. ) 768 - 404 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: first appearance overlapping with 35b. Early histo) Correlation: stratum 3b/3a transitic
ASW-88 (88). Context 21 (upper), sample AG-85 (9)
2220 +/– 80 BP ca. 362* 282 , 258 cal BC (ibic 392-186 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: protohisotric Irc Correlation : stratum 3a of AGContext 21 (lower), sample AG-85 (9),
2370 +/– 60 BP ca. 404 cal BC (ibid.) 506-416 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: protohistoric Irc Correlation: stratum 3a of AG-6 Context 26 (upper), sample AG-85 (10)
2340 +/– 60 BP ca. 399 cal BC (ibid. ) 408-387 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: protohistoric Irc Correlation: stratum 3a of AG-6 Context 26 (middle), sample AG-85 (10
2520 +/ー50 BP ca. 770 cal BC (after Pearson a cal BC (Stuiver and Becker 1986 795 -757 , 693 -59 6* cal BC (after Associations : protohistoric Iro Correlation: stratum 3a of AG-6 Context 26 (lower) . sample AG-85 (10)
2410 +/– 60 BP ca. 428 cal BC (after Stuiver a 758 -690*, 54 6-4 00 cal BC (ibid. Associations: protohistoric Iron Correlation : stratum 3a of AG
Context 29 (middle), sample AG-85 (11
2470 +/– 50 BP ca. 758* , 692 , 571 cal BC (after 774 - 472* , 441-421 cal BC (ibid. Associations : protohistoric Iro Correlation : stratum 3a of AG

D. Beta-Tb3 48
of rim type 8 and roof-tile type 35a final occurrence of roof-tile type
ric/protohistoric transition. on of AG-69, AMP-88 (75),
lab. no. Beta-15341.
. )
n Ageג -69
ab. no. Beta-1534 O .
in Age. 9 , lab. no. Beta 15339.
n Age 9 ), lab. no. BM-2508
nd Stuiver 1986); ca. 767, 674, ) Pearson and Stuiver 1986) h Age
3.
lab. no. Beta-15338.
ld Pearson 1986)
Age 9
lab. no. BM-2509.
Pearson and Stuiver 1986).
AGe 9
662

Page 272
Context 33 (upper), sample AG-85 (12 probable intrusions from overlying Beta - 1533 6.
2390 +/– 60 BP ca. 4 07 cal BC (after Stuiver 64 0-546 cal BC (ibid) Associations: metal-working sl protohistoric Ir Correlation : stratum of AG-69 Context 35 (upper), sample AG-85 (13
5040 +/– 80 BP ca. 3900 cal BC (after de Jong Associations: Mesolithic geome Correlation: stratum l of Aggravel member of which has hither peak of the At1a the older Peron Monsoon Africa a maximum at ca. 4 1976 ; Deraniyaga Context 35 (upper), sample AG-85 (1
5040 +/ー50 BP ca. 3900 cal BC (after de Jong Associations : Mesolithic Correlation : stratum 1 of AG
The series of calibrated radiocarbo following periodisation :

) ; ploughed clayey top-soli. Wilth protohistoric contexts; lab. no.
and Person 1986)
ag , horse. Basal context of the on Age. , ADB-88 (99), AMP-88 (85), ASW-88 (97) ) lab. no. Beta-18435.
et al. 1986) tric microlliths, bone (n=1)
69 This context comprises the basal
the Reddish Brown Earth Formation to defied radiometric dating. The dat ntic altithermal in Scandinavia, high sea level, a humid phase in nd the Holocene rainfall 250 BC in Rajasthan (v. Fairbridge la ip, ipa) .
3) lab. no. BM-2510.
et al. 1986)
69 (v. above)
n dates for AG-85 suggests the

Page 273
269
I: Ca. 3900 BC, Mesolithic (for cult correlation between pluvial conditi« the global altithermal peak confirms (if not most) Quaternary altitherma. tropical South Asia. A considerable
between this context and the ones th
II. Ca. 800-500 BC, protohistoric II] occurrence of wheel-made pottery, pa technology, paddy Cultivation, the h
III. CA. 500 BC, transition between lower early historic period, as inst necked vessels and roof tile type 35 episode is inadequately defined and 8th century BC, as per the evidence
IV. Ca. 500-250 BC, lower early hist by the disappearance of roof-tile ty 35a. There is also a pronounced incr general, appear to display a higher
preceding Iron Age. Noteworthy is th contact with the urban complex of th
V. Ca. 250 BC-100 AD, mid-early hist The present series of radiocarbon da issue concerning the lower age bound hypothesis (Deraniyagala 1972) that ca. 2 OO BC (at least). Early Brahmi evidence inscribed on pottery and of occurrence of pottery of Hellenistic 1985) . The latter appears to stem fr AG-85 (14).
Anuradhapura Gedige Shrine (AGP-87) carved guard-stones, which adjoins A foundations of this structure for da
This context cannot be correlated wi certainly) to post-date AG-69 (6) of
Context AGP-87 , lab. no. Beta-19624.
1630 +/– 70 BP ca. 416 cal AD (after Stuiver a 332 - 4 4 8 cal AD (ibid . ) Associations: ashlar shrine wit
foundations from excavated could C Lower middle hist
Anuradhapura Dingiri Bandage Watte (
metres South of AGP-87.
Context 54 lab. no. BEta-36612.
2080 +/– 60 BP ca. 105 cal BC (ibid. ) 187 -35 cal BC (ibid. )

„ural data v . Deraniyagala 1972) . The ins at AG-85 during this period and the hypothesis (id. ip) that many s witnessed pluvial conditions in stratigraphic hiatus intervenes at succeed it.
on Age distinguished by the rticularly Black and Red Ware, iron orse and domestic cattle.
the protohistoric Iron Age and the anced in context 17. Rim type 8 in a make their first appearance. This could have commenced as early as the from the calibrated age range.
oric. This period is characterised pe 35b and the predominance of type ease in rim tupe 8. The ceramics, in technological standard than in the e occurrence of NBP, which suggests e Gangetic valley.
oric, with RIW as its index fossil. tes for AG-85 finally clinches the ary of RIW. It confirms the this ceramic category dates back to of the Asokan type is in
particular significance is the derivation (Bouzek and Deraniyagala "om as early as the 3rd century BC in
is a stone building, of ashlar with GP-85. Charcoal was Secured from the ting.
th AG-69, 85, but it appears (almost the upper early historic period.
nd Pearson 1986)
h carced guard-stones, although the which the charcoal sample was onceivably antedate it.
oric.
ADB-87/88) is located a few hundred

Page 274
270
Associations: RIW and NBP. Mid-e Context 57, lab. no. Beta-36613.
2150 +/– 70 BP ca. 192 cal BC (ibid. ) 362 -243 * , 254-108 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: lowermost horizon Context 65 lab. no. Beta-36616.
2240 +/– 70 BP ca. 370 cal RC (ibid. ) 394 -267 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations : rim type 8. lower Context 91 lab. no. Beta 36617.
247 O + 5 O BIP ca. 756, 692 , 544 cal BC (after 774 - 472* , 441-421 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: one of the lowermos
protohistoric Iron Jontext 99, lab. no. Beta-36614.
242O +/– 60 BP ca. 484 , 438 , 423 cal BC (after S 760-683 k, 657-637, 592-585, 553Associations: lowermost context
Iron Age. However topsoil with possi Correlations: AG-85 (33), AMP-88 ( The series of calibrated radiocarbon followint periodisation : Ll Ca. 8005 BC: , or ca. 550-400 B
Iron Age. IV. Ca. 4 00-250 BC, lower early histo V. Ca. 250-0 BC, mid-early historic
Anuradhapura Mahapali Hall (AMP-88) i metres to the south of ADB. It was ex Raymond of the Ecole Francaise d'Extr Head Excavator of the Archaeological
Context 44, lab. no. Beta-35710.
2090 +/– 70 BP ca. 122 cal BC (ibid. ) 23 0-102, 196-30 * cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: rim type 8, buff W internal resin re Mid early historic context 49, lab. no. Beta - 35711.
2060 +/– 60 BP ca. 96 cal BC (ibid. ) 169-1 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: mid-early historic Context 54, lab. no. Beta-35712
2320 +/– 60 BP ca - 395 cal BC (ibid . ) 4 05-378 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: rim type 8. Lower Context 67 , lab ... rio . Beta - 3 5713 .
2660 +/– 100 BP ca. 818 cal BC (after Pearson an 9 10 -79 O cal BC (ibid . )

arly historic.
of RIW. Mid-early historic
early historic
Pearson and Stuiver 1986)
t contexts of the Age.
tuiver and Pearson 1986) 4 02 cal BC (ibid . ) of the protohistoric , the context represents a ploughed ble intrusions from upper horizons. 85) ASW-88 (97) dates for ABD-87/88 suggests the
C protohistoric
ric
s located a couple of hundred cavated under the supervision of C. eme Orient, Paris, and A. de Mel, Survey Department.
are heavy storage vessels with sidue (probably imported).
early historic
d Stuiver 1986)

Page 275
Z
Associations: contextually with
but the cultural protohistoric Irc inverted stratign outside the radic likely) Context 72 lab. no. Beta-35714.
2320 +/– 90 BP ca . 395 cal BC (after Stuiver a 447 - 4 04 * , 416-3 66 cal BC (ibid. Associations: medium-fine paste (n=?l). Lower ear Context 75, lab. no Beta-34392
2350 +/– 110 BP ca. 4 00 cal Bc (ibid. ) 757 - 693 , 538 -370* cal Bc (ibid. Associations: first appearance
inscribed with ar. otherwise assembl Noteworthy is the ware with low-lus horizon of lower Correlation: AG-85 (17) at 768-40 799 - 638 cal Bc , b appearance of rim Context 75 lab. no. Beta-35715.
2560 +/– 70 BP ca. 793 cal Bc (after Pearson an 807ー763, 679ー662, 627ー579* cal Associations : V . Beta-3 4392 abo Correlation : v. Beta — 34 392 abo Context 79, lab. no. Beta-35716.
2530 +/– 110 BP ca . 778 cal BP (ibid) . 813 - 473 cal BP (ibid) Associations: one of the lowerm Correlation: ASW. 88 (96) , ASM-89 Context 85 lab. no. Beta-35717
2690 +/– 90 BP ca . 832 cal BC (ibid) 932—843 , 920 — 802 * cal BC (ibid) Associations: top-soil incorpora of protohistor Correlation : AG-85 (33), ADH-88 (99),
The series of cal ibrated radiocarbon following periodisation :
II. Ca. 900 - less than 800 BC, prot III. Ca. 600 - 4 00 BC, lower early h IV. Ca. 20 0-0 BC, mid-early historic
Of the greatest significance for the is the discovery of writing in Brahm different pots) in context 75. (fig. 3 indicates unequivocally that it is t to the early historic period, and he historic. This implies that the cont antiquity of the radiocarbon dates f

in the lower early historic, contents appear to be of the n Age, suggesting a case of aphy or the actual age falling carbon age range (which is more
nd Pearson 1986)
light grey low-lustre ware ly historic.
) of rim type 8 at AMP (n=3); potsherds
early Brahmi script (n=8); age thoroughly protohistoric.
occurrence of a fine grey tre surface (n=1 ) . Lowermost early historic. 4 cal BC and ASW-88 (88) at oth of which witness the first
type 8 .
d Stuiver 1986) BC (ibid.)
Ve
Ve
ost protohistoric Iron Age horizons. (76)
ting basal horizon ic Iron Age. ASW-88 (97)
dates for AMP-88 suggests the
ohistoric Iron Age istoric
periodisation of the sub-continent, i script on 5 sherds (belonging to 5 ) The associated cultural assemblage transitional from the protohistoric hce assignable to the basal early ext is pre-Asokan and that the or AMP-88 (75) cannot be rejected

Page 276
272
simply because of the discovery of Bı opportune to evaluate the calibrated some detail, on a comparative basis.
AMP-88 (75) has two dates: Beta -34392 Beta-35715 at 807-763, 679-662 or 627with others associated with similar c AMP-88 (75) has, so far, yielded evide first criterion is the initial appear occurs in context 75, at AG-85 in 17 an age range of 768-404 BC, and ASW-8 criterion is that the final occurrenc characterises AMP-88 (75), has been is context 17. The third is the occurrer AMP-88 (75) and in ASW-88 (89), dated i 7 OO-540 BC. Hence there is general cc one hand and AG-85 (17), ASW-88 (88) ar correlations suggest that AMP-88 (75) 7th and 6th centuries BC, with a poss 807-763 and 679-662 BC being applicab Writer has postulated the existence C in India, as per the indirect evidenc such as the Painted Grey Ware levels pre-NBP Ones Ujjain and other sites ( feasible that the earlier time range indeed aplicably to AMP-88 (75) . Howev to favour the more recent range, pend data pertaining to this subject.
It could, of course, be objected inscribed sherds being intrusive intc pitting. While a few pits do indeed c were carefully dealt with by the exca as to avoid contamination. An examina artefacts from 75 has not yielded any admixture, there being not a vestige such as roof-tile type 35a or RIW. Wh statistical probability of finding 5 Brahmi in a single meso-stratigraphic is exceedingly small: based on the to specimens secured from all of the mid in the citadel so far, this probabili l per cent. It is highly unlikely t from five different vessels be found there was a functional relationship b matrix; and the latter appeared homog the possibility of the sherds intrudi Context.
Anuradhapura Salgaha Watte (ASWof AMP-88 at what appears to be the c main east-west axis. The radiocarbon identified by A. Siriwardhana of the
Context 49, lab. no. Beta-36621.
1850 +/– 60 BP ca . 135 cal AD (after Stuiver an 82 - 234 cal AD (ibid. ) Associations: a pale blue-green
of West Asian orig Ware has been foun

rahmi within it. Hence, it is
radiocarbon dating of context 75 in
at 757-693 or 538-370 BC; and 579 BC. How do these dates compare :ultural assemblages, although only 2nce of Brahmi in association? The rance of rim type 8, which at AMP-88 and at ASW-88 in 88. AG-85 (17) has 8 (88) of 799-638 BC. The second :e of roof-tile type 35b, which solated in AG-85 and assigned to ce of a rare fine grey ware in in the latter instance to 818-754 or irrelation between AMP-88 (75) on the hd ASW-88 (89) on the other. These has a valid age range within the siblility of the earlier ranges of le. Considering that the present of writing as early as 1000-600 BC :e from bone styli" fro contexts
at Hastinapura and at the Deraniyagala 1972), it is entirely of around the 8th century BC is rer, I have deemed it appropriate ling the accumulation of further
that there is a likelihood of the context 75, through for instance ut through 75 , (fig. 1) these |vators Raymond and de Mel so tion of the total assemblage of
indication of stratigraphic of mid-early historic artefacts at is most telling is that the sherds inscribed with early : unit the size of context 75 ital sample of less than a dozen |-early historic contexts excavated ty has been estimated at less than hat five such specimens derived in such close association unless etween these artefacts and their eneous enough so as to preclude ng en bloc from an overlying
87/88) is located ca. 3 0 Om to the we entre of the citadel mound on he dates are as follow (coins Archaeological Survey Department).
d Pearson 1986)
Sassanian' glazed ware in. It is noteworthy that this d at another as yet s" -

Page 277
undated sondage roof-tile type 3 century AD may b context. The occ at the Jetavanar dated by a Romar AD (Ratnayake 19 status of Sassa is some suggesti two categories c Lakshmi plaques
were also found
coins in 40 (ove and swastika ' cc underlying 49. N a few sherds of
century Ad conte be possible to b not derived from the upper age bo century AD. Uppe
Context 58, lab. no. Beta-33275.
2080 +/– 70 BP
ca. 105 cal BC (after Stuiver 192-18 cal BC (ibid)
Associations:
Context 62,
lab.
l49,
A late occurrenc this need not be terminal age of
Lakshmi plaque a found in 58, as
with a walking b the reverse. A s Pandyan' coin o 58 and antedatin
no. Beta-3 6622. 2100 +/– 70 BP са . 1518 ,
117 cal BC (ibi
200 - 42 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: a Lakshmi plaque
Context 64,
lab.
59 which overli attributed to c which succeed 6 and swastika " C corroborating C that these coin the proposed ag 15 O-1 OO BC. It
the tree and S elephant and s Mid-early histo
no. Beta-3 6623.
2210 +/– 70 BP
са . З58 ,
294,
247* cal BC (aft
387—184 cal BC (ibid. ) Associatins: RIW; noteworthy la
Context 78,
lab.
no. Beta-3 6624.
2250 +/– 60 BP ca. 375 ca; BC (ibid.)
394ー346★ 。
3.16-219 ca; BC (ibid

273
in association with glazed 5a (i) and the present date of the 2nd e assigned to the latter in this urrence of such glazed roof-tilies amaya monastic site in a horizon
coin to the mid 4th century 84) confirms the upper early historic niano war and glazed tiles, and there on of a genetic link between these f glazed artefacts. Two a M tree and swastika coin and BRW in context 49 , as were two Roman rlying 49). A Lakshmi plaque and tree in were found in 53, directly ote also that a Lakshmi plaque and BRW were also found in the mid-4th xt at Jetavanaramaya and , should it e certain that these are e airlier strata, it would establish undaries of both of them at the 4th r early historic.
and Pearson 1986).
e of RLW in this sequence, although
considered to represent the this ceramic in the citadel. A nd tree and swastika' coin were was a unique circular copper coin ull on the obverse and two fish on quare o elephant and fish '' ccurred in context 56 overlying g 53. Mid-early historic.
d. )
was found in this context and in es it. Four Roman CO ins are ontexts 60, 52 and 59 2 and precede 58. Two large elephant oins were found in 52 and 59, thus odrington's 1924 hypothesis s are datable to the 2nd century BC, e range in contexts 52 and 59 being is also noteworthy that stratigraphica wastika types succeed the wastika' , as proposed by Codrington (i
lC.
ær Stuiver and Pearson 1986)
ck of Roman coins. Mid early historic.

Page 278
2.
Associations: Two sherds of RlW,
if the earlier age On the other hand t BIW fabric (ie, wit rouletting) is earl estimated ca. 250 E so far. There is a being Contemporanec age ranges of NBP at Sisulpa lgah in Ir RIW does indeed ext centuries BC, evolv wear found in AMP-8 it would become nec the subject of cont early historic peri turn tie in with th Brahmi in pre-Asoka early historic mid Correlations: AG-85 context 15 (A
O One sherd of RIW and of Helleristi C overlies (5). The AG-85 (15) are in C Context 79 lab. no. Beta-332 76.
2430 +/– 70 BP ca . 5 0 4 cal BC (ibid . ) 765 - 472 cal BC (ibid . ) Associations: one sherd of RIW,
be worth bearing ir tO the OCCurrenCe C of a proto RIW ir Lower early histori Context 88, lab. no. Beta-33277.
252O +/– 70 BP Ca . 77 O cal BC (after Pearson ar 799-637 ca; Bc (ibid.) Associations: the first appearanc Basal lower early h Correlation : AG-85 (l7), AMP-88
Context 89, lab. no . Beta-33278
2) 60 +/– 100 BP ca . 793 cal BC ( ibi d . ) 818 — 754 . 700 - 54 0 * cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: a medium-fine grey Final protohistoric
Context 96, lab. no. Beta-33279.
2690 +/– 60 BP ca - 833 cal BC ( i b i d . ) 906 — 807 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: lowermost protohis
Context in ASW-88
Correlation: ASM-89 (76) AMP-88
ConteXt 97 lab. no . Beta-3 3280
264O +/– 60 BP ca - 8 O 9 cal BC (ibid . ) 839 — 797 cal BC (ibid. )

which may be considered intrusive
range of 394-316 is favoured. here is some suspicion that the hout the concomitant of lier in its inception than the 3C postulated by the present writer
possibility of its ous with both the middle and copper (the latter having been established hdia). Should it be confirmed that tend back into the fourth and fifth fing perhaps out of the fire grey 38 (75) and ASW-88 (89) cessary to consider tacts with West Asia during the lower iod in a new light - which could in he appearance of writing in an times (v. AMP-88 above) . Lower
early historic iti on . AG- 69 stratum 3bo) .. Note the occurrence
in association with NBP at AG-85 (15)
pottery in Ag-85 (14) which directly radiocarbon ages of ASW-88 (78) and close agreement.
bossibly intrusive but it would h mind the discussion with regard of this ceramic in ASW-88 (78) and h AMP-88 (75) and ASW-88 (89).
LC -
hd Stuiver 1986)
ce of rim type 8 in the ASW-88 sequen historic. (75)
ware with low lustre (n=1)
Iron Age.
storic Iron Age habitation
sequence. (79)

Page 279
275
Associations: top-soil with prot artefact assemblag Correlation : AG-85 (33), ADB-88 (
The series of calibrated radicar follwing periodisation :
II. Ca. 900-750 BC, protohistoric Irc III. Ca. 750-500 BC, protohistoric low IV. Ca. 500-250 BC, lower early histo V. Ca. 250-0 BC, mid-early historic
VI. Ca. 100-250 AD, upper early histo
ASW-87/88 was selected for excav located at the centre of the citadel deposits are likely to be the thickes complete sequence than on the periphe It appears as if this surmise was
correct: it has yielded dates from un time span than at the other sites. Be rich in coins and has provided hints lower and middle phases of the early a couple of centuries earlier than hi corroborated the evidence from AMP-88 proto-and lower early historic pahses been taken for granted up to now. We ware coming in around the 7th century probably evolves into RIW in the 5-4t cannot gainsay, is slender, but it do
... deserve to be followed up-to a ... - usion. The British sub-project i e sponsorship of the British Academ 3 r ) ing ; ust that. R. Coningham of C abora i on with the Archaeological hen of Archaeology, University a t.inq an area of 100m2 about ASW puss a to complete the testing of t
A. a dhapur u Sanghamitta Mawatha 300 m: . : cline south of ASW-88 on citade
Con lex 6 , lab. no. Beeta-36620.
2610 +/– 80 BP ca. 803 cul BC (ibid.) 834-778 cal BC (ibid. ) Association : one of the basal hal
protohistoric Iron Correlation: AMP-88 (79), ASW-88 (
The above calibrated radiocarbon date following period. II. Ca. 850-800 BC. protohistoric Iro
The number of radiocarbon dates secur area: 19 for AG-85; 1 for AGP-87; 5 f ASW-88 ; and 1 for ASM-89 . Thus, a tot sealed habitation contexts. Most of t Reta Analytic, a commercial laborator

ohistoric Iron Age e. 99), AMP-88 (85)
bon dates for ASW-88 suggests the
n Age er early historic transition ric
ric
ation on account of its being mound where the archaeological t, thus representing a more ry of the site.
disturbed contexts spanning a wider sides, it has been particularly that the transition between the historic period might have occurred therto estimated. Similarly, it has
that the transition between the was also much earlier than has now have evidence of a fine grey
BC (corroborated by AMP-88), which h centuries BC. This evidence, one es open up intrigu ing possibilities disappointing or thrilling n the Citadel of Anuradhapura, under y (Society for South Asian Studies) ambridge University (in
Surevey Department and the of Peradeniya) currently -88 and within an year it should be nese initial hypotheses.
(ASM-89) is located about the man north-south spine of the
pitations deposits of the Age. Slag from metal-working . 36)
may be considered to represent the
1 Age.
ed for the cita del of Anuradhapura »r ADB 87/88; 9 for AMP-88; 10 for of 45 dates on char Coal from e assas ha Ve been Conducted at
of considerable repute

Page 280
276
internatinally. These when compare radiocarbon laboratory at the Briti: reliable, there being excellent agr calibrated, using the tables publis) the following periodisation crystal Mesolithic, protohistoric and early l Anura dhapura :
1. Mesolithic (2 radiocarbon dates) : representing a pluvial correlating altithermal on a global scale. (AG-8
II. Protohistoric Iron Аge (17 radi« (ASW-88, AMP-88, ASM-89).
III. Transition from protohistoric ! referred to as the basal early hist( ca. 600-500 BC, possibly with an ea)
(AG-85, AMP-88, ASW-88).
IV. Lower early historic (8 radioca ADB-87/88, AMP-88, ASW-88)
V. Mid-early historic (16 radiocarbc ADB-87/88, AMP-88, AS-88).
VI. Upper early historic (radiocarbo
VII . Middle historic : ca. 4 00 AD (AC
The protohistoric isosochrons of the cita del seem to indicate tha encompassed by ASW-88, AMP-88 and As 900-800 BC. The sondage at AGW-87 ha BP, 799 cal BC, 824 -768 cal BC (Beta in the present listing since the col disturbance, but which suggest that extended towards the southern extre AMP-88 and ASM-89 are dothd OVer an Il 5 ha i f AGN — 87 is included . This de: component which might well have ext It was hypothesised that since the palace of Anuradhapura (ascribed to AD) occurs in this Sector, there wo el i te habitation in this area which settlement in the Citadel was locat two sondages AWP-86 and AMG-87 were excavated beside the pa telli ng ly negative : both loci were extended down to bed-rock and which habitation strata in the ca . 1 Om th. of cultural deposits that occur as robber- residue. There must habe bee dug those pits, possibly long stone excavations prior to their being li seems likely, the south-western sec architecture close to bed-rock duri] historic times, since such structur were non-existent in lower early hi:

il with the results from the sh Museum, may be pronounced eement between the two sets. When ned in Radiocarbon 28 (2B) of 1986, lizes for the historic episodes in the citadel of
ca. 3900 BC, in sediments with the peak of the Holecene
5) .
ocarbon dates) : ca. 900-600 BC
to lower early historic, which may be oric ( 4 radiocarbon dates) : rlier commencement.
arbon dates) : ca. 500-250 BC (AG-85,
on dates) : ca. 250 BC-100AD (AG-85,
on date ) ca. 100-250 AD (ASW-88)
SP-87)
t the area SM - 89 had basal Settlement at Ca . as a radiocarbon date of 2590 +/- 80 a-36618), which has not been included ntext (32) displayed signs of
the early protohistoric settlement mity of the citadel as well. ASW-88, area of ca. 10 hectares, and up to fines the mininum extent of the early 2nded into the south-western sector. structure identified as the last
Bijayabahu of the late 11th century uld have been a tradition of early
in turn could suggest that the first ed here Hence
lace. The resultant evidence was occupied by robber pits which
did not leave a trace of undisturbed ickness
in material of great value to whoever
pillars which required large fted. If the latter was the case, as tor would have had monumental ng - mid early historic or middle es (to the best of our knowledge) storic or protohistoric times. This

Page 281
would suggest that the earliest se south-western sector, On the other hundred metres from the Vijayabahu reasoning set down above is on the sector, the radiocarbon dates for . earliest components were established at ca. 750-600 BC the central sector by about a cent currently in the north-western (A1 secyors should add to the extant ku protohistoric settlement phases; bl support the hypothesis that by ca. occupied, which should qualify its postulated that growth in settleme rate and that it was punctuated by between (a) protohistoric and lowel mid-early historic; (c) mid-early a early historic and middle historic, and intensification of contact with possible as far afield as West Asia west Asia at (c) and further intens afield at (d). However, it is also no spectacular until perhaps the mi witnessed a great increase in trade with Sri Lanka as an entrepot. This in the island's archaeological reco prolifieration of sites in the Dry centuries AD. As for the citadel of Anuradhapura, significantly in size after point ( that a hiving-off process of establ increasing the size of existing set enhanced carrying capacity resultin accompanying the East-West trade.
Kandarodai (KTD70) is the site of Jaffna peninsula, about 3km to the investigated by P. E. Pieris (1922; Buddhist antiquities at this locati this site constitutes one of the foi settlements in Sri Lanka which prom University of Pennsylvania to send (25m2), B (4m2) and X (4m2) in 197 were excavated down to bed-rock whi. not be completed. A series of radio charcoal from the University of Pen) and these are set our below with a 1977: pers. Comm. , id in Deraiyagala
Context Trench A (Stratum IV, ), lab
2020 +/- 50 BP ca. 36 cal BC (after Stuiver al 101 cal BC - 22 cal AD (ibid. ) Associations : RIW, KTD-70 III, Correlation: AG-69 (4b).
Context A (IV/V transition), lab. n.
2290 +/ー50 BP

tlement did not extend into the hand, ASW-89 is within a couple of Palace and one Wonders whether the right track. As for the north-eastern DB-87/88 and AG-85 suggest that the
thus postdating ry. The sondages being excavated W-89, A2BW-89) and northern (ARW) owledge concerning the extents of the t there is sufficient evidence to 700 BC an area of over 50ha was being being designated a town. It is t size did not progress at an even acceleration at the interfaces
early historic; (b) lower early and nd upper early historic; (d) upper reflecting progressive expansion the Indian sub-continent at (a) , at (b) , intensified contact with ification with India and beyond postulated that these increments were d-middle historic phase which
contacts between West Asia and China latter event appears to be reflected rd in what shows up as a considerable Zone during the 7th to 9th
it does not seem as if it expanded d) ; rather it would appear likely ishing new settlements or of tlements was set in motion to fit an g from the in-flowing wealth
a large (?ca. 25ha) mound on the west of Chunakkam. It was first 1925; 1925a) who excavated several ɔn. Pieris " results indicated that ur most important early historic oted V. Begley and B. Bronson of the lown three sondages designated A ) (report pending). Of these Ba and X e A, due to its extensiveness could arbon dates have been secured on sylvania radiocarbon laboratory (P) entative periodisation (Bronson ip):
no P-2521.
d Pearson 1986)
mid-early historic.
P-258.

Page 282
278
ca. 390 cal BC (ibid. ) 399 -370 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: KTD-70 II/II tran mid-early histor. Correlation: AG-69 uppermost ( Context A (V), lab. no. P-2520.
2180 +/– 60 BP ca . , 339 , 323 , 203 cal BC (ibid. 371-167 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: KTD-70 upper II, Correlation : upper levels of AC Context B(V), lab. no. P-2514.
2250 +/– 60 BP ca. 375 cal BC (ibid. ) 392-351* , 3 06-232 cal BC (ibid, Associations : KTD-70 upper II, Correlation: upper levels of AC Context X (III) , lab. no. P-2529.
2350 +/ー 200 BP ca. 4 01 cal BC (ibid. ) 790-195 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations : KTD-70 (upper III Correlation: upper levels of AC Contest A (VI), lab. no. P-2524.
2340 +/– 50 BP ca. 399 cal BC (ibid . ) 407-390 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations : KTD-70 middle anc
historic. Correlation: middle levels of Context B (VI), lab. no. P-2515.
2990 +/– 60 BP ca. 1261 cal BC (after Pearson 1376-1345, 1318-1133 cal BC (i) Assocations: KTD-70 (middle an
historic. Correlation: middle levels of
The age is far too early with regar refers to a hitherto unidentified p) more likely, that it reflects sampl.
Context B(VI), lab. no. P-2516.
2070 +/– 60 BP ca. 101 cal BC (after Stuiver i 178-18 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: KTD-70 middle and
historic. Correlations : middle levels of
reported; but not Context B (VII), lab. no. P-2522.
2110 +/– 60 BP ca. 160 cal BC (ibid . ) 200-73 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations : KTD-70 middle anc historic. Correlat As with P-2516, the age is too Context B (VIII) , lab. no. P-2523.
2060 +/- 50 BP

nsition, lower early historic/ icc transition. 3b), AG-85 (15)
..)
lower early historic G-69 (3b)
..)
lower early historica G-69 (3b)
), lower early historic G-69 (3b)
i lower levels of II, Lower early
AG-69 (3b)
and Stuiver 1986) oid. ) i lower levels of II), lower early
AG-69 (3b)
i to context and one suspects that it
roto-historic component at KTD-70 or, ing or dating error.
and Pearson 1986)
lower levels of II, lower early
AG-69 (3b), in terms of stratigraphy as e that date is too recent.
id lower levels of II, lower early tions: middle levels of AG-69 (3b).
recent.

Page 283
ca. 96 cal BC (ibid. ) 161-75 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: KTD-70 middle a
historic. Correlation: middle levels of As with P-2516, -2522 , the ag Context B (VIII) , lab. no. p-2 525.
2730 +/– 220 BP ca. 897 cal BC (after Pearson oVer 114 O - le SS than 780 Cal Associations: KTD-70 middle a
historic. Correlation : middle levels o The age is somewhat too early with reservations. Context B (IX) lab. no. P-2519
2290 +/– 60 BP ca. 390 cal BC (after Stuiver 4 01-366 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations: KTD-70 III, lower Correlation: lower levels of Context B (X) , lab. no. P-2526.
2090 +/– 50 BP ca. 111 cal BC (ibid) 185-57 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations : ITD -7C I, lowe Correlation: lower levels of A The date is too recent for KTI Context X (IV/V), lab. no. P-2517
2250 +/– 50 BP ca. 375 cal BC (ibid. ) 392-351* , 3 06-232 cal BC (ibic Associations: KTD -70 I, lower Correlation: lower levels of A Context B (XI), lab. no. P-2528
2370 +/– 60 BP ca. 4 0 4 cal BC (ibid. ) 475 - 394 cal BC (ibid. ) Associations : KTD -70 I, lower Correlation: lower levels of A The series of calibrated radic following periodi sation:
II . Ca . 5 0 0 - 4 00 BC, lower levels of III. Ca. 4 00 BC. Only P-2524 appears being too early which, considering bed-rock upwards in B and X, almost laboratory error. On the other hanc constitute a consistent sub series historic context, thereby suggestir lower early historic. III. Ca. 4 0 0 - 250 BC, upper levels c Correlating with AG-85 (15) IV. Ca. 100-0 BC, mid-early histori Bronson affirms that this macro-cor with middle historic cultural trait fragment of RIW with a Prakrit insc no. 271, Bronson in Deraniyagala ipb.

79
hd lowere levels of II, lower early
AG-69 (3b). 2 is too recent.
and Stuiver 1986) BC (ibid.) nd lower levels of II, lower early
AG-69 (3b) for this context and should be viewed
and Pearson 1986)
early historic AG - 69 (3b)
2r early historic AG-69 (3b) D I
. )
early historic G-69 (3b)
early historic G-69 (3b) carbon dates for KTD -70 suggests the
lower early historic at this site. to be reliable, P-2515 and -2525 the overall range of dates from certainly reflects samplling or , P-2516 - 2522 and - 2523 which seem to refer to a mid-early g sampling error. Middle levels of
f lower early historic,
c, correlating with Ag-69 (4a). text displayed signs of admixture s. Noteworthy is the discovery of a ription from this period (reg.
) .

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280
The above periodisation, based on Br appears to be scarcely tenable. In many inst fit the radiocarbon date series. Wha protohistoric Iron Age component is na omalously early dates can almost c sampling or laboratory error since t earliest cultural horizons, both in bed-rock, comprises lower early hist with AG-69 (3b) and Ag-85 period IV: sub-divided above into KTD-70 period apparently not isolated adduately, C course, it is possible that a protoh Kanderodai but this has yet to be lic
matota (Mantai: MA-84) , located some chronicled as Sri Lanka's main port
mid-early historic period. Excavatic of the Oriental Institute, Universit following radiocarbon dates on charc H (for related site data v. Carswell Both locations were not excavated do but excavations conducted in 1982 re mid-early historic contexts characte evidence of a protohistoric compone
Context G 150, lab. no BM - 2588
1690 +/– 50 BP ca. 362 cal AD (after Stuiver a 256-322 * , 323 - 410 cal Ad (ibid.
Context G 260 lab. no. BM-2587
1700 +/– 50 BP ca. 343 AD (ibid.) 252-355 cal AD (ibid. )
Context H 59 post 2, lab. no. BM-258
1810 +/- 50 BP ca. 221 cal AD (ibid. ) 128 -250 cal AD (ibid. )
The cultural associations of these t evaluated (Carswell and A. Graham un BM-2588 is from the middle levels of G, BM-2587 from the lower (M. E. Prickett 1989: pers. comm.) . I from upper early historic layers cha of at this site. It is significant t above with regard to settlement proc provides unequivocal evidence of the area during the middle historic peri large-scale East-West trade with Sri
Maduru-oya Reservoir dam revealed tW within it at the site of the ancient 3m below the surface has been assaye
Context, ca. 3m - gli lab. no. PRL -
1420 +/ー 140 BP

onson's communication (1977),
ances the context sequence does not t does emerge, however, is that a lacking in the sample. The ertainly be attributed to faulty hey are so very out of context. The B and X which were excavated down to oric traits and would thus correlate it is this period which is s I-III . KTD-7 C IV, although orrelates with AG — 85 period V. Of istoric Component does exist at. Cated .
6km southeast of Mannar, has been from at least as early as the ns conducted in 1984 by J. Carswell y of Chicago, have yielded the oal from two of the trenches, G and
and Prickett l984). wn to the basal cultural horizons: vealed sterile sands overlain by rised by RIW, there being no nt ..
nd Pearson 1986) )
hree contexts have yet to be der prep. ) .
leves and BM-2589 from lower H t is likely that the two latter are racterised by the final occurrence hat, as stated esses and Anuradhapura, Matota
massive expansion of settlement od, coevally with the rise of
Lanka as an entrepot.
O horizons of charcoal incorporated sluice. The lower of these at ca. d and the result is as follows:
828.

Page 285
28
ca . 637 cal AD (after Stuiver a 725 - 49 O cal Ad (ibid . ) Association: dam of reservoir,
reservoir on the 2 about to inundate uncharted territor G. Juleff of the II University, the co & Co., sponsored a with the Archaeolo results of this pr another paper in t briefly list the r of charcoal secure into he survey are SM 11-3-2 sample 1, lab. no. BE 1310 +/– 60 BP ca . 677 cal AD (ibid . ) 657-772 cal Ad (ibif . ) Associations metal working site
SM 11-3-2 sample 2 , lab . no. Be 1010 +/– 50 BP ca . 1015 cal AD (ibid. ) 985 - 1032 cal AD (ibid. ) Association matal working site,
SM-1l-3. -2 sample 3, lab. no. B 1150 +/– 50 BP ca. 889 cal Ad (ibid . ) 820 - 949 cal Ad (ibid) Associatins: metal working site
SM 11-2-2 sample 4 , lab. no. Bet 960 +/– 50 BP ca. 103 0 cal Ad (ibid. ) 1015-1104 cal Ad (ibid. ) Associations : metal - working
SM 11-14-5 sample 5 lab. no Be 1570 +/– 80 BP ca. 452 cal AD (ibid) 4 04 - 579 cal Ad (ibid) Associations : habitation site,
SM 11-3 0-1 sample 6 , lab. no. B 210 +/– 50 BP
ca . 1663 cal AD. possibly up to Associations : steel-making site
SM 11-12-2 sample 7, lab. no Be 1060 +/– 50 BP ca . 985 cal AD (ibid. ) 929 - 1 O16 call AD Associations: metal-working sit
The above dates indicate that settle middle historic times and that by th metallurgical activity was pronounce

nd Pearson 1986)
lower middle historic Samanala-Wewa nd peneplain beyond Belihul-oya is a large area of archaeological by y. Hence, at the suggestion of nstitute of Archaeology, London nstruction engineers, Balfour Beatty survey of the area in collaboration gical Department of Sri Lanka. The oject are set down by Juleff in he present valume and it suffices to adiocarbon dating results on samples d from several metal-working sites a じaー31775。
, mid-middle historic
じa ー 33289
upper middle historic
eta 31776。
, mid-middle historic
a 33288
site, upper middle historic
ta - 3 3 29 O
lower middle historic
eta - 3 1777
20th century (ibid. )
modern historic
a -31778
e upper middle historic
ents had been established in lower
mid-middle historic period in this area. It is as yet not

Page 286
possible to affirm whether there wa modern historic times.

is a continuum in metal-working up to

Page 287
283
References to Literature
Begley, V. J.R. Lukacs and K.A.R. Kennedy 1981 - Excavations of Iron Age burials at Pomparip
Bouzek, J. and S.U. Deraniyagala 1985-Tessons de vases Hellenistiquestrouvesen Sı
1.09:589-96.
Carswell, J. and M.E. Prickett
1984 - Mantai 1980: a preliminary investigation. Anc
Casal, J.-M. 1949 - Fouilles de Virampatnam-Arikamedu. Paris: C
Codrington, H.W.
1924 - Ceylon coins and currency. Colombo Museum
de Jong, A.F.M., B. Becker and W.G. Mook
1986 - High precision calibration of the radiocarbon
Deramiyagala, S.U. 1972 - The citadel of Anuradhapura in 1969: excavati 1980 - Prehistoric research in Sri Lanka, 1885-1980. Excavations in the citadelof Anuradhapura: Gediga1 ip - The prehistory of Sri Lanka: an ecological perspec ipa - The prehistoric chronology of Sri Lanka. Prese ipb - Administration report of the excavations bi Archaeological Commissioner 1981. ipc - Administration report of the excavations br Archaeological Commissioner for 1982.
Dipayamsa ca. 400 AD - English trans, H. Oldenburg (1897).
R.W.
1976 - Effects of Holocene climatic change on so
Research 6:529-56.
Gunawardana, TTP, P.L. Prematilleke and R. Silv
1980 - P.E.P. Deraniyagala commemoration volume.
Mahavamsa
ca. 500 AD - English trans., W. Geiger (1950). Sri L
Nicholas, C.W.
1959- Historical topography of ancient and medieva

pu Ancient Ceylon 4:51-132
i Lanka. Bulletin de Corresporidence Hellenique
ient Ceylon 5:3-80.
’ommission des Fouilles Archaeologiques.
time scale. Radiocarbon 28(2B):939-42.
ons in the Gedige area. Ancient Ceylon 2:48-169. In Gunawardana at al. ed. (1980:152-207) 1986 984, apreliminary report.Ancient Ceylon 6:39-48. tive. Sri Lanka: Archaeological Dept., memoir 8.
nt volume
anch for 1981. In administration report of the
anch for 1982. In adiministration report of the
Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate. Fairbridge,
me tropical geomorphic processes. Quaternary
a ed.
Colombo: Lake House Investments.
anka: Information Dept.
1 Ceylon. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Sri

Page 288
Lanka) ns. 6. 1959a - The geographical background of Ceylon hi Nicholoas, C.W. and S. Paranvitana 1961-A concise history of Ceylon. Ceylon Universit Paranavitana, S. ed. 1959 - The University of Ceylon history of Ceylon, 1. Pearson, G.W. and M. Stuiver 1986 - High precision calibration of the radiocarbo. Pieris, P.E. 1922 - Nagadipa and Buddhist remains in Jaffna, 1. 26(70), 1917. 1925 - Nagadipa and Buddhist remains in Jaffna, 2. 28(72), 1919. 1925a - The Kantarodai finds. Journal of the Royal A Ragupathy, P. 1990 - Ancient cultures knew no political boundarie Ratnayake, H.
1984 - Jetavanaramaya project, Anuradhapura: first Colombo: Central Cultural Fund.
Schoff, W.H. 1915 - The castern iron trade of the Roman empire. 224-39.
Sencviratne, S. 1984 - The archaeology of the Megalithic Black and 5:237-307.
Solheim, W.G. and S.U. Deraniyagala 1972 - Archacological survey of investigate Southea Ceylon occ. pap. 1.
Stuiver, M. and B. Becker 1986-Radiocarbon 28(2B) Stuiver, M. and G.W. Pearson 1986 - High precision calibration of the radiocarbi 28(2B): 805-38.
Wheeler, R.E.M.

ory. In Paranavitana ed. (1959:8-19).
i Press.
colombo: Ceylon University Press.
time scale. Radiocarbon 28(2B): 839-62.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Sri Lanka)
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Sri Lanka)
tsiatic Society (Sri Lanka) 28974), 1921.
s. Sunday Times, 10th June 1990. Sri Lanka.
archaeological excavation and research project.
Journal of the American Oriental Society 35(3):
Red Ware complex in Sri Lanka. Ancient Ceylon
t Asian prehistoric presence in Ceylon. Ancient
n time scale, AD 1950 - 500 BC. Radiocarbon

Page 289
1948 - Brahmagiri and Chandravalli 1947: Megal Mysore State. Ancient India 4:180-310.

thic and other cultures in the Chitaldrug Dist

Page 290
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Page 291
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Page 292
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Page 293
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Page 294
Fig. 3 Early Brahmi inscription
 

S on pottery from AMP-88 (75)

Page 295
291
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Page 296
Fig.5 context Patri:
Fig. 4 contexts exc
 

2
As-88
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Page 297
2.
SOME CONCLUSIONS ON THI ASA RESULT OF EXCAVATIO
B
James
1.INTRODUCTION
The Šite of Sannathi is located on the eas due south of gulbarga. At this point the r. its southerly course to flow northwar Uttarvahini marked by the location ( Chandralamba. Although the present ter door-jambs, and the mitilated life-size probably during the Cahlukian or Rastral
Within the loop created by the river city. Today there are clearly visible on the: and of a raised inner citadel, on the point ( site there are also a number of additiona surface finds from which suggest that they sites had previously been identified as stu
Previous work at the site including a of Archaeology and Museums in Karn discovered. This included the gathering O the site, most of which are now in the Stat a collection of Surface finds from the habi same department carried out excavations and a brief report appeared in Puratatva,
EXPLORATION
Fortification known locally as S enclosesan area of60 hectares, atteh poin survives today to a height of 4 m, and has

SIGNIFICANCE OF SANNATHI, NS AT THE SECOND STUPA
у Howell
ern bank of the river Bhima about 60 km lver makes an almost complete turn from ds, an auspicious situation known as f a temple dedicated to the goddess nple is of late medieval style, the plinths, d Durga image, Suggest an early date, kuta period.
lie the remains of an early historic period surface the remains of a brickfortification Df the bend. In addition to this habitation l sites, located outside the city walls, the are of Buddhist affiliation. Two of these
paS.
survey of the remains by the Directorate ataka, at the time when Sannathi was f more than one hundred sculptues from e Government Museum in gulbarga, and ation site now in Mysore. In 1986/87 the
in the inner citadel area, Ranamandala Volume 17.
eturajanakatte, the outer fortification of the bend in the river. The fortification several breeches along its length, wheih

Page 298
may corespond to the ancient gateways. I be seen to be constructed of large bricks
The outer city - No structures can be n though there is clear evidence of habi material spread right across the area.
The inner Citadel (Ranamandala) - Th covering 25 hectares the inner citadel of surface finds including lead die struck coir Ramno Siri Satakanisa, Rano Siri Sat Terracotta figurines, beads, bangle fragm found.
Stupa No. 1 and associated monastic c were Hindus, they were tolerant of Buddh an inscription on the Southern Gateway of the artisans who carried out the work.
The remains of the first stupa identi approximately 1.5 km downstream from tl stupa, which is all that Survives today, ind faced in ashlar blocks, and an overall ( surrounded by an elevated pradaskins pa places. Several undecorated pillars are st stupa. Though many of the pillars have g of four pillars, probably representing the part of a monastic establishment associate located beside the remains of the stupa, i most common at Sannathi.
Many of the sculpted relief panels, which a in Gulbarga, were recovered from this sit
Stupa No. 2 Excavation site. this mound

n places where it has been cut into, it can usually associated with the Satavahanas.
hade out on the surface of the outer city tation from the amounts of artefactual
e elevated area known as Ranamandala, the city, and shows the highest density of ls of Satavahanakings bearing the legends avahana and Mahara Siri Satavahana. ents and a vast array of pottery have been
omplex - Although the Satavahana kings lists. The King Satakarni is mentioned on of the Great Stupa at Sanchi, as a patron
fied at Sannathi lie close to the river bank ne city site. The circular foundation of the icates that the structure had a solid dome liameter of approximately 25 m. It was tha, the paving of which still survives in inding in the field, just to the south of the one they appear to be in four lines, each remains of a sixteen pillared mandapa, a d with the stupa. In a small Durga shrine, is a sculpted panel very typical of the type
renow in the State Government Museum
6c.
hought to be a second stupa, is where the

Page 299
2g
Society, in association with the Archaeolo three seasons of excavation, between 198
Stupa No. 3.- This mound, not quite as la of the city. The are no sculptures, or c similarity to stupa No.2 Suggests that thsi
Tile manufacture site - Located right o
site which may represent atile productio upon whichthere is evidence ofneatly arra in the excavation. In mahy cases these til often heavily oxidised. They might therefo of a kiln and therefore have been discarde the remains of a tile kiln it would render va and development of this industry.
Bathing ghat - On the other side od Ranamandala is a bathing ghat, which do but also has no dateable features.
Monastic complex (Benagutti) - On tl another group of buildings on a low mounc "mound of stones", though it seems m( Benakappagutti, relating to the Chalukya granite located in the field close by. Th recently been exposed by local people it material. To date most of the damage h; around and within the structures rather th be seen standing to a height of 0.8 m in p rooms, often with interconnecting doorwa
Area around the Chandralamba Ter found during the explorations came from t In most cases it is clear that they were no from the locality in form to build terrace v

gical Survey of Inaia, has been carried out 5 and 1989.
rge as stupa No. 2, lies 3.5 km north east ther indications, on the Surface but its must also be a stupa mound.
n the river bank close to stupa No.1, is a in area. there is a large built-up platform nged stacks of tiles, similar to those found es have become fused together, and are rebe the tiles that were fired at the edges d. If the excavation of this site produced luable information about the technology
the river, opposite the bottom end of es not relate to any modern settlement,
he river bank upstream from the city is i known as Benagutti, this literally means ore likely that the name derives from period figure of Lord Ganesha in black e brick structures of this cimplex have n order to dismantle them for building as been the removal of the fallen bricks lan the walls themselves, which can now laces. The structures are small cell like
yS.
nple - Most of the fragment of sculpture he area immediatelty around the temple, t found in situ, but have been gathered alls to stabilise the platform upon which

Page 300
the temple sites. However there is evid far side of the rain gully between the te Exposed on the surface is the top Ol SatavahanabrickS.
In the course of the 1988/89
rennovations were being made to the C the dismantling ofan old Devishrine, ac to replace the old broken image of Cha Archaeological Survey's team at Sanna image was fitted, was inscribed. The insc The Edicts on the slab were not comple 14th edicts of Asoka. On removing the on its reverse. Once again they had b transplantation, but were identified a Kalinga Edict. These discoveries Sugge on both sides, and as Such it is unique fin in greater detail elsewhere in this repC While the material from the excavation dating, the presence of the edict confir Mauryan times. One silver punch mar view.
Occupied mound south of Chand
Chandralamba Temple and the fortifi
surface finds, especially pottery. This m the city wall.
EXCAVATION
The excavations have concentrated On -Central Sectional cutting -Deep transectional cutting -Peripheral excavations

296
lence of ancient structures at the site on the ample and the PWD inspection bumgalow. f a brick wall, once again constructed of
excavation season extensive repairs and handralamba temple. Amongst these was ljacent to the main temple building, in order munda. During this work, members of the thi noticed that the slab, into which the Old cription proved to be an Asokan Rock Edict. te, but clearly formed parts of the 12th and slab it was found tohave further inscriptions een damaged, presumabluy at the time of s the special Rock Edict 1, known as the est that it was a free standing slab, inscribed d. The details of the discovery are discussed rt, but its implications can not be ignored. of the Second Stupa Suggests a Satavahana ms that the city must have had its origins in ked coin from Ranamandala supports this
ralamba Temple - In the fields between the cation there is a raised area, very rich in ay be a habitation or occupation site outside
three major area:

Page 301
پي
1. Central sectional cutting - Aroundt area measuring six metres Square was tal taking it right down to bedrock, and of ri occurred in this vacinity. The cutting all the make-up of the mound and an a artifactual material from successive dep
The sectional cutting revealed a depos centre of the mound at a depth of 2.40m spread with no structural associations. Its (yet to be identified) and a small quantit
The rest of the deep trench produced littl of pottery or brick, Supporting the the( man-made. It also showed the sequenc height of 9.50m above the natural bedro and shale and mixed deposits of the tw. primarily of soil, whilst the later materia of the trench and cutting into the natura a posthole, but there was nothing else wi
2. Deep transectional cutting - A trans of the mound to the northern cardinal po of the apparently undisturbed black cott was built up in a series of dumps, from a a large circular foundation trench presur
3. Peripheral excavations - All of the st with the mound was located around its divided into several distinct phases.
First construction in stone mason phase of construction is a stone revetme point, where it is sealed by the later bric stupa. Around its length it can be seen i

he projected centrepoint of the mound an cen up for excavation, with the intention of 2cording in plan any structural activity that so provided a deep Section through all of rea Sufficiently large enough to sample Osits.
it of lime or mortary material in the very l. This material appeared to be a random excavation yielded Some carbonised seeds y of charcoal.
e, other than the occasional small fragment ry that the mound is indeed completely e of the build up of the mound to a total ck, in a series of Successive dumps of mud O. The core of the mound appears to be lis almost pure shale. At the very bottom 1 bedrock was a small cut feature, possibly thin the area of the trench to it.
ectional cutting was made from the centre pint. The trench was cut down to the level on soil. It showed clearly that the mound mud core redeposited from the cutting of nably to level the ground for construction.
ructural activity that was found associated prophery. The excavated material can be
ry of the revetment wall - The earliest nt wall extending from the north cardinal kwork to the eastern cardinal point of the in various stages of disintegration. At the

Page 302
29
point wherer it is best preserved, twenty ( of 1.60 m. The stone blocks from which it i and hence there is no regular coursing, asic at the bottom of the wall. Although cert there were cimparatively few fallen stone there had been considerable robbing acti much greater height than was found.
In the extreme west of the site evide was found. This is cut directly into the nat hypothesis that this wall represents t construction.
The natural soil, known locally as b situ, but has been transporte by fluvial a enormous capacity to expand when wet, movements may have been a contributory
Before the insertion of the wall into into the construction cut. this consisted of may have been an attempt to consolid associated with the plasticity of the black) transect cut into the core of the moun foundation cut was mixed with the limestc
Structure.
Construction of periferal structures ol brickstructures were identified, running c( These are a series of fragmentary walls. revetment wall, each having a slight circumference. They are also not equid forward and back fgromit. Other wall fri together.

ourses of stone work survive to a height s constructed vary in size and proportion, le from the concentration of largerstones ain areas of collapse could be identified s around the wall, suggesting that unless vity on the site, the wall never stood to a
ence of the foundation trench of this wall ural black Soil of the area, supporting the he earliest phase of the monuments
black cotton soil, has not been formed in ction to the lower lying areas, It has an and similarly to contract when dry. Such cause of the disintegration of the wall.
the foundation a hardcore fill was placed densely packed limestone fragments, and ate the ground to avoid the problems natural deposit. Evidence from the deep d suggests that the material from this one chippings to form the mid core of the
n the north west of the stupa - Several oncentrically around the stone revetment. Some run approximately parellel to the tly different allingnment around the istant from the wall, but alternately set agments form returns linking these walls

Page 303
Although the survival of these wal and hence subject to plough damage, exteriors, whilst the interior sides are ul series of projecting platforms around the their settings was found, but it seems like or dedicatory platforms of some kind.
Rebuild in brick of the revetment wa encased in a brick revetment, coming to a the stone wall emerges from beneath it. earlier of the two structures. One possib the brick represents a facing for the more this is the case the absence of the brick f must be explained. It is possible that it rel An alternative explanation is that it repr some reason limited to the north eastern
At the point where the stone revetm it has been substantially disturbed in a diffe can be seen further to the wast. The dist entire courses of the wall, rather it has be the lower courses being forced outwards behind them. This seems to suggest that unsatisfactory, and therefore in the are occurred the wall had been rebuilt in bric
Associated with this brick rebuild, i the wall. It can be assumed to relate to t the later structures, because the brick dru this area to accomodate the structure in platform was there at the time of construc
The platform is reached by three ste there is a small undecorated pillar whic balustrade, or a guard Stone.

s is very poor, being close to the surface is apparent that they have well faced faced. This suggests that they formed a berifery. No evidence of Ayaka pillars, or ly that these would represent devotional
ll - The north eastern side of the drym is end at the northern cardinal point where The stone wall can clearly be seen as the e explanation for this phenomena is that roughly finished stone revetment wall. If acing around the western side of the site oresents and unfinished facing operation. esents a later phase of construction, for side.
lent wall is sealed by the later brickwork, rent way to the later disintegration which urbance has occurred without the loss of en subjected to Subsidence as a result of by the pressure of the unstable material , the entire method of construction was a where the greatest disturbance had Kwork.
a small platform applied to the front of his phase of construction, rather than to m wall has been constructed straight in nplying that the intention to build the
Ol.
ps, from the north. At the base of which may represent a fragment of a stone

Page 304
The function of this platform is unclear, it applied to the front of the stupa, and no e have been an access to.
Construction of a pillared structure - the series ofpostholes, is alsolater than t formalisation of a "pradakshinapatha" or c this phase of the stupa, but one might expe line of the drym wall. In total ten posthc formed the northern and eastern edges O tille were found. The postholes can be divi are all cut into the South side of the stra approximately the same dimensions c. 0. pentagonal stylobate block in its bottom w that were sited in these fouyndations ma considerable load. this can be suggest subsidence in the wall, at the points where
The second group of postholes are very much smaller, c. 0.2 m in diameter, a clearly do not have the loadbearing capac to the same alignment and there compal they must related, possibly in a less functi
The final group form a different represent the return of the edge of the sti
The distribution of the postholes, debris horizon suggests that the function The absence of any siumil;ar evidence o imply that the strucrture was a lean-to covered the lower portion of the drum, drum itself and the evidence for them
process.

narrow width suggests it was not a shrine vidence remains of anything that it could
The wall which has been cut through by he brick drum wall. It may represent the ircumambulatory passage associated with ct it to follow more precisely the curving les were found in two alignments which fan area from which large quantities of ded into several types. The largest group, aight wall. these four postholes all have 75 m in diameter, and one of them had a ith brickpacking around it. The columns y have been very large, and supported a ed because there has been significant it has been cut through by the postholes.
also cut through the same wall. these are nd do not cut right through the wall. they ity of the first group, but there adherence able stratigraphic position suggests that onal manner to the larger group.
alignment running north South and may ucture to the South.
and its spatial coincidence with the tile of these postholes was to support a roof. n the inside of the area in question may gainst the drum of the stupa, or that it and that the postholes were cut into the has vanished in the natural weathering

Page 305
The area covered by this structure namely the addition of apartition wall run to the northern wall of the structure. Thi structure, Sub-dividing it into two sectic partition wall which would have allowed a the partition wall is a drain, set at an angl to west. the drain has been constructed O. been built. The drain runs into pit againstt as a Soak away.
The platform at the south cardinal
The first evidence of a platform at the
constructed over the core of the stupa sep body of the mound, which is only facedoni from each end of this wall are two further these two cases the walls are only faced C walls to a make-up dump of shale fragme the platform. Unlike the core of the mol horizontally laid. The outer faces of the series of offset, and quarter round moul disintegrated to2wards athe south, and t partially robbed away at a later date.
The southerm wall of the platform single course of brickwork, extending fo However the extent of the platform was dump that filled it. Unlike the core of the make-up of the platform is very regular i was therefore possible to remove all of th slopem or been disturbed dyrinbgrobbing. make-up, corresponded closely with the From this it is clear that the platform is sq

was also subjectedf to a further change, hing north from the frum wall of the stupa addition may also relate to the posthole ins. There is an entrance through this :cess between the rooms. Running under e to facilitate the flow of water from east limestone slabs over which the wall has he drum wall, which may have functioned
point
south side of the mound was a low wall arating the back of the platform from the ts southern edge. Returning to the south, walls, again built up over the mound. In n their outer edges, and act as tetaining nts, which raise the level of the centre of und this material has been regularly and east and west walls are decorated with a ded courses. Both of these walls have here is evidence that the east wall was
has almost completely disappeared. A r less than a metre is all that survives. traced through the survival of the shale stupa, which was irregularly dumped, the h both size of fragment and bedding. It le material that than slumped down the The alignementofthe endofthe regular
few surviving fragments of brickwork. U3lIC.

Page 306
The platform is reached from the the retaining wall, halfway along its lengt platform ascended from the north by a of these steps there is a moonstone and also evidence that this entrance was roof postholes cut into the west wall of the pl structure, and two larger ones cut into the deal of tile debris in the deposit that seal
Although teh surface of the platfo1 of cut features, which might give an indi the very centre of the platform was a g represent the robbuing out of the main fe two of these cuts revealed clear features slab might have been set in them. The dir similar to the dimensions of the memoria also imply that if such slabs were in place would have been below surface level. Af of the platform, and another complete sc Gulbarga, attest the fact that the sculptu over a metre at their bottoms.
Around these foundations Wre ar longditudinal cuts, with deeper circulars double postholes, for some form of cano
There is very little evidence to su represent some element of a vihara com a later embelishment to the stupa itself. the drum, which may represent extensive Surviving material with which the platfor
On the northern side of the stupa activity, but none that can be directly or st construction over th core of the mound, earliestphase, the stonewall running arou

O2
vest by an entrance, applied to the face of h. this entrance takes the form of a smaller light of two limestone steps. At the base at its western side a guardstone. There is 2d over. This is found in the form of three atform, three postholes to the west of the entrance platform. There was also a great ed the moonstone and lowermost step.
m was very disturbed, there were a series cation to the function of the platform. In roup of four large cuts. These probably :atrure of the platform. The excavation of in the bottom, which suggest that a large mensions of these foundation cuts are very lslabs, commonly found at Sannathi. they on the platform almost one metre of them agment of such a piece, found to the west ulpture in the Karnataka State Museum at res often had blank sections of upto and
other series of cut features. these were ections at each end. They may represent by over the assembly of memorial stones.
ggest a function for this platform. It may plex associated with the stupa or possibly The extent of the intrusive activity around robbing activity, means that there is little n can associate.
there were several phases of structural ratigraphically linked to this platform. Its indicates that it does not belong to the nd the north-west side of the mound. The

Page 307
3C
usage of similar building material may ho brick rebuild of the drum wall, or the later retaining walls of the platform have been cm., similar to those used in the drym wa seems to have been constructed of bricks may have been re-used from elsewhere.
smaller size in the walls associated with t entrance, though this may mean that entra of construction of the platform.
Cutting activity around the drum wall after the construction of the platform, an circymference of the mound. In different
the east and south-east sides of the site the around the South, and rynning up to the p a trench with an undylating bottom. The
at the east wall, but a similar cut is again fol these have intruded right into the shale c. between it and the surrounding material. though they presumably relate to the dest indicatortotheir function maybe theprese discovered in the south-west of the site.
These two fragments are the only during two seasons of excavation work. T one is clearly the bottom of a larger frag represented by the second. The first fragr except fot the very top which portraysa pa a series of undefinable lower limbs at the ri portraying two scenes set one above the d upper portion shows a seated couple iian the lower depiction, is of a horse. ... eing attendant carrying an umbrella. there are ty The first refers to the similarity betweenth from th4 sculptures from Sannathi, which bullock cart is commonly thought to reprei

ever link it with the later strucrures, the pillared structure to the north-east. The built with bricks measureing 50 X.25 X 7 l rebuild, whereas the pillared structure of less regular size, Suggesting that they However there are also some bricks of he moonstone entrance to the platform nce does not belong to the original phase
- During the later occupation of the site, umber of cuts were made following the places these cuts took various forms. At cuts are almost semi-circular in plan, but latform these have run together to form cuts are later than the platform, stoping und to the west of the platform. Inplaces ore and have removed allo relationship
The purpose of these cuts is not clear, ruction phase of the site. One possible nce ofa pair of large Sculpted fragments,
sculptures discovered at the stupa site ley may be part of the same piece, since ment, the remainder of which may be ment, is almost completely undecorated, ir of human legs at the extreme left and ght. The second panel is fully decorated, her and divided by an inscription. The ed on either side by female attendants. led by a groom and preceeded by an o possible interpretations for this scene. is depiction and another common scene portrays an unyoked bullock cart. This ent the end of a journey, in this case the

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journey thought life of the person or pers( whose names may be recorded in an in memorial stones, erected to people afte similar setting may be interpreted in the this may be a scene from the Buddhas re. and groom Chandaka. This panel is very wall of the small durga shrine close to St.
The presence of these two sculptur aniconic and that there mught have beel case it would be reasonable to expe circumsference of the stupa. A possible recorded around the base of the mound such pieves, and there removal from the not removed may mean that teh robbi material, but in order to reuse the mater.
FIINDS
A significant proportion of the anti exploration, can be classed as jewellery. classification namely bengles, rings, ear jewellers mould, made of stone was discov tablet has a series of carved lines running for making gold, silver or copper alloy wi the pouring in of the molten material, an the mould. Another indication that fine in was the discovery of two small copper recepticles are only 20mm in depth, ar quantities of the molten metal. A Sunda area in 1986-87 discovered a small hearth

ons depicted in the upper half of the panel, scription. these panels may therefore be r their deaths,. The unridden horse in a same way. The second possibility is that nunciation, depicting his horse Kanthaka, alike the sculpture incorporated into the upa No.1.
es suggests that the stupa is not completely n more sculpture at the site. If this is the vt to find such sculptures around the explanation for the series of cut features may therefore be a systematic robbing of site. The fact that a broken fragment was ng was not simply in search of building ial at another site.
quities discovered, both in excavation and there are four main types of find in this studs and beads. In addition to these a ered in the Ranamandala area. This stone along its length, and is therefore probably re. It also has a series of holes to facilitate d peg holes to attach it to the other half of metal working was taking place at Sannathi alloy crycibles. The two bucket shaped ld would therefore only hold very small yra in his excavations in the Ranamandala which he suggests is that of a coppersmith.

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1. Bangles The most common tupe of bangle foundi and glass were also found. The shell j Sannathi, with the entire site liberally str as well as partially worked shell cores. T or rectangular in section, with occasional The glass bangles are generally circular D-shaped, and are blie, green and yello surface but where it is broken it can be bangles were found in the Ranamandala the second is fluted.
2. Rings
In all twenty-two rings, or ring fragmen from the excavation. The rings are of ty probably finger rings, and open ended cc The finger rings are found in a variety of of which are plain. A fourth is decorated have raised faces and decorated bands. V ring, with high shoulders below the face wi lines.
The rest of the rings are made of c. copper and gold. Of these the finest exal edge of it is crenellated. The outside ofth lines running around the ring. Although one small rectangular fragment of rock ringstone or an intaglio.
3. Ear studs
There are three ear studs, made of ston these is fifteen millimetres is diameter. Tv as ear studs, having approzumately the sa considerably largerm with diameters of their large size should not necessarily dis

made of whsll, but examples interracotta 2wellery industry was well developed at ewn with shalle bangles, rings and beads, he shell bangles are all very plain, square ly rounding or chamferring of the edges. in section, with one exception which is w in colour. One fragment is red on the seen to be white inside. Two terracotta area, the first of these is spiralled, whilst
its were found, seventeen of which came wo main types, complete rings which are opper alloy rings, which may be toe rings. materials. There are sic shell rings, three I with inscribed lines. The remaining two very similar to these is a carved cornelian hich have been decorated with fine incised
opper alloy, five of them being an alloy of mple is a toe ring with open ends, and one e band is decorated with a series of incised none of the rings have settings for stones, crystal was found, which may represent a
, shell and a lead/tin alloy. The largest of vo more objedts might also be interpreted me spool shape. However these are both up to thirty-seven milimetres. However count them, since a study of the sculpture

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and the terracotta figurines shows that ve are however both made of lead, and it see required for them.
4. Beads
Beads are the most common type of and eighteen beads in eleven different m materials used are shell, agate or corneli jasper, lapiz lazuli, amethyst, rock cry examination there were found to be twen shapes of the beads are not always confine different materials. The disgram beloW sh of beads of each material found in each.
Copper Alloy Objects
The identifiable copper alloy objects shafts and bulbous ends, and a longpin (14 alloy artefacts from the excavation were within the same context, inditating that object. Each fragment is formed from th convex outer surface decorated with a s fragments display a slight curvature. Four perforated edges were also found adjace these artefacts revealed that they were al seem possible that the fragments were pa composite objeft having a wooden base.
There are also five cast copper cllo. hill symbolonthem. This symbolis commc it is quite clear that no attempt has been r any symbols onto the reverse. An alterna pendants, suggested by the clear lug at XI of others show that there are several of th and therefore that this is not a lug for sus the casting proceedure. It should be notic

ry large ear ornaments were worn. They ms likely that some other explaination is
artefact found at Sannathi. Two hundred laterials were found. The most frequent an, and glass, but there are also beads of stalm bone, clay and terracotta. On ty-five distinct types of bead shape. The d to a single material, but occur in several ows the variouys forms, and the numbers
include three kohl applicators, with long 7 mm.) with a square head. Four copper found in close proximity to each other, they are possibly fragments of a larger in copper alloy sheet, was bent to give a eries of fine horizontal lines. All the fragments of thin copper alloy sheet with ht to the curved segments. Cleaning of lan alloy of copper and gold. It would rt of a frame or an edging for a box or a
discs, with the crescented three arched )nly associated with coins, but in this case hade to cast, or subsequently to inscribe, tive interpretation is that they might be o'clock on one. However examination se around the circumference of the disc ending a pendant, but residual traces of ed that in one case these lugs have been

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removed, which might suggest that the ri heavier than the coins found at Sannathi, \ all seem to be the same size, 23 mm. in di
Terracotta Figurines
From the earliest exploration at the terracotta figurine industry. The Departr Government of Karnataka, hasan excelle including human and animal representa moulded variety which are common from especially in theraised inner citadel or R were discovered. Ten headsmall with ela body fragments were found.
Other objects were also made of wheels, presymably from childrens toys. T rows of indentations on each side. The pl may be a Scouring block.
Iron Objects
During the course of excavation thir The relatively small number found, con found, Suggests that iron nails were not u have been achieved using wooden pegs, \ the holes found in the tile fragments. Th bad so in certain deposits, where the pro high, such as those associated with the mound, one would have expected a far gr
Other iron objects include a longs mm in length, and an iron spear or arrow

st are unfinished. the discs are generally weighing between 4.98 and 8.75 grams and iameter.
site, it was known that there was a thriving ment of Archaeology and Museums of the nt collection of terracottas from Sannathi, tions. Most of these are of the double all Satavahana Sites. During explorations, anamandala area many more terracottas borate hairstyles, seven feet, and six other
terracotta. There are two fragments of here is also a tablet bearing seven parallel urpose of this tablet is not clear, though it
ty-one fragments of iron nails were found. npared to the number of tile fragments sed for afficing tiles to a roof. this might which would account for the large size of le state of preservation of the iron is not portion oftile fragments was particularly later Structures to the north-east of the eater number of nails to survive.
ewing needle with an eye, measuring 95 head, 78 mm in length.

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8. CONCLUSION
The discovery of an Asokan Edicta of Sannathi may go back into the Mau specific information gathered from the establish Sannathi as a fortified township lead and 11 copper alloy coins of the seco however been considerable controversy the controversy is based upon differing r which the Satavahanas could have reigne
The earliest view was that teh Satav of Asoka in 232 BC and ruled for 460 ye. view interprets the Puranas as saying th power after the Kanuvas, who ruled for Sungas, who ryled for 112 years and came Chandragupata Mayrya in 324 BC. That words 30 BC. Taking the shorter reading C this interpretation also has the Satavahan
Gautimaputra Satakarnican be inde with Nahapana, a Governor of the Kar Maharastra in 78 AD. Nahapana has sev the 46rh year of Kanishka. The inscriptio year of his reign he defeated Nahapan: Nahapanas rule it must have taken place therefore ruled from 110 - 130 AD. Va. reigned to 159 AD. There are two coir second stupa at Sannathi. However the inscribed Rano Siri Satakanisa. It seems u Satalarnis, as the inscriptions from Sa associated with the later sequence of Sata
There are three known royal inscri the first, recorded by Dr. M.S. Nagal Satakarni, who succeeded Vasishthiputra

)8
ld Occasional finds suggest that the origins ryan Period. Teh explorations, and the excavation at the second stupa, clearly of the Satavahana period. A total of 53 hd century A.D. attest this fact. There has Over the dating of the Satavahanas kings. eadings of the Puranic lists, according to d for either 260 years, or 460 years.
fahanas rose to fill the void left by the fall ars until c230 AD. An alternative to this at the Andhras, or Satavahanas came to 45 years. The Kanuvas succeeded the to power 137 years after the accession of means 294 years after 324 BC or in other )d the Satavahanakings from the puranas, a Rule ending around 230 AD.
pendantly dated through his syncronbism lishkas who came to pre-emminence in eral inscriptions, the latest of which is in nat Nasik records that, in the eighteenth ... If we assume that this defeat ended in 128 AD, and Gautamiputra Satakarni sishthiputra Pulumavi, who succeed him s ascribeable to tgis Pulumavi from the majority of the coins from the stupa are nlikely that these coins belong to the early lnathi seem to suggest that the site is Ivahana kings.
ptions of the Satavahanas from Sannathi. aja Rao belongs to Vasishthiputra Sri Pulumavi. A second inscription to the

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same king was recently discovered bur. Temple. To add to this a third inscriptio village. This inscription refers to Vasishth in line. It is therefore likely that the c Vasishthiputra Sri Satakarni, and that thi second century AD.
The period of rule of the Satavahan southern India, and at the same time the reaching beuond the limits of the Sub-c. winds, recorded by Hippalus in 44 AD b. traders from the Roman Empire. Ther appearing in Southern Indai. wheeler f Chandravelli and many more have be Waddamanapur and Kollapur where a st Inscriptions referring to Yawanas, or settlements where traders from outside t central gathering point for Such trade is C
Within this framework of expandi seen as extraordinary for the size of its fo corresponds with a time of considerable therefore be explained as necessary for position of local importance, possibly a considerable excavation within the city ca
The large number of sculptures no the development of Buddhism in the Kri more cudely executed, has similarities to schools and the Brahmi inscriptions on S centuries A.d., support this position chro
The second stupa is very differentf differs from the most common tupes o apparently having no continuous drum such as spokes and no formal Pradaksina

ed in a field behind the Chandralamba was foundm, reused in a wall in Sannathi giputra Siva Siri Pulumavi, who is the next oins from the excavated stupa belong to mound belongs to the second half of the
as saw the spread of urbanism throughout a build up of an extensive trade network, ontinent. The discovery of the Monsoon rought southern India within the range of e are many isntances of Roman coinage ound coins of Augustus and Tiberius at en found since at Dhawar, Bahgalore, atue, possibly of Neptune, was also found. foreigners suggest that there may be ne area congregated. Ter, thought to be a only about 250 KM north from Sannathi.
ng trade and urbanism, Sannathi must be rtification, which has survived so well. It 2 stability within the region, and cannot lefence. It may be that Sannathi holds a s a focal centre for this trade, but only in clarify this.
w recovered from Sannathi place it within shna valley. The sculptural style, though both the Amaravati and Nagajunakonda ome of the pieces, from the first to third nologically.
om the other stupas at Sannathi, andalso f Stupa found elsewhere in the region, vall, no integfral structrural foundations Patha. Its identification as a stupa could

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31
evenbe questioned in the light of these dif it is a man-made circular structure, which additiona and rebilds. It is located at as sculptural evidence that places it very muc stupatherefore raiseds interesting questic of stupa architecfture. It is considerably lar and also much more simple in its mud-cor excample in the early tradition of suimp. equally an experiment in construction to at the discovery and excavation of more e. previouysly accepted more uniform patt answered, Thge importance of the secon simplicity of its construction, rather than architectural appreciation.
A final note on Sannathi, is that un Government of India is an irregation p settlement. If the project is approved the of proven Buddhist affiliation in the State this Sannathi offers the archaeologist the ( the Satavahanas, with the possibility of tak and thus to study stratigraphically the crl occession to power.

ferences. However the fact remains that has been formalised by several phases of site of known Buddhist activity, and has h in this tradition. Its identification as a Ins about its position in the development ger than most of the stupas of the region, e construction. It may represent a crude licity of form in stupa architecture, opr tempt to achievegfreater size. Only with xamples, which do not conform to the erns of design, can these questions be d stupa at Sannathi therefore lies in the the more traditional values of artistic or
der consideration at the moment, by the roposal that will innundate the entire information available from the first site of Karnataka will be lost. In addition to opportunity to explore the chronology of king it right back to the Mauryan Period, ucial question of the dating of the their

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Desai, P.B. (1968), "A New Buddhist &&ŞişFY3Figy - F&F&Ci5/FCFF8FCF5; Wol || W
Kapatral Krishna Rao, (1970) "S Samskriti ya SamsOdhāng", disở5 SF5'i,
Nagaraja Rao, M.S. (1978), AFYA
f255- 9.3 pp. 29, 35-36, 1gsare.
Nagaraja Rao, M.S. (1985), 'Brahmi Great Stupa at San 3 ti', Ed. F.M. A pp.4-45, law Dalhi.
Sarma. K. Siva Sārma, R.V.ānij Var A Soka frari Sanneti, Chitapur Tõlluk,
همه سید صی
oyseș? 5, ei? /53”, pp ? - 15, fig'
Sarm3, 1.K., G.W.Srini yasa R30 ârid J. Edicts from Safināti (Karmat 3k 3)", D4
HSS qqSSSS SSAeS SSE EAeS S S SSeeeS AAALS S SSS0SSSeeSSS rS AAAAAAAAqAAAS SSAAS SAeSSAS AAAAS LLLL AAAS الله *M* K * . Mur AF Fși f'5'FFF; *&FÅÄFFFF FFY AF FYF-5F5
Sheshadri M. (1965), 'Buddhist Mont. Gf ở Foggyťởhic SFFFICșFigg, Wol. LV/1, pp35
Sheshadri M. (1972), 'Buddhist Wol...&&8 i W, No. 2/3, pp. 159 - 17 Q.
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way- مسج* .سی.س۔سی ہوٹہ ۔ w የሩ” . است gass of Joségiogy is 85,73tsa
nScriptions and Their Baaring on the sher and G.S. Gai, FFAFș&? AFFY SAFởy ,
aprasada Rao J. (1989), "Rock Edicts of Gulbārgā District (Karnātāka), Aiš: w Delhi,
yaraprasada Rao, (1989) "More Asokām
y endra Hirsha (ed), AF5FFFFEởŞFEỳF&F , pp. 403 - 417, New Dolhi.
ments at Sannathi'. S.5. 37.
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