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Journal
CEYLON
of it ROYAL ASAT
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The purpose of the Society is to inslf History, Religions, Languages, L. Social Conditions o the prese of the Island of Ceylor, G
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CONTENTS
Articles
I.
Prof. T. Nadaraja-The Administration of Justice in Ceylon under the Dutch Government I656-1796
Dr. C. E. Godakumbura-Kantarodai is
Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala-Some Aspects of the Tertiary Period in Ceylon do 事 恤
Dr. C. E. Godakumbura-Dedigama D. H. as e
ඒ. ඇස්. හෙට්ටිආරච්චි - මහනුවර රජ පරපු (Kandyan Dynasty) 8 s &
Book Review 8 w a o
Office-Bearers 1967/68 . . a
Annual Rep:rigiQr 1967 8 o . .
Honorary Treasurer's Reportior 1967 Balanc sheet and Statement of Accounts for I967 Abstracts of Proelectingsi a . . Publications Received (I-Id-66 to 3o-9-67) .. ..
Donations (I-Io-66 to 3o-9-67) · · ' ..
Purchases (I-IC-66 to 3o-9-67) a
Members admitted during the year 1968 and Change of Address-Life Menbers and Ordinary Members
Notice to Contributors a · · g
Page
67
86
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I23
I 30
I34
I35
I37
I44
I5I
I53
I53

1968
Journal of the
CEYLON BRANCH of the
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY
New Series, Volume XII
COLOMBO
PRINTED BY THE COLOMBO APOTHECARIES CO., LTD. FOR THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY (CEYLON BRANCI) THURSTAN ROAD, COLOMBO 3
7388-1

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The Administration of Justice in Ceylon under the Dutch Government 1656-1796
BY PROFESSORT. NADARAJA
I. Introduction
The overseas settlements of the Chartered United East India Company (Vereenigde Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Compagnie) of the Netherlands were administered by it on behalf of the Republic of the United Netherlands and were all governed, broadly speaking, in a similar way. The administration in the more important "outstations' (buiten comptoiren), like Ceylon, was modelled on that in the eastern headquarters (hoofd comptoir) of the Company, which was situated at Batavia in Java. The Governor-General of the East Indies in his (Council at Batavia exercised a general control over the outstations; and this Council of the Indies, as well as the heads of the Outstations in their Councils, were bound by laws passed in the mother-country by the States-General (Staten-Generaal), the supreme governing organ of the Republic of the United Netherlands, and by regulations issued by the Council of Seventeen (College der Zeventienen), the directorate of the East India Company, which usually obtained the sanction of the States-General in important matters.
Of the outstations of the East India Company, Ceylon was considered one of the most important. Between 1638 and 1658 the Dutch had captured the chief centres of Portuguese power in the islandBatticaloa (1638) and Trincomalee (I639) in the east, Galle (1640) in the south, Negombo (1640) and Colombo (1656) in the west, Mannar (I658) in the north-west and Jaffnapatnam (1658) in the north. Over a century later a Treaty of I766 between the East India Company and the ruler of the kingdom of Kandy in the centre of the island secured for the former the mastery of all the coastal low-lands, while the King's sovereignty over the central highlands was affirmed'. The Dutch regime lasted till 1796, when the Maritime Provinces of the island were conquered by the British. The Kandyan kingdom continued to maintain its independence of European rule till ISI5, when the Kandyan districts also came under the dominion of the British Crown'.
The main administrative divisions of the Dutch settlements in Ceylon Were centred around the three chief towns of Colombo, Jaffnapatnam and Galle. The highest executive authority was the Governor, who was assisted by a Political Council (Politieke Raad) or Council of Polity (Raad van Politie). The Governor's residence was

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2 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
within the Castle (or Fort) of Colombo and his rural lieutenant, the Disava, an European official whose office bore a native title', resided in Hulftsdorp not far from the Castle of Colombo. The area under the latter's jurisdiction, the Disavany of Colombo, extended Southwards along the coast from the 'Caymelle' (Kammala) river (that is, the Maha Oya) in the west of the island, past Negombo and Kalutara, down to the Bentotal river in the south-west. The administrative areas centred on Jaffnapatnam and Galle were governed by Commandeurs, who resided in those towns and were assisted by local Councils. The Commandement of Jaffnapatnam covered the northern part of the island": it included the peninsula of Jaffnapatnam and the northeln islands under a Disava, the island of Mannar and its dependent districts on the mainland in the north-west under a Chief Resident (Opperhoofd) and the troublesome province of the Vanni under a military officer. The Commandement of Galle extended along the coast from the Bentota river to the Walawe river in the south of the island, and it included the Galle Korle under a Superintendent (Opziender) and the more extensive Disavany of Matara under a Disava'.
After the Treaty of I766 the Colombo Disavany was expanded northwards up to the Deduru Oya so as to include the district of Chilaw on the westerno coast, and the Commandement of Galle was expanded up to the Kumbukkan river in the south-east of the island; and what had previously been little more than isolated forts at Kalpitiya, Trincomalee and Batticaloa became three additional centres of government for their respective districts under a civil servant or a military officer. The administrative district of Kalpitiya (which from 1773 included the district of Puttalam) extended from the Deduru Oya, the northern limit of the Colombo Disavany, northwards to the south-western limits of the Commandement of Jaffnapatnam. The administrative district of Trincomalee extended from the south-eastern limit of the Commandement of Jaffnapatnam southwards to the Veruka river. The administrative district of Batticaloa extended from that river southwards to the Kumbukkan river, the eastern limit of the Commandement of Gallel.
The six administrative divisions of the Dutch settlements described above differed, with one exception, from the divisions of these settlenents for judicial purposes. The latter consisted of three districts | centred on the Raden van Justitie, the High Courts of Justice, of Colombo, Jaffnapatnam and Gallel. The judicial district of Colombo included the Disavany of Colombo and the administrative district of Kalpitiya-Puttalam and extended from the Bentota river to the south-western limit of the Commandement of Jaffnapatnam. The judicial district of Jaffnapatnam extended from the latter limit down to the Kumbukkan river and covered the Commandement of Jaffnapatnam and the administrative districts of Trincomalee and Batti

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 3
caloa. The judicial district of Galle extended from that river to the Bentota river and thus coincided in extent with the Galle Commandement19.
One element in the law that was applied in the Dutch settlements was, as we shall see20, the customary law of the 'native' inhabitants. The two chief sections of the population that require notice in this connection are the Sinhalese, who spoke the Sinhalese (or Sinhala) language, and the Tamils, whose mother-tongue was Tam12. The former, who inhabited 'the interior of the country' (i.e., the kingdom of Kandy) and "its southern and western parts'29, were mainly Buddhists, while the Tamils, who inhabited "the northern and eastern districts'22, were mainly Hindus. Moreover, in all parts of the Dutch settlements there were several Moors' or Tamil-speaking Muslims? and many people in both the Sinhalese-speaking and the Tamil-speaking sections of the population professed Christianity, sometimes 'with a view to obtain various offices . . . under the Dutch government'25.
II. The Judicial System
In the outstations of the East India Company, as in Batavia, all courts exercised jurisdiction 'in the name and on behalf of their High Mightinesses', the States-General'7. In Ceylon justice was administered in three kinds of courts of record-the Raden van Justitie (the High Courts of Justice), the Landraden (the Land or Country or District Courts) and the Civilele Raden or Stads Raden (the Civil or Town Courts). Judicial powers were also exercised by certain European officials (like the Fiscaals, the Chief Residents or the military officers in charge of subordinate stations and the Disavas) as well as by the native chiefs29, but none of these officials' courts were courts of record 30.
The most important of the three types of courts of record mentioned above was the High Court of Justice (Raad van Justitie)81. There were High Courts of Justice in Colombo, Jaffnapatnam and Galle, each consisting of seven or more persons' appointed by the Governor in Council from the members of the Council and the civil and military services. Originally the Governor presided Over the High Court of Colombo; but in 1732 Governors and Directors of the outstations of the East India Company were precluded from presiding over the High Courts of Justice, and the Secunde or Second in Command, the Hoofd Administrateur or Chief Administrator, became. president. In the High Courts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle the Commandeur'7, the chief executive official of these two provincial centres, presided. In each of the three chief towns there was an official called the Fiscaal who, amidst a variety of other duties, played an important part in the proceedings of the High Courts: in civil cases he acted as a member of the court, while in criminal cases he was the Public Prosecutor. Few members of even the High Courts were

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trained lawyers42; for the outstations of the Company, unlike Batavia, were "badly provided with men learned in the law'4'. The members of the High Courts were paid no salary apart from what they received from their civil and military offices, but they received a small sum.5 as mantel geld or cloak money4o.
The High Court of Colombo was the most important judicial tribunal in Ceylon, and exercised an original and an appellate jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. It had an original civil jurisdiction, when the matter in dispute was above one hundred and twenty rix dollars in value', 'over natives residing in the Fort of Colombo or at any place' (in the suburb of the Pettah)49 'within Kayman's Gate'50 and in suits 'between Europeans or the descendants of Europeans' residing in the much wider area of the judicial district of Colombo.52. Within the areas under their jurisdictions58 the High Courts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle had the same powers as the High Court of Colombo. An appeal lay to the High Courts of each judicial district from the inferior courts, the Landraden:54 and the Civiele Radens, situated in that district; and in cases exceeding three hundred rix dollars in value an appeal lay from the High Courts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle to the High Court of Colombo5s. Subject to the same limitation of the value of the subject-matter of the action, an appeal lay to the High Court of Justice at Batavia from decisions of the Colombo Court (whether in the exercise of its original or its appellate jurisdiction), but in the case of decisions on appeal from the High Courts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle Only if the Colombo Court differed from a judgment of one of those two Courts sitting in appeal. From the decisions of the High Court of Batavia, "there was strictly speaking no appeal, but the dissatisfied party might obtain a rehearing by petitioning the Governor' (more correctly, the Governor-General) “of Batavia”ől.
In criminal cases the High Court of Colombo had an original jurisdiction over all persons-Europeans, Asians and Eurasians'3- resident in the judicial district of Colombo6 in matters that were beyond the jurisdiction of the Fiscaal or the Disava, who had authority to try minor cases within the areas of the town or disavany that came under their jurisdiction4. Several offences carried the death penalty05; but generally no death sentence imposed by a High Court could be executed without confirmation by the Governor 6. The Governor in Council had the power to suspend the execution of criminal sentences pronounced by a High Courto7, referring the papers to Batavia as soon as possible after the suspensions. In the areas under their jurisdictions the High Courts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle exercised powers similar to those of the High Court of Colombo, and from their decisions there was an appeal to that Court. From the decisions of the High Court of Colombo there was an appeal to the High Court of Justice in Batavia in criminal cases conducted according to the "ordi

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 5
nary' (as distinguished from the "extraordinary') mode of procedure, but where the accused was a servant of the East India Company such an appeal could be taken only if he was of a rank higher than that of sergeant in the military service or its equivalent in the civil 78 and other services.
Below the High Court of Justice stood the Landraad (the Land or Country or District Court), the establishment of which has been described as constituting 'the greatest excellence' of the Dutch regime. Before the establishment of this court the Disava 5 exercised jurisdiction in minor cases, more particularly those that arose outside the limits of the town. But in the course of time it was found that the Disava had too much other work to be able to decide all the little disputes of the native inhabitants himself, and Landraden were established 'to relieve him from a multitude of legal discussions. He referred to it all cases too complicated for his judgement, or such as he had not leisure to decide, and . . . the inhabitants could appeal from the decisions of the Dessave himself to the Landraad where forms of proceedings were simple, and the charges attending the few written deeds these required were fixed at One half of those of the three' (High) 'Courts of Justice ... The Landraad was extremely popular and its decisions were generally respected'82.
Landraden seem to have existed in Matara and Jaffnapatnam as early as I66I though there is evidence that they sometimes ceased to function and were reestablished at various times. Landraden were established in Colombo and Galle in 174I4. Apart from the Landraden of Matara, Jaffnapatnam, Colombo and Galle, Landraden existed at various times at Chilaws, Puttalam, Mannar, Mullaitivust, Trincomalees and Batticaloa.
Although the principal reason for the establishment of the Land. raad was to deal with cases relating to land (which was the most frequent Subject of litigation amongst the native inhabitants)89, it was decreed in I743 that no civil causes of the native inhabitants residing outside the gravets of Colombo could be brought before the High Court of Colombo until the Landraad had first given a decision on them and leave to appeal to the High Court had been granted by the Governor. After 1789 this extension of the jurisdiction of the Colombo Landraad was applied to the other Landraden as well'92. The Landraden were primarily courts of civil jurisdiction; but in places where there were no High Courts of Justice close by, the Land. raden also assisted in the preliminary stages of criminal trials'. From the decision of a Landraad an appeal lay to the High Court which had jurisdiction in that district, and where the High Court in question was that of Jaffnapatnam or Galle there was a further appeal to the High Court of Colombo'95.

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The composition of the Landraden varied in different districts. The Disava or the Chief Resident (Opperhoofd) of the District presided 96, the other members being a variable number of European officers of the Company and native chiefs. Thus, in the Landraad of Colombo the Disava, the Fiscaal (who was the Vice-President)*, the Tombohouder or Keeper of the Registers of Land', the Chief Surveyorio, the Captain of the Mahabadde10 or Superintendent of the Cir namon Department10-who were all Europeans-the Maha Mudaliyar of the Governor's Gate'08 and the Atapattu Mudaliyar or Mudaliyar of the Disava.04 were permanent members; and they were reinforced from time to time by some members of the lower grades of the Company's civil service105 and a few less important native chiefs. The Disava or the Chief Resident of the District was usually a person with an intimate knowledge of local conditions07; and the presence of the 'native' members in the Landraad ensured that the European members of the court would receive guidance on questions both of fact as well as of native custom08, which formed an importalt element in the law applied in the Landraad. The full Landraad generally met once a week 10, but a committee of a few members of the court met more oftenlli to conduct preliminary inquiries and to prepare reports and other papers for submission to the full court112. The members of the court were not paid any salary for acting as judges, but they received a small sum: as mantcl geld or cloak money and they were paid their expenses when inquiries were held at a distance from the place where the court usually satll.
Before we leave the courts that had jurisdiction in the country areas mention must be made of an assembly which exercised judicial among other functions in the district of Batticaloa in the last three decades of the Dutch regime115. This was the Lands Vergadering or Country Assembly, which was 'composed of the members of the Landa raad and of all the native chiefs of the country' (that is, the district) 'who held their employment 16 from the Governor'17. While the Landraad exercised jurisdiction over 'the Fort' of Batticaloa 'and adjacent districts' 118, the 'litigious causes of the interior of the country19 that the Chief' (of Batticaloa) "did not wish to take upon himself to settle'120 were remitted to the Country Assembly, which decided them "generally upon a verbal hearing of the parties, and no appeal lay from its decisions except directly to (the) Government' in Colombo. Apart from its judicial functions, this Assembly also supervised the assessment and collection of the revenue of the district12o: in fact it constituted a provincial council “of which all the heads of the Mogua families' (i.e., families of the Mukkuvar: caste, which owned almost all the land in the district) 'were . . . . . members for the government of their province'1'. There seems to have been a similar Assembly in the District of Puttalam, where also the Mukkuvar formed a distinct element of the population.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 7
To consider next the inferior courts in the towns, there existed in Colombo, Jaffnapatnam and Galle a court called the Civiele Raad (Civil Court) or Stads Raad (Town Court) or Collegie van Huweli. jksche en Kleine Gerechtszaken (Court of Matrimonial and Petty auses) 127. It was composed of persons, (usually eight in number128), selected each year129 by the Governor in Council from the ranks of the servants of the Company and of the 'free burghers' or Colonists not in the service of the Company'. This Court was established in order to relieve the High Courts of Justice of a number of small causes which had formerly been decided by them in the first instance181. It had no criminal jurisdiction1; but it exercised jurisdiction over all the inhabitants, the Europeans as well as the others, of 'the town and its precincts" in causes not exceeding one hundred and twenty rix dollars in value188. From the decisions of the Civiele Raden of Colombo, Jaffnapatnam and Galle there was an appeal to the High Courts in those towns, and there was a further appeal from the High Courts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle to the High Court of Colombo.136.
Apart from the Raden van Justitie (the High Courts of Justice), the Landraden (the Land or Country of District Courts) and the Civiele or Stads Raden (the Civil or Town Courts), which were all courts of recordic 'itain officials excrcised more limited jurisdictions in courts which were not courts of record 8. Within the areas of the towns under their authority the Fiscaals exercised civil jurisdiction in cases of small debts not exceeding one hundred rix dollars in value139, and criminal jurisdiction 'in assaults and other petty cases' 140 with power to inflict a fine not exceeding one hundred rix dollars or to order the offender to be whipped. The Disavas had a similar jurisdiction, 142 in minor cases in the areas under their authority, and the Chief Residents or the military officers in charge of subordinate stations 143 also exercised judicial powers in minor cases'. The native headmen and chiefs of various grades (such as the Vidanas, the koralas and the mudaliyars) also had authority to decide the disputes of the local inhabitants, and from their decisions appeals lay to superior headmen and chiefs and thereafter to European officials like the Chief Residents or the Disavas.
III. The Law
We have considered the various tribunals which exercised judicial power in Ceylon under the Dutch regime and must now turn to the law that was administered in those tribunals. The practice of the Dutch courts with regard to this subject is stated in a memoir left for his successor by A. Pavilioen, Commandeur of Jaffnapatnam, in which he wrote in 1665: "Justice is administered to the Dutch'147 (and the other Europeans) 'according to the laws in force in the Fatherland and the Statutes of Batavia. The natives' (i.e., the Asian inhabitants) "are governed according to the customs of the country if these are clear and reasonable, otherwise according to our laws'18. To the

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three sources of law mentioned in this statement must be added th enactments of the Governor and Council of Ceylon which were prima facie on the European, the Eurasian and the Asian inhabitants alike. Each of the above mentioned Sources of the law applied by the Dutch courts in Ceylon must be considered. We may begin by asking what Pavilioen meant by "the laws in force in the Fatherland and the Statutes of Batavia', and how these bodies of law came to be applicable in Ceylon.
The Charter (Octrooi) of the 20th March 1602149, by which the States-General, the federal legislature of the Republic of the United Netherlands150, granted to the East India Conpany the right, inter alia, to administer justice in its territories did not mention what law was to be applied there nor did the Artyckel-Brief, the code of disciplinary regulations issued by the States-General for the Company's servants, which those who formed the overseas settlements of the Company had sworn to observe. However, by a resolution passed on I6th June I625 by the Governor-General and Council of Batavia in accordance with recommendations made by the Council of Seventeen 15 in the mother country, some rules of procedure formulated by two courts at Batavia and certain statutes enacted by the States or provincial legislature of the Province of Holland 18 were promulgated as laws to be observed in the administration of justice in the East Indies, and it was declared that in all cases for which these laws or the enactments of the Batavian Government did not provide, 'the common civil laws as practised in the United Netherlands' should be observed 154. Seven years later Instructions, dated the I7th March I632, issued by the Council of Seventeen to the Governor-General and Council of Batavia, directed them to secure that “at Batavia and all other places under the dominion of the Company' justice should be done, pending further instructions, 'in accordance with the instructions and customs which are as a rule observed in the Provinces of the United Netherlands'1.
The above provisions of the Resolution of I625 and the Instructions of I632 elucidate what Commandeur Pavilioen meant by 'the laws in force in the Fatherland'156. It will be noticed that both sets of provisions refer to the laws and customs observed in the United Netherlands and not to those prevailing in any one of the provinces which formed the Republic of the United Netherlands157. In practice, however, the laws and customs of the Province of Holland came to be accepted in the overseas settlements of the Company in preference to those of any other province155 largely because the Chamber of Amsterdam in Holland enjoyed a predominant influence in the Company's affairs 59. It would, therefore, be broadly correct to say that 'the laws in force in the Fatherland' meant the Roman-Dutch Law 160, that amalgam of Roman law and native Dutch custom which, as modified by legislation and judicial decision, prevailed in the Province of

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 9
etherlandsli. The chief sources of that law were the statutes enacted y the States-General and by the States of the Province of Holland 162,
နှိုးမျိုးဖို့ the most important province in the Republic of the United
he decisions of the courts108 and the 'books of authority' written y celebrated jurists like Huig de Groot or, as he is commonly called,
{}{{၀ Grotius (1583-1645), Simon van Leeuwen (1625-1682), Johannes Voet (1647-1713), Dionysius Godefried van der Keessel (1738-1816)
and Joannes van der Linden (1756-1835)164.
f ܫ
it. The Resolution passed by the Governor-General and Council of Batavia on 16th June 1625 and the Instructions issued by the Council of Seventeen on I7th March 1632 gave legal recognition to the natural presumption that the 'the laws in force in the Fatherland' (or so much of them as could be adapted to the conditions of life in the outstations) were carried to their new homes overseas by the early settlers from the Netherlands165. General statutes issued by the Governor-General in Council at Batavia, as distinguished from statutes which were merely local in their application, also enjoyed legal authority in the outstations of the Company. A compilation of such Batavian legislation, "codified under proper titles' and 'amplified where necessary from the common laws of the Fatherland or from the written Imperial laws'106 (i.e., the Roman Law), was made in 1641 by J. Maetsuycker, President of the Court of Justice at Batavia (who was later to become both Governor of Ceylon and Governor-General of the East Indies). The last article declared that in matters for which the code did not provide, "the laws, statutes and customs in use in the United Netherlands' and, failing these, "the written imperial laws' (the Roman Law) should be observed, so far as they were applicable to local conditions, and, subject to the same restriction, the authorities in the outstations were required to 'regulate themselves according to this book of ordinances167. This compilation of what came to be known as the Old Statutes of Batavia or India108, which was promulgated as a code by GovernorGeneral A. van Diemen in July 1642 and approved by the Council of Seventeen and the States-General in 1650, in effect constituted a code for all the possessions of the East India Company109.
In the course of time the need was felt for a new edition of the Statutes and a revised code 70, which is generally called the New Statutes of Batavia, was adopted by Governor-General P. A. van der Parra in Council in September 1766. The preamble declared that the code was to be in force not only in Batavia but that it was also intended 'for the enlightenment and direction of all the judges and judicial officers at all the outstations of the Netherlands Indies, in so far as they shall be applicable there and the condition of those places and our authority there shall allow, as we desire that the said new local code to that extent shall be considered in force everywhere'171. These New Statutes were sent to Holland in October 1766 for the

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approval of the Council of Seventeen 72, which approval was neve
given 73. Strictly, therefore, they lacked formal validity; but they contnued to be observed in the East Indies for nearly a century after their adoption in IBatavia174 and there are several indications that they were observed in Ceylon175.
A former Governor of Ceylon, C. J. Simons, wrote in 1708: “The Statutes of Batavia are certainly clear but short, and therefore do not make precise provisions regarding many matters which occur daily'7. For this reason and because "the laws in force in the Fatherland and the Statutes of Batavia'177 were not always applicable in the conditions prevailing in Ceylon, the Governor and Council of the island also issued their own enactments178. This body of law regulated a wide variety of the day-to-day activities179 of the inhabitants of the Dutch settlements, and was, therefore, in many respects of more real significance to them than the laws introduced from abroad. Attempts were made at various times to consolidate these local enactments. Thus, Governor Simons, who showed a keen interest in innproving the administration of justice180, was responsible for the preparation in 1704 of a 'compendium of the statutes and orders applicable in the Commandement of Jaffnapatnam 181. About two years later he took in hand the Wider Scheme of causing "the various orders issued by placaats' (i.e., placards) "to be summarised under separate headings in a more convenient volume, which must every year be read to the people in the presence of the Fiscal Independent'is8.
The last element in the law applied by the Dutch courts in Ceylon that requires consideration is the customary law of the Asian inhabitants. Originally the policy of the Dutch authorities in the East Indies had been to apply the Dutch Law to both the European and the Asian inhabitants alike; but experience soon suggested the desirability of permitting the judges to take the native custom into account184. In Ceylon, according to a report on the administration of justice prepared by H. Cleghorn in 1799185, 'the religion, usages and customs of the different nations, who form the population of those parts of the Island . . . subdued by or ceded to the Company, did not permit of their being governed entirely by the Dutch Laws. In criminal cases these laws were very generally applicables; but in civil causes between the native inhabitants they could seldom be applied. It was judged expedient and even necessary to allow the people to preserve the laws and customs which had been established by their ancient princes'187. Dutch policy regarding the recognition of native custom in Ceylon is explained in the memoir left for his successor by Commandeur A. Pavilioen of Jaffnapatnam in 1665. "The natives', he wrote "are governed according to the customs of the country if these are clear and reasonable, otherwise according to our laws'88. There are instances of the Dutch authorities in Ceylon denying legal recognition to wellestablished native usages which were not in accordance with their own

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON III
onceptions of morality and public policy, while some compilations f 'clear and reasonable' native customs were given legislative force y those authorities.
The earliest of these compilations was the Tesavalamaio Code f the 'Ancient Customs and Rules' 19 of the district of Jaffnapatnam. As early as 1661 a Dutch official had remarked on the obstinate attachment of the Tamils of Jaffnapatnam to their old customs and habits 92, and in 1607 H. Zwaardecroon, Commandeur of that district, lad suggested the need for a 'concise digest' of those customs which lmight serve for the instruction of the members of the Court of Justice as well as for new rulers arriving here'98. In August 1706194 Governor Simons, whose interest in legal reform has already been mentioned 195, directed that a compilation of the local customary law should be prepared 196 and the work was undertaken by C. Isaaksz, Disava of Jaffnapatnam who had acquired all intimate knowledge of these customs by long residence in the district 97. In April 1707, Isaaksz Submitted the draft of his code to the Commandeur of Jaffnapatnam, suggesting that it should be translated into Tamil and referred to "twelve sensible Malabarl's moedeliars' (i.e., Tamil mudaliyars or native chiefs) 199 for their approval. The mudaliyars approved the draft, subject to certain modifications relating to the rights of masters over their slaves; and in June 1707 Governor Simons in Council approved the code as drafted by Disava Isaaksz, but without the modifications suggested by the mudaliyars200. The main subjects with which the code dealt were Succession to Property, Adoption, Possession of Land, Slaves, Mortgage of Land and Pawn of Jewels, Donation, Sale of Lands or Cattle, Hire or Loan of Cattle, and Loan of Money.
Apart from the Tesavalamai of Jaffnapatnam, some of the customs of the Tamil-speaking inhabitants of the districts of Puttalam?01 were als given legal recognition under the Dutch regime. The majority of these inhabitants were Muslim by religion202, and people of the Mukkuvar caste formed a distinct element in the local population. After the cession of Puttalam to the Dutch in 1766204, Governor I. W. Falck ordered that civil cases should be decided according to the customs of the district'05, and a collection of these was made in п767 on the basis of information supplied by the chiefs of the Mukkuvar206 and the Muslims of the district207.
A third compilation of native custom, which was also in force in the last quarter century of the Dutch regime, related to the customary law of the Muslims who were to be found in all districts of the Dutch settlements?08. Since 'the people of the Mohamedan 200 (sic) faith were totally ignorant of what was or was not their law an subject ... to great oppression from each headman deciding causes according to his own partial or corrupted opinion'210, Governor Falck is reported to have obtained from Batavia in 1770211 a 'short code ... relating to the Law of Inheritance and Marriage'210. which he 'submitted . . . for consideration to all the headmen of the Moorish.212

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2 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
inhabitants' and thereafter "ordered . . . to be considered as law b all the Dutch courts of Justice'218. This code seems to have be
derived from the chapter entitled "Bysondere Wetten aangaande Mooren off Mahometanen en andere Inlandsche Natien” (“Special Lays relating to Moors or Mohammedans and other native races')14 in the New Statutes of Batavia of 1766215.
Since no code of the customary law of the Sinhalese of the Maitime Provinces appears to have been compiled in Dutch times, it is not easy to say what "clear and reasonable'10 Sinhalese custonhs were recognised by the Dutch authorities. The Sinhalese tenures land and the services incidental to those tenures, as well as the customary rights and obligations of the different castes, were recognised and enforced 217 "in conformity with the prejudices and customs of the inhabitants'218. It has been suggested that the Dutch 'were not likely to extend to the native population in their integrity the personal laws by which they governed themselves, and least of all their peculiar and strictly Christian views of the marriage relation'919. But a not inconsiderable proportion of the population in the territories occupied by the Dutch was at least nominally Christian220, and instances are known221 of Dutch legislation regulating the personal relations of the native inhabitants in accordance with Christian conceptions222. However, in the absence of a written code, it is not possible to state with certainty exactly what matters were recognised by the Dutch authorities as being governed by Sinhalese custom in the Maritime Provinces until a full examination is made of whatever is still legible in those enactments of the Dutch period and the judgments of the Dutch courts (especially those of the Landraden)293 which have survived. Yet a report on the native customary laws made by Puisne Justice Alexander Johnston224 in 1807 suggests that, in the later stages of Dutch rule at any rate, the customary law of the Sinhalese of the Maritime Provinces had been largely superseded by the RomanDutch Law.
Johnston, who showed a keen interest in the history, antiqui. ties and customs of the native inhabitants of the Island, collected a great deal of material to enable the new British rulers of the country to understand the 'systems of revenue and politics which were pursued at different times by the late Dutch Government'225. The Governor, Sir Thomas Maitland, had requested him to make a collection of the various 'local and customary laws'26 which he found in the course of a judicial circuit round the Island, and in 1807 he submitted a statement of all such customary laws as are in use amongst the respective classes of natives who inhabit the several parts of these settlements'225. "Some of the customary laws which I have collected', he wrote226 'relate to the four Provinces of Putelam, Jaffna, Trincomalie and Batticaloa' (which he refers to as the "Malabar' -- i.e., TamilProvinces 227), "others to the numerous Mahometans who are to be met with all over the Island, and some to those Chittys' (i.e.,
 
 
 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 3
Chetties) 'who live in or about the Pettah of Colombo'228. He repored, however, that "few or no customary laws peculiar to the Cyngaese' (i.e., Sinhalese) 'can at present be discovered, because the policy bserved by the Dutch has, in general, established amongst that class f people the law of Holland'29. In the 'Cyngalese Provinces of olombo, Galle and Matura'80 or 'the Western and Southern mariine Provinces'281, 'the ancient laws and customs . . . seen (according to the most ancient Cyngalese histories) to have been the same s those which prevailed in the Candian' (Kandyan) 'country982; hey have however been completely obliterated and but few of them are still to be traced in their original form for information relative to the local laws and customs of (those) provinces'.
The question arises why the customary law of the Sinhalese of the Maritime Provinces did not posses the vitality exhibited by the usages of their brethren in the Kandyan highlands, which did not come under European rule till 18153. Why was the Sinhalese customary law not codified by the Dutch government and why was it supplanted by the Dutch law to a greater extent than the customary law of the Tamils and the Muslims? One answer may, perhaps, be found in the progressive assimilation that had been taking place, ever since the advent of the Portuguese, between the habits and ways of life of the Low Country Sinhalese and those of their European rulers234. The adulteration of native custom and its supersession by the Dutch Law must have been more pronounced in the towns and their environs than in the remoter country districts; and native custom probably continued to form a larger element in the decisions of the Landraden than in those of the Civiele Raden and the Raden van Justitie, which were located only in the large towns233. The adulteration of the Sinhalese customary law may have been the reason for the Dutch authorities not having undertaken its codification, and the very absence of a Code may well have contributed further to the disuse of that law. A code, crystallising its contents in an authoritative, written form, has a much greater power of resistance to extraneous influences than a body of unwritten custom86, and the Dutch policy of applving the Dutch law to the native inhabitants in cases where there was no distinctive rule of native custom must have been easier to follow where nothing like the Tesavalamai or the Code of Muslim Law existed.
A Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon complained in I913 that 'the extent to which the Dutch introduced their own law into the outstations is a subject of great difficulty and as yet very partial elucidation'237. Not less difficult nor less in need of elucidation is the subject of the ways in which the law, introduced from abroad or originating in Ceylon, was applied and developed in the island during the one and a half centuries of Dutch rule. Without making a close study of what is still legible in the legal records of the Dutch period

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14 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), I968
no conclusions can be reached regarding the order in which the diffe rent kinds of authorities would have been considered by a judg engaged in deciding a case. There is, however, evidence to sugge that such a judge would have inquired first whether any local statutes dealt with the matter in hands. Where local statutes contained clear provision on the point or were silent, and in the absence of ary local custom having the force of law, he would have had recourse to the Statutes of Batavia:9. If these too were silent, he would then have turned to the law of Holland 240 excluding such customs and legilation as had reference to the special local circumstances of the mothetcountry: in practice this meant that he would have relied on the general principles expounded in those "books of authority'41 which were most commonly used. Finally, where all the above sources failed, the judge would have consulted the Roman Law242 as interpreted in Holland243. In their attitude to earlier judicial decisions it may be presumed that the judges in Ceylon followed the practice that prevailed in Holland: while there was no rule of law binding judges to follow such decisions, a line of consistent decisions to the same effect would generally be followed by later judges unless there was some good reason for disregarding the current of authority44.
In concluding this account of the administration of justice in Ceylon in Dutch times, some general observations may be made. The rulers of the Dutch overseas settlements had emphasised from the earliest times that "justice is the foundation of every good government and its administration must therefore be entrusted to the honestest and ablest persons that can be found'45. It is clear, however, that these ideals were not always realised in practice, especially in the later years of the 18th Century when the administration in the overseas settlements had become moribund and corrupt. Although the Supreme authorities occasionally interfered to remedy the worst excesses'6, serious defects in the administration of justice persisted, particularly in criminal proceedings, and formed the subject of adverse comment by the first British civil Governor of Ceylon27. Nevertheless, in spite of many defects, the administration of justice under the rule of the Dutch was an improvement on what had prevailed before their arrival in Ceylon. They codified some of the native customary laws2's, and the Roman-Dutch law which they introduced was so rich in the sources it could draw upon that it still remains the basis of the common law of the Island in civil matters. Though the areas under Dutch rule were not extensive, the administration of justice in those areas may be said to have foreshadowed, faintly perhaps, the Rule of Law in the modern sense. For in the territories under their dominion the Dutch established a civil administration, based on a regular hierarchy of courts with definite rules of procedure and judicial records, which limited the exercise of arbitrary power and secured a reasonable measure of impartial justice.

- THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON I5
AUTHORITIES CITED AND ABBREVIATIONS USED
Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, ii, Utrecht, Antwerp, Brus
sels, Ghent, and Louvain, I95o. ALTENDORFF, L. Map of the Island of Ceylon, 1794, Map No. 53
of the Surveyor-General's Office, Colombo. Anonymous. A Description of Castes in the Maritime Provinces of Ceylon, their Trade and their Services to Government, Colombo Journal, I832. See under de Saram. Anonymous. A Description of the Duties of the Chiefs and Headmen in the Maritime Provinces, Colombo Journal, I832, reprinted Monthly Literary Register, iv, I896. Anonymous. History of the Mahabadde............. obtained by Sir Alexander Johnston from a respectable native, Colombo Journal, I832. Anonymous. Judicial Improvements in Ceylon, Asiatic Journal, xxiii, I827. The author is said to be "a friend of Sir Alexander Johnston' (paragraph III6 of the Minutes of Sir Alexander's Evidence given before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Affairs of the East India Company on the 6th July, 1832, for which see under Johnston, Sir Alexander). Anonymous. Map of the Northern Part of the Island of Ceylon containing the Districts of Jaffnapatnam, Trinconomalle, the Wanny, Mannar and Calpetty. No date. Map. No. 52 in the SurveyorGeneral's Office, Colombo. This is probably a copy, made after I8oo, of a Dutch map. The explanatory notes are in Dutch; cp. R. L. Brohier and J. H. O. Paulusz, Land, Maps and Surveys, i, I47. Anthonisz, see under Rhee, Simons. Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and its Depen
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Amsterdam, I672, transl. P. Brohier, Colombo, I96o. BERTOLACCI, A. A View of the. Agricultural, Commercial and
Financial Interest of Ceylon, London, ISI7. - BLAGDEN, C. O. A Catalogue of Manuscripts in European Languages belonging to the Library of the India Office, i, The Mackenzie Collections Part I: The I822 and the Private Collection, London, I9I6. Brito, C., see under Yalpana Vaipava Malai. BROHIER, J. Historical Account of Ceylon 1797, C.L.R. ii, 1887-8. BROHIER, R. L. and J. H. O. PAULUSZ. Land, Maps and Surveys,
ii, Colombo, I95 I. BROWNE, K. D. G. Reports of Cases decided in the Supreme and
other Courts of Ceylon vol. I, Colombo, IQ00-190I. BURNAND, J. De l'Administration de la Justice dans l'Isle de Ceylon sous le Gouvernement de la Compagnie Hollandois des I.Ori. I798, C.O. 4I6/24.

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BURNAND, J. Fragmens sur l'etat ancien & moderne de l'Isle d Ceylon sur son Agriculture, les Servitudes de ses habitans and se revenues, 1809. C.O. 4I6/24 transl. Colombo Museum Engli manuscripts No. 4 and Asiatic Journal xi and xii I820-2I. Anoth translation in Ceylon Miscellany, i, I842, Monthly Literary Register iii and iv, I.895-6 and Tropical Agriculturist Literary Register Supplement October I903 to June 1904. i BURNAND, J. Memoir on the District of Batticaloa, I794, C.N.A. I/27 II, transl. C.O. 54/I25 and C.O. 4I6/24 and in the Colombo Museum English Manuscripts Nos. 9 and 44. BURNAND, J. Precis sur la constitution et les fonctions des cidevant
Land Raads dans l'Isle de Ceylon, I8Io, C.O. 4I6,’24. Burnell, A.C. see under Yule.
CALDWELL, R. A. Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South
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CLEGHORN, H. Administration of Justice and of Revenue on the Island of Ceylon under the Dutch Government, I799. Mss copies in the Johnston Papers C.N.A. 25/I/I7 (reproduced in J.C.B.R. A.S. (N.S.), iii, I953) and in the Walker of Bowland Papers, National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh, Acc. 2228 vol. I8I d. II. Another version in Ceylon Literary Register, vi, I89I. For the different versions of the Minute and for the earlier memorandum by J. Burnand on which the Minute was based, see T. Nadaraja, New Light on Cleghorn's Minute, J.C.B.R.A.S. (New Series), x, IQ66.
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THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON I7
Commissioners of Eastern Inquiry, His Majesty's, I829-30: Mr. Burnand's Papers C.O. 4I6/24. A microfilm copy is available in the Ceylon National Archives. Commissioners of Eastern Inquiry, 1829-30. Laws and Judicial Establishments, C.O. 4I6/I3-I8. A microfilm copy is available in the Ceylon National Archives. COOMARASWAMY, A. K. , Mediaeval Sinhalese Art, Broad Camp
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Lak Raja Lo Sirita (The Customs of the Kings and People of Ceylon), being the answers given by some Buddhist priests to questions put to them by Governor I. W. Falck in 1769. The names of Falck's informants are not given, but they probably included the High Priest of Mulkirigala Vihare who had sent him on 3rd December 1766 a 'Compendious Description of the Buddhist Doctrine', a translation of which appears in E. Upham, The Sacred Books of Ceylon, iii, London, I833, pp. SI-IO6. A version of the Sinhalese text of the Lak Raja Lo Sirita, from a manuscript in the Hugh Nevill Collection in the Library of the British Museum, appears in Prabhashodaya, i, nos. I-3, April, May and June I930, Colombo. Translations appear in A. Bertolacci, A View of the Agricultural, Commercial and Financial Interest of Ceylon, London, I8I7, pp. 45 I-77 (reproduced in the Asiatic Journal, iv, I8I7, pp. 22-28 and II8-I2O)-the translator's name is not given -in the Ceylon Daily News 25th, 26th, 29th, 3Ist July and 2nd August 1930 (by G. P. Malalasekera) and in P. E. Pieris, Sinhale and the Patriots, Colombo, I950, pp. 577-587 (by P. E. Pieris and S. Paranavitana).
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20 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), Ig68
on the Ceylon records 'in the Chamber of Archives at Amsterdam' (op. Cit. I840 p. 542 and 184I p. 43).
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MAYILVAKANA PULAVAR, Yalpana Vaipava Malai, trans. C. Brito, Colombo, I879. The Tamil text has been edited by K. Sabanathan, Madras, I853.
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ii, Colombo, I95 I.

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22 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XI I, (New Series), I 968
PAVILIOEN, A, Commandeur of Jaffnapatnam, Memoir of, I665, C.N.A. I./267 I transl. by S. Pieters in Instructions from the Governor-General and Council of India to the Governor of Ceylon I656I665, Colombo, Igo8.
PEIRIS, P. E. Sinhale and the Patriots, Colombo, I950.
Peiris, P. E. See under Ribeiro.
Pereira, S. G. S.2e under De Queyros.
PIELAT, Governor J. C., Memoir of, I734, C.N.A, I/26S5, translated
S. Pieters, Colombo, I905.
Pieters, S, see under Goens, Imhoff, Instructions for the Company's
Officers, Pielat, Pavilioen, Mooyart, Zwaardecroon.
PYBUS, J. Account of Mr. Pybus's Mission to the King of Kandy in 1762, Colombo, 1862; and The Pybus Embassy to Kandy, I762, edited by R. Raven-Hart, Colombo, Ig60.
Raghavan, M.D., see under Mukkaru Hatana.
RAMANATHAN, P., The Judgments of the Supreme Court of Judicature and of the High Court of Appaal of the Island of Ceylon delivered between the years 1820-1833, Colombo, 1877.
Raven-Hart, R., see under Heydt, Schweitzer and Pybus.
Reimers, E, see under Schreuder, Loten,
Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report upon the variations now in use in the spelling of the word "Mohammadan', Sessional Paper XXXV of I.924, Colombo, I 924. RHEE, Governor T. Memoir of, I697, C.N.A. I/2677, trans. S. Antho
nisz, Colombo, I915. RIBEIRO, J. Fatalidade Historica da Ilha de Ceilao, 1685, transl. . P. E. Pieris, 2nd edn., Colombo, I909.
SANDE, J. van den. Decisiones Aureae sive Rerum in Suprema Frisiorum Curia Judicatarum libri quinque, I635, Leeuwarden. SCHOUTEN, WOUTER Oest-Indische Voyagie, Amsterdam, 1676, Book 2, transl. by P. Freudenberg in Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, xi, I890. Schreiner, W.P. see under Leeuwen, S. van. SCHREUDER, Governor J. Memoir of, 1762, photostat copy of the Dutch original in the State Archives at the Hague, transl. E. Reimers, Colombo, I946. SCHWEITZER, C. Journal und Tage-Buch Seiner Sechs Jahrigen Ost-Indianischen Reise, Tubingen, I688, transl. from the German by R. Raven-Hart in Germans in Dutch Ceylon, Colombo, I953.
SIMONS, Governor C. J., Memoir of, 1707, C.N.A. I./ 26SI, transl.
S. Anthonisz, Colombo, I914.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 23
SLUYSKEN, P. Eene Beschrijving van de Landdienst op Ceylon, 1784, 2 vols. S. 363.3. Central Library of the Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Amsterdam. The first Part of vol. 1. has been translated under the title 'A Description of the Principal Affairs of the Country Services on the Island' in C.O. (i.e., the Colonial Office Papers in the Public Record Office London) 54/I24. A xerox copy of the Dutch text and a microfilm copy of the English translation mentioned are available in the Library of the University of Ceylon.
South African Law Journal.
TENNENT, J. E. Christianity in Ceylon, i, London, I850.
TENNENT, Sir J. E. Ceylon, 2nd edin., i, London, 1859.
THURSTAN, E. Castes and Tribes of Southern India, v, Madras,
I909.
Tamil Lexicon published under the authority of the University of
Madras, iv, Madras, I 93 II.
UPHAM, E. (editor). The Mahavansi, the Raja-Ratnacari and the Raja-vali, forming the Sacred and Historical Books of Ceylon, also A. Collection of Tracts Illustrative of the Doctrines and Literature of Buddhism. Translated from the Singhalese. 3 vols, London, IS33.
VALENTYN, F. Oud en Nieuw Ooost Indien, vol. v. pt. I; Beschry
ringe van het Eyland Ceylon, Dordrecht-Amsterdam, I 726.
VANDERSTRAATEN, J.W. The Decisions of the Supreme Court of Ceylon sitting in Appeal from I869 to 187I, Colombo, no date.
VINOGRADOFF, Sir Paul. Roman Law in Mediaeval Europe, 2nd
end., London, I929.
VLEKKE, B. H. M. Nusantara: A History of Indonesia, 2nd edn,
the Hague, I959.
VOET, J. Commentarius ad Pandectas, I698-I7o4, The Hague transl. by P. C. Gane sub tit. The Selective Voet, 8 vols., Durban, I955-58.
WOLFS, J. C. Reyze naar Ceylon, the Hague 1783, transl. from the German sub. tit. The Life and Adventures of John Christopher Wolf, London, 1785.
YULE, H. and BURNELL, A. C. Hobson-Jobson: a Glossary of
Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, London, 1903.
ZWAARDECROON, Commandeur H. Memoir of, I697, C.N.A.
I/2469, trans. S. Pieters, Colombo, I9II.

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24 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
.
2.
6.
NOTES
P. Sluysken, Eeene Beschrijving van de Landdienst op Ceijlon, I784 S 363-3, i, p. 4 Central Library of the Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Amsterdam, trans. in part as 'A Description of the Principal Affairs of the Country Services om the island, ’ in C.O. (i.e., the Colonial Office Papers in the Public Record Office, London) 54/124 p. 82. Cf. F. Valentyn, Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien vol. v. pt. I: Beschryvinge van het Eyland Ceylon, Dordrecht-Amsterdam, 1726, p. 13 and Governor J. Schreuder's Memoir for his successor 1762, transl. E. Reimers, Colombo, I946, p. I0.
See, e.g., Wouter Schouten, Oost-Indische Voyagie, Amsterdam, I676, book 2 chaps. 8 to Ig passim, transl. P. Freudenberg Journal of the Ceylon (Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (hereafter cited as R.C.B.R.A.S.), xi, I8iyo, pp. 325-336.
Although the forts of Mannar and Jaffnapatnam did not submit to the l)utch till 1658, the year of the capitulation of the Portuguese to the Dutch has been taken for legal purposes to be 1656 (Karonchihany v. Angohanny (IQ04) 8 N.L.R. at pp. 5, I4), the year in which the Portuguese surrendered the capital city of Colombo. This occurred on 12th May 1656 (A Collection of Legislative Acts of the Ceylon (Government froin I796, (hereafter cited as C.L.A.) i, Colombo, IS53, p. 406).
. Articles 2 and 3 of the Treaty of 14th February 1766. The
Sinhalese text and a translation appear in J.C.B.R.A.S., xvi, I899, pp. 70-I.
. Article 4 of the Treaty.
5. See the Proclamation of 2nd March I815 (Ceylon Government
Gazette 6th March 18, 5), which recorded the terms agreed on at a Convention between Governor Brownrigg and the principal Kandyan Chiefs.
“Disava” was a Sinhalese title (H. Cleghorn, “Administration of Jutice and of Revenue on the Island of Ceylon under the Dutch Government', I799, in J.C. B. R. A.S. iii (New Series) I953 p. 133) “which corresponds almost exactly with that of Landdrost in our' (i.e., the Dutch) "language' (the Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon 166I Ceylon National Archives (herafter cited as C.N.A.) I/245I, transl. S. Pieters, Instructions from the Governor-General and Council of India to the Governor of Ceylon I656-1665, Colombo Igo8 at p. I6) and was adopted by the Portuguese (cp. F. de Queyros, Conquista Ten poral e Espiritual de Ceylao 1687 Colombo, I9I6, p. 80, transl. S. G. Perera, Colombo, I930, i, p. I04) and

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 25
by the Dutch to describe the Governor of a Province. For the Disava’s functions see S. Pieters” translation of the Instructions op. cit.: at pp. 16ff., 54ff and 78ff., and Governor G. W. van Imhoff's Memoir I740 C.N.A. I/2687, transl. S. Pieters Colombo, I QII pp. I9-25.
7. H. Cleghorn, op. cit., (in. m. 6. J.C.B. R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. 133 states that the Southern limits of the Commandenent were from the limits between Putalan and Mannar to the river Kokaly' (i.e., Kokkilai) But M. Leusekan's Map of the Commandement 28th September 1719 in the Exhibit Room of the Ceylon Government Archives shows that the exact limits were the imouth of the Modaragam Aru (river) between Puttalam and Mannar on the west and that of the 'Kaliravoeaar” i.e., the Kallarawa Aru or the Yan Oya between Kokkilai and Kuchaveli on the east. The name 'Rio Serto, found in Maps noS. 52 and 55 of the Surveyor-General's Office (Plates XLVIII and XVI of R. L. Brohier and J. H. O. Paulusz, Land, Ma is and Surveys, it, Colombo, 1951) is another name for the Kallarawa Aru (cp. L. Altendorff's Map of the Island of Ceylon I794 Map. No. 53 of the Surveyor-General's Office, Colombo, and Major-General John Fraser's Map of the Island of Ceylon, I862, C.N.A. Map. No. 137).
8. A disavany was subdivided into korles and each korle into pattu: see, e.g., Disava G. L. de Coste's Memoir on the Disavany of Colombo III77o C.N.A. I/27o9 pp. I, 85, transl. C.O. 54/I24 pp. 24 and 85-6 and Gov. Schreuder's Memoir 1762 transl.
op.cit. (in m. II) p. 49.
q. For the limits of the Disavany of Colombo and the Commandements of Jaffnapatnam and Galle in the middle of the I8th Century see, e.g., Gov. Schreuder's Memoir transl., op.cit. (in n. I) pp. 47, 56-8 and Disava de Coste's Menoir transl. op. cit. (in n.8) pp. 24, 85-6. Although this last memoir is dated I5th December 1770 the limits of the IDisavany set out in it seem to be those that existed before the Treaty of I766.
Io. J. Burnand, "De l’Administration de la Justice dans l’Isle de Ceylon sous le Gouvernement de la Compagnie Hollandoise des I. Ori.”, I798 C.O. 4 I6/24 pp. 87, 88a and C.N.A. 25/II/44. pp. 6, 8, H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, pp. II38, I4 I. Cp. Gov. W. J. van de Graaff's Memoir I794 trans. Ceylon Literary Register (hereafter cited as C.L.R.), i, I886-7, at p. 304.
II. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. Io) C.O. 4 I6/24 p. 84a and C.N.A.
25/I/44 p. 3, H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S.
s

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26 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) . Tol. XII, (New Series), 1968
iii (New Series), I 953, p. II33, Cp. Gov. van de Graaff’s Memoir op.cit. (in n. IO) p. 304 which says the Matara Disavany included the 'Magampattoo.”
I2. See, e.g., Gov. van Imhoff’s Memoir I 74o trans. op.cit. (in n. 6) p. I 7, Gov. van Schreu der’s Memoir I 762 traus. op.cit. (in n. I) p. 6I.
I3. "The island of Calpetty was an ancient possession of the Company'-it had been seized and fortified in 165Q ---and "the very narrow district of Puttalan was ceded to it by the King of Candia at the peace of I766' (H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (ir n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii, (New Series), I 953, p. I4I). Before 1766 Trincomalee "had but a very small territory annexed to its government'; but in that year 'the Candians ceded to the Company the countries of Coetier, Tamblagamme and Koutamkolonpattoe” (i.e., the Koddiyar, Tampalakam and Kaddukkulani Pattu) (op.cit. p. IAO). intil I766 Batticaloa "had no other territory but the small Ísland of Poeliantivve at the mouth of the river. But at the peace in I766 the Company obtained in sovereignty fron: the Candians, the eight provinces of Batticaloa” (op.cit. p. I 4 I) inter alia. Cp. m. IIợ.
I4. See the instructions for the Commandant of Kalpitiya and
Puttalala in Council Minutes 2nd August 1773, C. N.A. I./I67.
I5. For which see n. 7. I6. J. Burnand op.cit. (in n. Iro) C. O. 4 I 6/24 p. 84a and C.N.A.
S.
25/1/44 pp. 3-4, H. Cleghorn, op. cit. (in m. 6) J.C.. B. R..' iii (New Series), I953 p. I 33.
y
I7. J. Burmand op.cit. (in n. Io C.O. 416/24 p. I and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. 3, H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) f. C. B. R.A.S. iii, (New Series). IG53, p. I32.
I8. J. Burnand op.cit. (in n. Io) C. O. AI6/24 p. 83 and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. I, where the three districts whose limits he sets out are described as those over which the three High Courts exercised jurisdiction.
I9. J. Burnand loc.cit. and H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.-
R.-l. S. iii, (New Series) I953, p. I 29.
20. See pp. below.
2I. H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) J.G.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series) 1953, IZI, C. Schweitzer, Jornal und Tage-Buch Seiner Sechs

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 27
Jahrigen Ost-Indienischen Reise, Tubingen, I688. p. 50, trans. by R. Raven Hart, Germans in Dutch Ceylon, Colombo,
I953, Pp. 44, 47.
22. H. Cleghorn, op.cit. p. 131. Cp. C. Schweitzer op.cit. (in n. 2r) pp. 43, 50, trans. pp. 44, 47 and J. Brohier, Historical ACCount of Ceylon, 1797, C.L.R., i1, 1887-8, p. 64.
23. "To the Spaniards and Portuguese whose contact was with the Mussulmans of Mauletania who had passed over and conquered the” (Iberian) "Peninsula, all Mahommedans were Moors.... and from the Portuguese the use of the term as synonymous with Mahommedan passed to the Hollanders and Englishmen'. H. Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: a glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, Iondon, 1903 p. 582. Cp. S. Casie Chitty, An Essay descriptive of the Manners and Customs of the Moors of Ceylon, J.R.A.S. of Gt. Britain and Ireland, iji, 1836, p. 338 and J. C. Wolfs, Reyze naar Ceylon, the Hague, I783, p. II31. transl. Sub tit. The Life and Adventures of John Christopher Wolf, London, 1785.
24. For the diffusion of the 'Moors' in the Dutch settlements see, e.g., the marginal note in Dutch on L. Altendorff's Map of Ceylon I794 (nlap. no. 53 in the Surveyor-General's Office, Colombo, cp. R. L. Brohler and J. H. O. Paulusz, Land, Maps and Surveys, ii, Colombo, 195I, p. 53); Account of Mr. Pybus's Mission to the King of Kai, dy, in 1762, Colombo, 1862, p. 36, J. Brohier, Historical Account of Ceylon. I797, C.L.R. ii, I887, p. 64, J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. IO) C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. 3 and H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii, (New Series) Ρ. I32.
Governor J. G. Loten wrote in 1757 that the "Moors came originally from the coast of Madura, chiefly Kailpatnam” (Memoir, I757, trans. E. Reimers, Colombo, I 935 p. 30). Sir Alexander Johnston mentions a tradition prevalent in Ceylon that the 'first Mohammedans who settled on Ceylon were. . . . Arabs . . . . . . driven from Arabia in the early part of the eight century by the tyranny of Caliph Abd al Melek' (Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Gr. Britain and Ireland, i, IS27, p. 538). It has been said that the 'Moors. . . . . . of Ceylon (are) descendants from Arabian ancestors by intermarriage with the native races' (of India and Ceylon) "who embraced the religion of the Prophet' (Sir J. Emersson Tennent, Caylon, 2nd edin., i, 1859, p. 6c7, cp. A. Bertolacci, A View of the Agricultural, Comijiercial éS Financial Interests of Ceylon, London, 1817, p. 4I), 'Their vernacular is Tamil mixed with a number of Arabic words (Tennent, op. cit., p. 607 n. 6).

Page 18
28
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
3I.
32.
JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Wol. XII, (New Series), Ig68
The term "Moors' is not usually understood as including the Malays who, though Muslims, possess a distinct individuality of their own. They had been brought to Ceylon by the Dutch for military service or had come as dependants of princes deported by the authorities in Batavia for political reasons. (Governor North to the Court of Directors of the East India Company 26th February I799 C.N.A. 5/I pp. 54-5, A Bertolacci, op.cit., p. 42. J. Cordiner, Description of Ceylon, I807
р. І43).
H. Cleghorn, op. cit. (in In. 6) p. I32. Cp.n. 220.
Governor A. Moens' 'Memorandum on the Administration of the Coast of Malabar”, I78I, transl. in A. Galletti and P. Groot, The Dutch in Malabar, Madras, Ig(I, p. 243.
See p. I above.
See nn. 39, 40 and p.
See p. 9.
Puisne Justice Marshall to the Royal Commissioners of Eastern Enquiry (hereafter cited as C.E.E.) I829-30 C.O. 416/I7F 42 p. I73, C. L. R. i. I886-7, p. I27.
The rules applicable to the High Courts of Justice in the outstations of the E. India Co. were broadly the same as those
prescribed for the High Court of Justice at Batavia (which
are in the New Statutes of Batavia of I766): see J. A. van der Chijs, Nederlandsch-Indisch Plakaat-boek, ix, Batavia— the Hague, ISQI, pp. 32 ff. A digest of orders and rules regulating the procedure of the Raad van Justitie and formulier-boeken containing legal forms for actions in the Raad are to be found in C.N.A. I/4764 to 4766.
Cp. the Proclamation of 23rd September 1799 (C.L.A. op.cit.
(in n. 2), i, Colombo, I853, p. I). At one time, apart from these three High Courts of Justice, "there was an inferior one at Trincomalee, which probably owed its institution to the too extensive jurisdiction of Jaffnapatnam, to which it was subordinate'. H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii, (New Series), I953, p. 130 Cp. the Instructions for the Landraden, Council Minutes 25th fune I789 (C.N.A. I/go6, trans. C.O. 4I6/I4 and Journal of the Dutch Burgher Union of Ceylon (hereafter cited J. D. R.U.C.), lv, Igo5, pp. 3ff), which provided that appeals from the Landraad at Trincomalee should go to the High Court of Justice (Raad van Justitie) of Trincomalee.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 29
33. "It was ordained that, in all Criminal cases, not less than seven, and in all Civil cases not less than five Judges, should assist, and give their voice on passing sentence' (Proclamation of 23rd September 1799, C.L.A. op.cit. (in n. 2 p. 8). In the instructions from Commissioner van Goens to A. Pavilioen, Conamandeur of Jaffnapatnam, I66I, the fact that criminal causes had been decided by no more than four persons is mentioned as a serious mistake (Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon I66I C.N.A. I/245I transl.op.cit. (in n.6) p. 76. The translation is, however, incorrect in referring to 'jury' and "juror' which are not mentioned in the Dutch text in C.N.A. I./245I p. 230. No jury of the English type was used in the Dutch courts (Judicial Improvements in Ceylon, Asiatic Journal, xxiii, I827, p. 808 and the Minutes of the Evidence of Sir Alexander Johnston before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Affairs of the East India Company, July 1832, in Reports from Committees, British Parliamentary Papers I83I-2 vol. xii (735-iv) p. I52. Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.L.R. i., ISS6-7 p. I27).
34. Chief Justice Sir Richard Ottley to C.E.E., C.O. 416/16F 4I p. 4II. In the Colombo court generally there were, apart from the President, eight members--two military officers and six civil servants 'of a rank not inferior to that of junior merchant' (i.e., Onderkoopinan, see n. Io5). G. Lee, 'An Account of the Establishments for the Administration of Justice in . . . . . . Ceylon under the Government of the United Provinces', Ceylon Magazine, ii, no. xiii, Sept. 184I, p. 17. Apart from the President 'the other members consisted of the Fiscal, the Auditor of the Accounts of the Company's trade, two or three Captains or Lieutenants of the army selected for their intelligence, the Cashkeeper of the Company and the Second Civil Paymaster (Marshall P.J. to C.E.E., C.O. 416/17F 42 p. 178 and C. L. R. i. p. I27). For the composition of the High Courts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle see G. Lee op.cit. pp. I9, 20.
35. Resolution of the Governor-General and Council of the Indies at Batavia, 23rd June I 732 (van der Chujs, op.cit. (in n. 3 I), iv, pp. 3II-4). "Formerly the Chiefs of Settlements used to preside in the Court of Justice as well as in the Political Council, but since the well-known case at Ceylon in the time of the late Mr. Vuyst' (Governor of Ceylon from 1726 to 1729, who was “tried for acts of cruelty and judicial murders and publicly executed at Batavia on the 3rd June 1732'), 'they were for good reasons excused from the presidency of the Court.......which is now conferred upon the Seconds (in Council) with orders that the Chief should in future not interfere with the administration of justice”. Gov. Moens Memorandum I78I, trans. Galetti and Groot, op.cit. (in n. 26) p. 243.
7388-2

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3o JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
36. Gov. Schreuder's Memoir I762, transl., op.cit. (in n. I) p. 95, H. Cleghorn op. cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B. R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. 130, Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/I7 F 42 p. Iz8, C.L.R. i. p. I27, Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/17 F. 4 p. 48.
37. Seep. 2.
38. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/16F 4I p. 4 II, H. Cleghorn op. cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. II3o.
39. Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/I-7F 42 p. 172 C.L.R. i. p. I27. The full title of his office, 'Advocaat-Fiscaaal' (cp. the New Statutes of Batavia I766, van der Chijs op.cit. (in n. 3I), ix. p. 60) describes his chief functions better than "Fiscaal', which is also liable to be confounded with "Fiscal' (Marshall P.J. loc. cit.)--a 'word' now "used to designate the officers charged with the execution of the judgments of the courts' (Viscount Goderich to Gov. Wilmot-Horton 23 March I833, C.G.A. 4/I8 p. I45) i.e., a 'Sheriff' (H. Dundas to Gov. North I3 March I8oIII para 24, C.N.A. 4/II; cp. H. Yule, and A.C. Burnell, op. cit. (in n. 23). p. 354, H.W. Codrington, Glossary of Native, Foreign and Anglicized Words, Colombo, I924, p. I6).
4o. In each of these courts (i.e. the Raden van justitie) 'there was an officer called the Fiscal ...... The functions of this officer were numerous and important, especially at Colombo. Besides his duty as Fiscal in criminal cases, he was obliged to superintend the observance of the edicts and orders of government, and to him was committed the inspection of the police of the town, of which he was justice of the peace. Although appointed from Batavia, he was entirely dependent upon the Governor' H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. 130. Earlier, however, in I688 Fiscaals had been made independent of the local administrations in the outstations of the East India Company and directly responsible to the Council of Seventeen (see p. I above in Holland (cp. the Instructions for the Independent Fiscaals 30th March 1688, van der Chijs op. Cit. (in n. 3I), iil, pp. 218 ff.). In Ceylon the 'Independent Fiscaal' remained "Independent' till r?I3 (F. Valentyn op.cit. (in n. I) above p. 25).
41. H. Cleghorn loc. cit. (in n. 40). For the Fiscaal's own separate
judicial powers see p. below.
42. H. Cleghorn loc. cit., Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/17F 42 p. I78 and C.L.R. i. p. I27 Cp. C. Schweitzer, op.cit. (in n. 2I) p. 78, trans. by R. Raven-hart, (op.cit. (in n. 2I), Colombo, I953, p. 59.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 3.
43. The High Court of Justice at Batavia was largely composed of
law years, and from 1742 it was almost exclusively So composed (E.S. de Klerk, History of the Nederlands East Indies, i, Rotterdam, I938, p. 34.8), Cpl. the paper, dated 6 January I809, in J. Burnand's Papers C.O. p. I04.
44. Gov. Moens” Memorandum trans. Galetti amd Groot, op.cit. (in n. 26) p. 244, which says that when the Chief Administrator appointed Judges to the Court of Justice he should take care to select 'men who are staid and conscientious and have a sound judgement, besides reading and experience, in order to supply by these qualities the want of the necessary knowledge of law' (pp. 243-4). Cpl. Gov. Schreuder's Memoir I762, transl. op.cit. (in n. I) p. 95.
45. 40 rix dollars a year, says Gov. C.J. Simons in his Memoir I707 C.N.A. I/268I, transl. S. Anthonisz, Colombo, I9 I4, p. 2o J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. Io) says that what the members of the Court drew as mantel geld amounted at most to Ioo rix dollars a year (C.O. 4 I6/24 p. 83a and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. II).
46. H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series),
I953, p. I30.
47. The rijksdaalder (rix-dollar), originally a silver coin of the Netherlands, was a common unit of accounting in Ceylon under the Dutch government. In the last quarter of the I8th Century the chief coin in current use in Ceylon was the copper stuiver and the rix-dollar was no longer current in specie: but it was used in keeping accounts, the rix-dollar being divided into I2 fanams and each fanam into 4 stuivers or pice(Gov. North to the Court of Directors of the East India Co., 26th February 1799, C.N.A. 5/I, pp. 74-5, A. Bertolacci, A Vieve of the Agricultural, Commercial and Financial Interests of Ceylon, London, I817, p. 80). The British continued to use the rux-dollar for accounts and even minted rix-dollars (op.cit. pp. 88, 94). The rix-dollar ceased to be used for accounts after Regulation No. 8 of r825 (C.L.A. 1853, vol. I, pp. 323-4) enacted that all accounts of the Government should be kept in the denominations of the Currency of the United Kingdom (i.e., pounds, shillings, etc.), and declared that a rix-dollar should be reckoned at I shilling and 6 pence.
48. Ottley C.J. to C.F.E., C.O. 4I6/I6F4I pp. 409-Io. The Court also exercised jurisdiction in matrimonial matters. It inquired into cases, referred to it by the Commissioners of Marriage Causes (see n. I27), in which objections had been raised on the proclamation of marriage banns (Ottley C.J. op.cit. p. 4I3, Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/I-7F 42 pp. I74-5); and "all matters of

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32 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
divorce, whether arising between Europeans, Burghers or natives, were cognisable by the Hoff van Justitie' (i.e., the High Court) "alone, but if the suit was only for separation between natives, the Landraad' (see p. below) "decided' (Ottley C.J.
op. Cit. pp. 4I3-4).
49. "Pettah' from the "Tamil pettai. The extramural suburb of a fortress, or the town attached and adjacent to a fortress' H. Yule and A.C. Burnell, op. cit. (in n. 23) p. 533. The limits of the Fort of Colombo as it existed under the Portuguese were reduced after the Dutch conquest (cp. J. Ribeiro, Fatalidade Historica da Ilha de Ceilao. 1685, trans. P.E. Peiris, 2nd edn., Colombo, I909, pp. 4I4-5) by the erection of a line of bastions which excluded the northern suburbs, the Pettah or Old City, from the Fort or Castle.
50. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/I6F4I p. 409. By "any place within Kayman's Gate' what is meant is the suburb of the Pettah of Colombo (see n. 49) as far as Kayman's Gate which was once the northern entrance to the city (J.W. Heydt, Allerneuester Geographisch–und Topographischcr Schau–Platz von Africa und Ost–Indien, Wilhernisdorff, 1744, p. I44, trans. R. RavenHart, Heydt's Ceylon, Colombo, 1952, p. 4. Over the native inhabitants resident outside this area but within the "gravets' (see n. 90) of Colombo the High Coult of Justice seems to have had concurrent jurisdiction with the Landraad (see n. 91). For the limits of the 'Four Gravets' of Colombo in 177o see Disava G.L. de Coste's Memoir 177o, C.N.A. I/2709 pp. 2-3 and 86, trans. C.O. 54-I24 pp. 24, 86.
5I. Ottley, C.J. C.O. 4I6/I6 F 41 p. 409. Strictly only those born in Europe were termed 'Europeans' by the Dutch. Children, born in Ceylon, of 'European' parents or of parents of European descent who had themselves been born in Ceylon-the so-called 'poosties', poestizen and 'casties", castizen (J.C. Wolfs, op. cit. (in n. 23) the Hague, I783, p. I74, trans. John Christopher Wolf, London 1785, p. 267) would be covered by the phrase "descendants of Europeans' used by Ottley C.J. in difining the limits of the High Court's jurisdiction. "Mixties', mixtizen, the children of an European father and an Asian mother (C.J. Wolfs, op.cit. p. 174, trans. pp. 267-8, Schweitzer, op.cit. (in n. 2I) p. II 7 trans. R. Raven-Hart, op.cit. in n. 2 I p. 77) were probably also treated as "descendants of Europeans'. Some Eurasians of a lower social status, like the dark-skinned toopasses (toe passen) of mixed Portuguese and Asian descent, tended for many purposes to be assimilated to the 'native' or Asian inhabitants (cp. Gov. Schreuder's Memoir trans. op.cit. in n. I) p. 26 and, for Malabar, Gov. Moens' Memoir and Gov.

52
53
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 33
van Gollenesse’s Memoir, trans. Galletti and Groot, op.cit. (in n. 26) pp. I88 and 89). -
. J. Burnand, op.cit (in n. IO) C.O. 416/24 p. 83 and C.N.A. 24/I/44
p. I, H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. I29. The judicial district of Colombo included the Fort and Pettah and extended in the north even beyond the Disavany of Colombo; Cp. p. 3.
. The civil jurisdiction of the Galle Court (scil. Over the native
inhabitants) extended over 'the town of Galle and its immediate environs' and that of the Court of Jaffnapatnam extended over 'the town and fort of Jaffnapatnam' (sic) "and a small part of the country known by the name of the Fiscal's Church District' (G. Lee, op. cit. (in n. 34) pp. IQ, 20). These two Courts probably had jurisdiction over "Europeans or the descendants of Europeans' (cp. p. at n.5I) resident, even outside the above limits, in the judicial districts of Jaffnapatnam and Galle (for the limits of which see p. 3 above).
54. See p. below.
55
56
57
. See p. below. . G. Lee op.cit. (in n. 34) pp. IS, 20, 2I, Marshall P.J. to C.E.E.
C.O. 4I6/I742 p. I78.
. G. Lee op.cit. (in n. 26) pp. 19, 20. The decisions of all three
High Courts were final in civil cases not exceeding 300 rix dollars (op.cit. pp. I7, I9). J. Burnand says (op.cit. (in n. Io) C.O. 4I6/24 p. 83 and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p.I) that the Governor had a supervisory power to order a review of a civil judgement given by a High Court since the time of Governor I.W. Falck (Governor I765 to I785), whose wisdom and experience had originally induced the Government of Batavia to entrust him with this power (cp. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) pp. I29-130, where only the High Courts of Galle and Jaffnapatnam are said to be subject to the power). It is likely that the Governor rarely exercised this "dangerous power' (Cleghorn loc. cit.), except where an appeal was not possible (i.e., in cases not exceeding three hundred rix dollars in value).
58. G. Lee op.cit. (in n. 34) p. 17, Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/17
F 42. p. 179 and C.L.R. i. p. 127, Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/16 F 4I p. 4Io.
59. G. Lee op.cit. (in n. 34)p. If, Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/17
F 42 pp. IZ8-9 and C.L.R. i. p. I27, Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4τ6/I6 F 4I p. 4 Ιο.
6o. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E., C.O. 4L6/II6 F 4I p. 4I3.

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34 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
6I.
62.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/17 F 42 p. I79 and C.L.R., i.
p. I27.
Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/17 F 42 p. 177 and C.L.R. i. p.
I27, Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4 I6/II6 F4II p. 4I4.
See n. 52 above. G. Lee, op.cit. (in n. 34) p. I7 says that the jurisdiction extended over the disavany of Colombo, but this contradicts the authorities in n. 52, and he does not explain what court had jurisdiction over the administrative district of Kalpitiya-Puttalam which, as we have seen (cp. p. 3), fell outside the Colombo disavany but within the judicial district of Colombo Cp. also n. 69.
H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C. B. R.A.S., iii (New Series),
I953 pp. I30, I33-34. See p. 7, below.
E.g., purchasing, selling or stealing cinnamon (Proclamations of Ioth June 1660 and I8th September I663, C.O. 54/124 p. 262); trading in spice (Procl. 29th June I733, op. cit. p. 259); stealing rice belonging to the Government (Procl. Ioth July I660, op.cit. p. 258); purchasing, selling, bartering or making a gift of gunpowder (Procl. 18th June I663 and 4th November I713, op.cit. p. 257); slaves running away from their masters for the second time (Procl. I'7th April 1679, op.cit. p. 253).
Cp. the Instructions for Commandeur Pavilioen of Jaffnapatnam trans. in S. Pieters, The Instructions from the Governor-General and Council of India to the Governor of Ceylon I656-65 p. 69 and cp, op.cit. p. I2O.
H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. 129 and G. Lee op. cit. (in n. 34) pp. I7-I8 where it is pointed out that in all criminal cases the sentences could not be executed without formal ratification by the Government i.e., the Governor in Council (cp. Gov. Moens' Memorandum trans. Galletti and Groot op.cit. (in n. 26) p. 246), who could ratify or suspend but not alter the sentence (G. Lee, loc. cit.).
G. Lee op.cit. (in n. 34) p. I8 Cf. Gov. Moens' Memorandum. I78I transl. in Galletti and Groot, op.cit. (in n. 26) pp. 243, 246 and Gov. van Gollenesse’s Memorandum transl. op.cit. p. 8o.
According to G. Lee, op.cit. (in n. 34) pp. I9, 20, the criminals jurisdiction of the Court of Jaffnapatnam extended 'over the District of Jaffna including ..... the Wanny .... and Mannar' (i.e., over the Commandement of Jaffnapatnam), and that of the Court of Galle extended over 'the District of Galle and the Dessavonie........... of Matara' (i.e. over the Commandement of Galle which, as we have seen (p. 3) was coextensive with

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 35
the judicial district of Galle). But the criminal jurisdiction of the high Court of Jaffnapatnam extended not merely over the Commandement of Jaffnapatnam but also over the wider area of the judicial district of Jaffnapatnam which (as we have seen, see p. 3) included the administrative districts of Trincomalee and Batticaloa. Cp. Ottley C.J. quoted in n. I44.
70. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E., C.O. 4I6/I6 F 4I p. 4I5, G. Lee op.cit.
(in n. 34) p. 20.
7I. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E., C.O. 4I6/I6 F 4 p. 4I4. "In criminal
72
73
74
cases the procedure must, in conformity with the law' (cp. Philip II's Code of Criminal Procedure I570, articles 32, 35 in Groot Placaatboek, ii, p. Ioo7) “start as 'extraordinary"' but the judge when he "returns' the application and the documents by which the Fiscal tries to justify the same, must decide with all possible care, whether the crime is clearly proved or whether further proofs and elucidations are necessary, and whether the facts constitute a case which should be proceeded with as 'extra ordinary' or give the accused the right to be tried "ordinarily'' (Remarks of the Batavian Government on Gov. Moens' Memoir, trans. Galletti and Groot, op.cit. in n. 26 at p. 263). For the distinction between the shorter and less expensive 'extraordinary'' procedure and the 'ordinary' procedure, see Gov. Moens' Memoir trans. op.cit. p. 245, S. van Leeuwen, Het Roomsch-Hollandsch Recht, edit. C.W. Decker, Amsterdam, I78o, book 5 chap. 27 sections 7 and Io-I8 and J. van der Linden, Rechtsgeleerd Practicaal en Koopmans Handboek, Amsterdam, I806, book 3 part 2 chaps. 2-4.
. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. Io) p. 83 and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. I,
H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) p. I29. The grades in the military service were (in ascending order): Private, Corporal, Sergeant, Ensign, Lieutenant, Captain-Lieutenant, Captain and Major.
. In the civil service the relevant rank was that of (Senior) Assis
tant; cp. n. I05.
. H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) I.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series),
(953 p. I44.
75. See p. 2 and n. 6.
76
. The Instructions for the Colombo, Matara and Jaffna Disavas
in the Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon I66I trans. Pieters op. cit. (in n. 6) pp. 20, 55,79 and II7, and Memoir of Commandeur Zwaardecroon of Jaffnapatnam, I697, C.G.A. I/2469, transl. S. Pieters, I9II, at p. 58 (where 'Ioo pordaus' may be a mistake for 'Io pordaus). Gov. Simons in his Instructions for the Disava of Colombo I707 says that,

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ვ6 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
where the subject-matter of the suit was between Io and 8o rix dollars, there was an appeal from the Disava's decision to the Civiele Raad (the Town Court mentioned below at p. 8):
F. Valentyn, op.cit. (in n. I) pp. 306-7. For the criminal jurisdiction of the Disava see p. 9a.
77. The Fiscaal had a similar petty jurisdiction within the towns;
seер. 9. -
78. J.W. Heydt, op.cit. (in n. 5o) p. 147, transl. op. cit. (in n. 50) p. II5. shows how busy the Disava of Colombo was before the institution of the Landraad of Colombo in 174I (see p. 8 at n. S4). The book was written between January 1737 and March I740 (Raven-Hart op.cit. (in n. 5o) p. 18Iad fin.). .
7o. H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) I.C. B. R. A.S., iii (New Serieş), I953, p. I34. 'Disputes with regard to properties and lands...... are so frequent that these alone would occupy half (his) time a a and have to be left very often now in the hands of native officers emploved for the purpose by the Dessave....... this opens a way for all kind of underhand dealings on the part of the
native officers........ The Landraad.......... not only will be in a better position to investigate......... and decide who is wrong, but being partly ......... composed of natives the latter would
not all agree to mislead the other members, who do not understand the language, by false reports of mistranslations, while..... the Dessave alone may be easily misled' (Gov. van Imhoff's Memoir, I740 transl. Op.cit. (ii, n. 6) p. 20-I).
8o. See generally the Instructions for the Landraden in the Council
Minutes of 25th June 1789 (C.N.A. I./206) and J. Burnand,
Precis sur la constitution et les fonctions des cidevant Land , Raads dans l'Isle de Ceylon ISIo, C.O. 416/24 p. 74.
8I. See, e.g., the Council Resolution of 5th November 1779 (C.N.A. I/I79) trans. C.O. 54/124 pp. 213-4) which is cited in the linstructions for the Landraden in the Council Minutes of 25th June 1789 (C.N.A. 1/236). A Resolution of roth November I750, cited in the same Instructions (C.N.A. I./ 206) exempted Sinhalese and Tamils litigants before the Landraden from the use of stamps in respect of summonses.
82. H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) I.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. J34. "A court of this kind of easy access is more particularly necessary in a country where the greater part of the lands are private property, where the reverue is paid in kind, and where of course a variety of little disputes arise between the landed proprietors and the farmers of the revenues'. (ibid.) Cp. op.cit. p. I38.

83.
S4.
85.
86.
87.
88.
80.
90.
OI.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON . 37
Commissioner van Goens' Instructions to the Disava of Matara and the Commandeur and the Disava of Jaffnapatnam, I66I in The Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon I66I trans. Pieters op.cit. (in n. 5) pp. 55, 69, 79, Commandeur Zwaardecroon's Memoir I697 transl. op.cit. (in n. 76) p. 58.
Council Minutes 26th April and 13th May 1741 (C.N.A. 1/252)
and See Resolution of 2Ist June I741 (C.N.A. J./252) approving
the form of oath for the 'newly-established' JLandraad of Galle, transl. C.O. 54/124 pp. II 7-8. The Landraden of Colombo and Galle were established on the recommendation of Governor van Imhoff: see his Memoir I 74o transl. op.cit. (in n. 6) pp. I9 and 2I.
In 1767 Governor I. W. Falck established Landraden in Chilaw and Puttatan (Report on his circuit from Kalpitiya through the Northern province to Batticaloa 30 June 1767 C.N.A. II/2743 transl. C.O. 54/ II 25 at pp. 493a, 495).
After the subjugation of the Vanni by Lieutenant Thomas Nagel in 1785, he "established' at Mullaitivu (H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) C.L.R. vi. p. 44) "a Landraad, the members of which were the Adigars and Provincial Moodeliars and decided cases according to the Jaffna Native Laws compiled in 1706 by Governor Simons” (TI. Nagel, Report on the Vanni, 23rd May I 793, transl. C.O. 54/ II 25 at p. 558a.).
Established in I789 (Council Minutes 25th June 1789, C.N.A.
I/2O6).
It seems to have been established in I789 (Memoir of Jacob Burnand, Chief of the Batticaloa District, I794, C.N.A. I/27II transl. C.O. 54/I25 at pp. 735a-6).
G. Lee ор. Cit. (in n.34) p. 18, cp. H. Cleghorn op. cit. (in n. 6)
pp. J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, r34, J38.
The word “Gravet-Corrupted from Sinh. kadawata, through Port. (uguese) garaveto and Dutch gavetten (pl.)" means 'A watch house on the boundary of a kingdom or district. Hence Kadawat hatara, 'the four gravets' or limits of Colombo and other towns” (H. W. Codrington, op.cit. (in n. 39) p. I9).
Resolutions of the Council 23rd Sept. 1743 and IIth July, rz46
explained in Resolutions of 18th October 1770 (C.N.A. 1/16) and 5th November 1779 (C.N.A. I/179), transl. in C.O. 54/12 at pp. I2O-I and 2IIa-2I2. The Landraad Seems to have had concurrent jurisdiction with the High Court of Justice (p. ) and with the Civiele Raad (p. ) over the native inhabitants resident within the 'gravets' (see n. 9o above) of Colombo

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38 JOURNAL, R.A.S., (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
but outside the areas over which these latter courts had an exclusive jurisdiction (Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/17 F 42 pp. I75-6 and I77 and C.L.R. ip. I27). CP. nn, 50 and n. I34.
92. The Instructions for the Landraden, Council Minutes 25th June I789 (C.N.A. I./206) do not restrict their jurisdiction to cases relating to land. These Regulations of 1789 were not approved by the authorities in Batavia which “dilected that the Landraad should be limited to the determination of those matters only for which it had originally been instituted'. Much correspondence between Ceylon and Batavia followed, "each Government adhering to its own opinion'. But "in the meantime' the new Regulations "had been introduced and (were) observed by all the Landraads, it being found by experience to be well adapted to the circumstances of the natives and the decisions of their contests'. G. Lee, op.cit. (in n. 34) p. 19.
93. In such places the preliminary inquiries in criminal cases arising in the district were made before the Landraden; and in the case of the more serious offences the Fiscaal of the High Court having jurisdiction over the area and two members of the local Landraad took the depositions of the witnesses for transmission for the trial before that High Court. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. 80) p. 74 Cp. for the Landraden of Trincomalee and Batticaloa. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/ I6 F4I p. 415, quoted in
Ill. I44.
94. For the Courts to which appeals were taken in the late 18th Century, see the Instructions for the Jandraden, Council Minutes 25th June I789, (C.N.A. I./206), transl. J.D.B.U.C., lv, Ig65, pp. III-I2.
95. Ottley, C. J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/6 F 41 p. 4I2, Marshall P.J.
to C.E.E.C.O. 416/17F 42 p. 178 and C.L.R. ip. I27.
96. Thus, at Colombo, Jaffnapatnam and Matara the Disava presided, at Galle the Opziender or Superintendent of the Korle and at Batticaloa, Trincomalie, Puttalam, Mannar and Chilaw the Chief Resident. In Mullaitivu the Commandant of the Vanni presided (H. Cleghorn, C.L.R., vi, pp. 44-5).
97. For the composition of the various Landraden see H. Cleghorn in C.L. R. vipp. 44-5 and G. Lee, op. cit. (in n.34) pp. 18-22.
98. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n.8o) p. 75.
99. A tombo (a word derived from the Portuguese 'tombo' and Latin "tomus', a tome) was a register of lands and the services and dues attached to them (cp. Gov. Schreuder's Memoir (trans. op.cit. (in n. I) p. 6I). The Tombohou der was a senior member of the Dutch civil service, who was directly responsible to the Governor (op.cit. p. 63).

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 39
I00. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in p. 8o) p. 74 Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O.
4I6/I7 F 42 p. I76 and C.L.R. ip. I27.
IoI, i.e., the 'Great Revenue' ('Kurundu', The Chaliah Caste in Ceylon, 1819, in Asiatic Journal, xii, I833, p. 269; History of the Mahabadde..."obtained by Sir Alexander Johnston from a respectable native' in Colombo Journal I832 p.358). Cinnamon. "the bride round whom they all dance in Ceylon, and that which must bear the burden of the administration' (Memoir of Governor van GoensJr. I679C.N.A. I/2674, transl. S. Pieters I9Io p. 8), was the most profitable of the sources of revenue of the Dutch Government in Ceylon (P. F. de Meuron, Report of.....Researches into the Dutch Books etc. relative to the Revenues of this Island, I798, G.N.A. 7/2029, reprinted Bulletin No. I of the Ceylon. Historical Manuscripts Commission Colombo I937 p. 4).
Io2. The Mahabadde or Cinnamon Department comprised the cinnamon peelers (who were mainly of the Chalia or Salagama caste) organised as a department under native chiefs and head. men of various grades with an European Superintendent at the head. ('Kurundu', op.cit. (in n. IoI) p. 274; Memorial of Chiefs, Headmen and People of the....Chalia Caste, Colombo Observer 8 July 184I, reprinted C.L.R. v. I890-I, p. 284). The office of Superintendent of the Cinnamon Depart. ment or Captain of the Mahabadde was one of the most impor. tant posts in the service of the E. India Company in Ceylon. An early set of Instructions for this officer is in the Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon. I66I trans. op. Cit. (in n. 6) pp. 43-54. For the history and organisation of the Department see P. Sluysken, op.cit. (in n. I) pp. 6off., transl. C.O. 54/I24 pp. 499-5 I 7.
Io3. i.e., Great (Maha) Chieftain (Mudaliyar, Tamil for "Chief', H. Yule and A. C. Burnell, op.cit. (in n. 23) p. 569). "The word gate is a literal translation of the term Wahsela, applied to ministers about the King with whom he transacted the business of the kingdom at the gate of the palace' (ADescription of the Duties of the Chiefs and Headmen in the Maritime Provinces, Colombo Journal IS32 p. 262, reprinted Monthly Literary Register iv, 1896 p. 53). "The first in point of rank of all the native servants', the Maha Mudaliyar "was the first interpreter of the Governor, and without having any particular district to govern, he had nevertheless great influence over the native inhabitants' H. Cleghorn op. cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B. R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953 p. I43.
Io4. "Attepattoo is the department of the Dessava. It is now called Cutcherry, and the Dessave is called Collector'. (A Description of Castes in the Maritime Provinces of Ceylon, their Trad and

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4o JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
their Services to Government, Colombo Journal, 1832, p. 255, reprinted in Monthly Literary Register, iii, I895, pp. 274-7 au-d sub tit. ''A Description of Castes in the Island of Ceylon, their trade and their services to Government, supplied to Sir Robert Wilmot-Horton by A. de Saraim, Maha Modlia, on 24th January 1832', Galle, no date, p. I), and the Atapattu Mudaliyar was the Mudalivar of the Disava (Cleghorn op. cit. (in n. 6) C.L. R. vi. p. 44, Marshall P.J. to C.E.E.C.O. 416/17 F 42 p. 176, G. Lee op.cit. (in n. 34) p. 18; cp. Disava de Coste's Memoir op.cit. (in n. S) trans. C.O. 54/I24 pp. QI, 97). His duty was to act as interpreter for the Disava and generally to supervise, and afford information on, revenue matters in the disavany.
Io5. Such as the grades of HBoekhouder or Bookkeeper and Onderkoopman or Under Merchant (Cleghorn op. cit. (in n. 6) C.L. R. vi. p. 44, G. Lee op. cit. (in ca. 34) p. 18, Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/16 F AI p. 4Lo). The grades in the civil service were (in ascending order): Ananquekeling or Zoldaat bij de pen (Apprentice), Adsistent (Assistant, first unior Assistant and later Absolute or Full Assistant), Boekhouder (Bookkeeper), Onderkoopman (Under Merchant), Koopman (Merchant) and Opperkoopman (Upper Merchant). Cp. Ottley C.J. to G.E.E. C.O. 4r6/II6 F4 I pp. 407-8.
106. Cp. Gov. van Imhoff’s Memoir trans. op.cit. (in n. 6) p. 2I.
ro7. Cp. the Instructions for the Disava of Jaffnapatnam in the Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon 166I trars. op. cit, (in n. 6) p. 7S and the Memoir of L. Pyl, Commandeur of Jaffnapatnam, J 679, transl. at p. 34 of S. Pieters' translation of the Memoir of Gov. van Goens (Jurn.), op.cit. in n. 93. For example, Class Isaaksz, Disava of Jaffnapatnam, who was entrusted with the task of drafting the Tesavalamai Code of the customary law of Jaffnapatnam (see p. ) had spent 37 years in Ceylon most of them in Jaffnapatnam, and was well qualified to compile a Code 'in Consequence of ... experience obtained by . long residence and intercourse at that place' (Tesavalamai Code ad init. and ad fin. (L.E. I956) vol. 3. pp. 76, Io9). ۔ w Io8. See Gov. van Imhoff's Memoir quoted in n. 79. By a Council resolution of 3Ist October 1747 (C.N.A. I/273) the Colombo Landraad was prohibited from deciding any cases in the absence of the native chiefs, who were 'versed in their language and able to give explanations upon the causes and usually knowing the litigating parties' (trans. C.O. 54/I24 p. II9). ܗܝ Ιο9. E.g. thře:Landraad: at Jaffnapatnam was ‘‘composed of Nederlanders and Indianen" i.e. Europeans (op. m. I47) and Asians. A very intelligent native skilled in the ancient laws of his country.

O
2
113
ІІ4
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 4I
sits here with three other Modliars' (P. Baldaeus, Naauwkeurige Beschryvinge van Malabar en Choromandel derzelver aangrenzende Ryken en het machtige Eyland Ceylon, Amsterdam, I672, p. IS7 (trans. P. Brohier, Colombo, IQ60, p. 375). Did the 'native' members of the Landraad have the same powers as the European? J. Burnand says that in the Colombo Landraad the Maha Mudaliyar and the Mudaliyar of the Atapattu could advise but not take part in the decision (op.cit. (in n.
- 8o) p. 74a). Cp. the “Nota” at the end of his Memorandum
op.cit. (in n. IO) C.O. 4I6/24 p., 93a and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. I4 and cp. Burnand's suggestions for the revival of the Landraads in his Fragmens sur l'etat ancien and moderne de l'Isle de Ceylon sur son Agriculture, les Servitudes de ses habitans and ses revenues, I809, C.O. 4I6/24 p. 50, transl. Asiatic Journal xii, I82 II, p. II3O, Ceylon Miscellany, i, IŠ 42 p. I66.
. At any rate in Colombo, where it met on Saturdays (Disava de
Coste's Memoir on the Disavany of Colombo C.N.A. op.cit. (in n.8) trans. C.O. 54/124 p. 28.
. In Colombo two members met five times a week, Burnand, op.
cit. (in n. SO) C.O. 4I6/24 p. 74a, cp. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) C.L. R. vi. p. 44 and J.C.B.R.A.S. (New Series) iii, p. I 38.
. J. Burnand, loc. cit., Cleghorn op. cit. (in n. 6) C.L. R. vi p. 44,
Instructions for the Landraden I789 C.N.A., I/206 trans. J.D. B.U.C. lv, I065 pp. 6-Io cp. de Coste's Memoir I77o op.cit. (in n.8) trans. C.O. 4I6/24 p. 28.
. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. Io) C.O. 416/24 p. 93a SayS 30 Or 40
rix dollars per year, Gleghorn says 40 rix dollars op.cit. (in n.6) C.L.R., vi, p. 45.
. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) C.L.R. vi., p. 45. "Committees
of (the Landraad) were often obliged to go to the country to investigate claims with regard to landed property on the spot" Cleghorn op.cit. p. 44; cp. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6). J.C. B. R. A.S., iii, (New Series), I 953 p. I46.
II5. It was established in 1767 (J. Burnand, Memoir on the District
II6
魏
of Batticaloa, I794, C.N.A. I/27IIII, transl. C.O. 54/II 25 p. 734a and C.O. 4I6/24 p. IS4). р
. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. Io) says "un acte ou Commission
directe du Gouverneur de Ceylon" (C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. 8 and C.O. 4I6/24 p. 88a). /I/44 p
III7. H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C. B. R.A.S., iii (New Series),
I953, p. I4I.

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JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), I 968
II8. H. Cleghorn loc.cit., J. Burnand (op.cit. n. Io at p. 88a and
C.N.A. 25/I/44 at p. 8) uses the phrase "district of the Fort'.
II9. With regard to the phrase "interior of the country' or what
2O
2
G. Lee op.cit. (in n. 34) p. 22 describes as "the Provinces belonging to Batticaloe', it must be remembered that after the treaty of 1766 between the King of Kandy and the E. India Company the territory under the Company's sovereignty had increased considerably (cp. n. I3) e.g., in I789 the "districts belonging to the Chiefship of Batticaloa' consisted of "the eight Batticaloa Provinces, the lands of Pannoe' (i.e., Panama Pattuva in the south)' and the Corlepattoe' (i.e., Korle Pattuva in the north). (Proclamation of Gov. W. J. van de Graaff 2nd June I789, transl. C.O. 54/I23 p. 2oo; cp. op.cit. p. 188 and J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. Io) p. 88 and C.N.A.
25/I/44 p. 8).
. J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. IO) p. 88a and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. 8.
. H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. I4I; Proclamation of Gov. van de Graaff, 2nd June
I789, trans. in C.O. 54/I23 pp. 203-203a.
I22. H. Cleghorn loc.cit.
I23
. "Mukkuvan' (plural "Mukkuvar') means a 'diver' in Malaya
lam and Tamil: "A name applied to the fishermen of the Western Coast of the (Indian) Peninsula near C. Comorin' (H. Yule and A.C. Burnell, op.cit. (in n. 23) p. 592). Cp. E. Thurstan, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Madras, Igo9, v, pp. Iof ff.
In Ceylon the chief Mukkuvar settlements were in the northern coast of the Jaffna peninsula, and in the districts of Puttalam and Kalpitiya in the northwest and of Batticaloa in the east. The Yalpana Vaipava Malai, an 18th Century Tamil work, says (ed. K. Sabanathan, Madras, I953, pp. 9-Io, trans. C. Brito, Colombo, I879, p. 5) that “Pandu maha raja” (? King Pandukabhaya, who reigned before 250 B.C.) banished the Mukkuvar who lived in a settlement in the northern coast and that the followers of two Mukkuvar chieftains migrated to Batticaloa. De Queyros (op.cit. (in n. 6) trans. vol I. pp. 18-19) mentions a persistent tradition that the Mukkuvar of Batticaloa were descended from the followers of a princes from "Tanacerim'' (? Tennasserim) who, having embarked for Jaffnapatnam and been repulsed thence, had settled in Batticaloa. The Mukkaru Hatana, a Sinhalese work of the second half of the 17th century (H. Nevill Collection British Museum Or. 6606 (53), trans. M. D. Raghavan, The Karava of Ceylon, Colombo, Ig61, pp. I6-18), records the defeat of Mukkuvar encamped at Puttalam by South Indian mercenaries of Parakrama Bahu VI, King of Kotte (I4I2-67).

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 43
I24. Sir Alexander Johnston, Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' C.O. 54/123 p. 6. He says that the Mukkuvar of Batticaloa "centuries ago came from the Malabar coast' (cp. n. 203) and settled in the provinces of Puttalam and Batticaloa, "in the latter' of which "they not only became proprietors of almost all the lands in the province but they also gradually acquired the complete government of the province'. He adds that the Mukkuvar 'may be considered the first natives. in any part of Asia who were authorised by a European Government to become members of a legislative assembly for the government of their own country' (op.cit. pp. 5a, 6). For the history and functions of the Lands Vergadering see also the Memoir on the District of Batticaloa by J. Burnand, Chief of that District I794 C.N.A. I/27II transl. in C.O. 54/I25 at pp. 734 ff. and C.O. 4I6/24 atp. I84ff.
(25. Cleghorn says that at Puttalam "there was an Assembly' whose "proceedings were regulated in the same manner as those of Batticaloa” (op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, pp. I4I-2). Cf. J. Burmand op.cit. (in n. Io) at pp. 88a-89 and C.N.A. 25/I/44 pp. 8-9 and the Instructions for the Com. mandant of Kalpitiya and Puttalam in Council Minutes 2nd August r73, C.N.A. I./I67.
I26. Cp. p. and n. 203.
I27. This 'Court of matrimonial and petty causes otherwise called the Civil or Town Court' (Proclamation of 23rd September ry99, op.cit. (in n. 2) p. 8) was formed by the amalgamation in 1783 of the "Colleges' of the Commissioners of Petty Causes and of the Commissioners of Marriage Causes (G. Lee, op.cit. in n. 34 p. 18). The latter were charged with the duty "of demanding the observation of the civil ordinances with regard to marriage affairs” (Gov. van Imhoff's Memoir I 740 transl. (op.cit. in n. 6) p. 64): e.g., their certificate that the marriage banns had been duly proclaimed without any objection being raised was a prerequisite to the Solemnisation of a marriage (Marshall P.J. to G.E.E.C.O. 4I6/17F 42 pp. 174-5, C.L.R. i. p. I27). See "the formalities.........for the Consummation of marriages' in the Council Minutes of I9th December 1776 (C.N.A. 1/173).
128. Marshall P.J. to C.E.E.C.O. 4I6/I7F 42 p. 175 and C.L.R. i. p.
I27, G. Lee says (op.cit. in n. 34 p. I3) that the Court consisted of the President and six members.
129. On the anniversary of the capture of the town from the Portuguese.
130. Gov. Simon's Memoir I740 transl. op.cit. in n. 45 p. 20; cp. Commandeur Zwaardeeroon's Memoir I697 transl. op.cit. in n. 76 p. 6I.

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I32.
I33.
I34.
I35.
I36.
I37.
I38.
I39.
I40.
JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/17 F 42 p. 175 and C.L.R., i, p. I27. In the Colombo Court generally three members were 'free burghers' and the others were in the service of the Company (G. Lee op.cit. in n. 34 p. I8), and a member of the Governor's Council (Marshall P.J. loc.cit., G. I.ee loc.cit.), usually the Hoofd Administrateur (cp. p. 4), presided. For the composition of the Civiele Raden in Jaffnapatnam and Galle see G. Lee op.cit. pp. 2o, 2ır.
H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I 953,
p. 3I.
Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O.4 I6/II6 F4I p.4II. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. loc.cit.
H. Cleghorm op.cit. (in n. 6) p. II3I. The loca! limits of the Court’s jurisdiction, at least over the native inhabitants, seem to have been the same as the limits of the High Court in civil cases (G. Lee, op.cit. (ir n. 34), p. JS), for which see p. 4 above. Before the establishment of the Lamdraad, the Civiele Raad may have had jurisdiction even outside these limits in cases where the value of the subject matter exceeded the limits of the Disava's jurisdiction but fell below that of the High Court. After the area over which the Landraad had exclusive jurisdiction had been defined (seep. 7 at n, 9I), the Civiele Raad seems to have had concurrent jurisdiction with it over the native inhabitants resident within the 'gravets' but outside the area in which the Civiele Raad had exclusive jurisdiction, in cases where the subject matter did not exceed I2O rix dollars (cp. Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/17 F.2 pp. 175-6 C.L.R. i., p. 127 and cp. p. 6 n. 9I.
Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/16 F 41 p. 4II; cp. the Proclama
tion of 23rd September 1799 cited in n. I27.
Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/16 F 41 p. 412, Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/I7 F 42 p. I78 and C.L.R. i. p. I27, G. Lee (op.cit. in n. 34) pp. IS, 20, 2I.
See p. above. Cf. pp. 3, 6 and 7.
Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/17 F 42 p. 172 and C.L.R., i, p. 127, where the area under the jurisdiction of the Fiscal of Colombo is said to be 'the Fort and Pettah'. For a more precise definition of the area seen. I35.
Marshall P.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 416/17 F 42 p. 173 and C.L.R., i, p. 127. "The Fiscal in his character of "Daily Justice' tried and punished trespasses, affrays, quarrels and petty larceny,

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 45
which with the powers he exercised for preventing smuggling formed his whole criminal jurisdiction'. (Sir Hardinge Giffard, C.J., in his Address to Magistrates in opening a Sessions of the Supreme Court, Supplement to the Ceylon Gazette 8th February E823).
I4I. Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/II6 F 4 II p. 4I5. But he had no
power to imprison except for non-payment of a fine (ibid).
I42. See p. 5 above for the civil jurisdiction, and for the criminal jurisdiction of the Disava of Colombo see the Memoir of Disava de Coste, op. cit. (in n. 8) transl. C.O. 54/I24 at pp. 25-25a, Commissioner van Goens' Instructions for the Disava of Matara 1661 and Commandeur Pavilioen's Memoir I665 at pp. 55 and II 7 of S. Pieters' transl. of the Instruction for the Company's Officers in Ceylon I66I op.cit. (in n. 6), Gov. Simon's Instructions for the Colombo Disava, I707, in F. Valentyn op.cit. (in n. I) p. 3o6, Gov. van Imhoff’s Memoir I 74o trans. op.cit. (in n. 6) p. 19. For the limits of the jurisdictions of the Disava and the Fiscal of Colombo, see Disava de Coste's Memoir trans, op.cit. at pp. 25, 87 and Council Resolutions of 30th December 1773 (C.N.A. I./I67).
I43. See p. above.
I44. E.g., in criminal cases the Chief Residents (Opperhoofden) of Trincomalee and Batticaloa 'had the same jurisdiction as the Fiscal had in Colombo over minor offences. In the more aggravated cases the Fiscal and two members of the Court of Landraad took information which was transmitted to Jaffna and the case was tried there in the Hoff van Justitie' (i.e., the High Court of Justice). Ottley C.J. to C.E.E. C.O. 4I6/I6 F4I p. 4I5.
I45. These were the names for certain grades of chiefs and headmen. H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C. B. R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, pp. I42, I43, Disava de Coste's Memoir op.cit. (in n. 8) trans. C.O. 54/I24 pp. 40-45, 97-9.
I46. H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C. B. R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, pp. 134, I43, I45, Cp. for the district of Batticaloa, Gov. van de Graaff’s Proclamation of 2nd June III789, transl. in C.O. 54/123 at pp. 200 ff. and the Memoir of J. Burnand, Chief of Batticaloa, II 794 C.N.A. I/27III (transl. in C.O. 54/ II 25 at p. 7I2a); and for the Vanni District the Memoir of Land Regent T. Nagel, I793, transl. in C.O. 54/I25 at pp. 558a-559. A Proclamation of the 20th October 1758 (cp. A Collection of Legislative acts of the Ceylon Government from 1796, i, Colombo IS53 p. 412, translated in Colombo Museum Ms. No. 38) directed "in which way the natives ought to prefer their complaints

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46 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), rg68
first to their lesser heads and afterwards to the superior and the subordination which every one is to observe'. Disava de Coste's Memoir op.cit. (in n.8) trans. C.O. 54/I24 p. 73. Cp. also the Instructions for the Landraden, 25 June 1789 (C.N.A. I./206 trans. J.D.B.U.C., lv., 1965 pp. 5-6) which provided that the Sinhalese and Tamil inhabitants should not bring suits before the Landraden without having applied for relief in the first instance to the lesser, and thereafter to the greater, chiefs.
Before we turn from the judicial authorities to the law, mention must be made of one of the boards or "colleges' which exercised legal functions. This was the 'Orphan Chamber' (Weeskamer) which administered the property of Dutch minors who had lost one or both of their parents. These Chambers (the earliest of which was established in Galle in I696, Council Minutes C.N.A. I/3) existed in Colombo, Jaffnapatnam and Galle, and consisted of officials of the Company and 'free burghers' or colonists (see e.g., Commandeur Zwaardecroon's Memoir, I697, transl. op.cit. in n. 76 p. 59), elected annually by the Governor in Council (ibid. and Gov. Simon's Memoir, I707 transl. op.cit. in n. 45 p. 20), to whom accounts had to be submitted twice a year (Gov. J. C. Pielat's Memoir I734, C.N.A. I/2685 S. Pieters' translation, Colombo I905 p. I7). For the Instructions for the Weeskamers, see van der Chijs, op.cit. (in n. 3I), i, pp. I73 ff. and Council Minutes 4th July 1780, C.N.A. I/I8o. (transl. C.O. 4I6/I8 F 63 pp. I 5-24). “Boedelkamers” for the administration of the property of native orphans existed in Colombo, Jaffnapatnam, Galle, Negombo, Matara and Trincomalee, and included representatives of the different native communities (such as, in Colombo and Galle, the Sinhalese, the Chetties and the Paravar (see n. 228); see, e.g., Council Minutes I2th September I737 and 22nd May I770, C.N.A. I./75 and I/I60 and cp. the Report dated 20th May I76o of the Special Commissioners investigating the Sinhalese, Chetty and Paravar boedelmeesteren in Colombo (C.N.A.
I/29oo).
I47. The word used in the Dutch text (C.N.A. I/267I) is "Nederlanders'. But "in Ceylon, the Dutch' may be said to consist of almost every nation to be found in Europe” (J. C. Wolfs Op. cit. (in n. 23) p. I74, trans, op.cit. (in n. 23) p. 267). In the service of the East India Company and in the ranks of the "free burghers' (or colonists not in that service) were people who came not only from the Nederlands but also from other parts of Europe, such as various German states, Denmark, Sweden, France, Switzerland and the British Isles. The "Europeans and descendants of Europeans' (cp. n. 5I) would have been

I48.
I49.
I50.
I5I.
I52.
I53.
I54.
I55.
I56.
I57.
58.
I59.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 47
governed by the Dutch Law, which also, as we shall see (pp. ), gradually supplanted parts of the customary law applicable to the native inhabitants.
C.N.A. 1/267I, p. 366, transl. in S. Pieters, Instructions from the Governor-General and Council of India to the Governor of Ceylon I656-65, at p. II7. Cp. J. Burnand op.cit. (in n. IO) C.O. 4I6/24 p. 83 and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. ii, and H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6) p. I28.
Groot Placaet Boek, i, the Hague, 1658, pp. 53off. Cp. p. I above.
See, e.g., the Artyckel-Brief, dated 8th March II658 (Groot Pla
caet Boek, ii, the Hague, 1664, pp. 1278ff).
Seep. II.
Or, more correctly, the Province of Holland and West Friesland. The conquest of West Friesland by the Counts of Holland and its annexation to Holland had taken place in the 13th Century. Cp. J. F. Niermeyer in Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, ii, I95o, Utrecht p. 293.
van der Chijs, op.cit. (in n. 31), i, 1885, p. 126.
van der Chijs, op.cit., p. 263. These Instructions of I7th March I632 together with later Instructions of 26th April I650 (op.cit., ii, pp. I35 ff.) constituted the fundamental bases of the law in force in the Company's outstations.
See p.
The provinces which sent delegates to the States-General were Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overijssel and Groningen. The law in these provinces, despite certain variations derived from custom, and legislation, was broadly similar, so that the legal authorities used in one province could usually be cited in the others. Especially, in the overseas settlements, where people who had come from various provinces lived under a single government, there was a tendency for provincial differences in the law to become blurred.
Cp. Fitzgerald v. Green I9II Eastern Districts Local Division (S. Africa) at p. 493. "Holland was more advanced than the other provinces and had more institutional law books' (Spies v. Lombard I950 (3) S. African Law Reports at p. 483). Cp. n. I64 below.
Six boards or 'chambers' represented the shareholders of the companies in different towns and districts of the Netherlands which had amalgamated to form the United East India Company.

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48 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
Of these six the Chamber of Amsterdam was the most influential. It had subscribed about half the original share capital; and no less than eight members of the Council of Seventeen, the governing board of the Company, were elected from nominations submitted by the Chamber of Amsterdam. Seegenerally A Succint History of the Rise, Progress and Establishment of the Dutch East India Company....... Collected chiefly from their own Writers in J. Harris, Navigantium atque Itinerantium BibliOtheca, 2nd edin., London, I744, i, pp. 945-6.
I60. The term "Roman-Dutch Law'' (Rooms-Hollandts-Reght) seems to have been used first by Simon van Leeuwen as the sub-title of his Paratitula Juris Novissimi, published in I652, and later as the title of a fuller work spelt Het Rooms-HollandsRegt the first edition published in 1664, and as Het Roomsch Hollandsch-Recht in the twelth edition of 1780 (cp. R. W. Lee, Journal of Comparative Legislation, N.S., xii, p. 548). In a Dedication, dated 2nd September I678, to this latter work he says that he had tried to show how the Roman Law was to be applied in daily practice where local laws and customs were absent and how it differed from or agreed with 'our own law' (i.e., the native law of the Province of Holland); and he adds that "this is the reason why I have given my work the name of Roman-Dutch Law'.
I6I. The story of 'the momentous process, not inappropriately called a the Reception of Roman Law' in Western Europe after the Roman Empire fell in the West in the 5th Century A.D. has been described as 'a ghost story......... of a second life of Roman Law after the demise of the body in which it first saw the light" (P. Vinogradoff, Roman Laze in Medieval Europe, 2nd edin., IQ29, p. 13). For the reception of Roman Law in the Netherlands and the varying extent to which it was received in the different Provinces there, see Sir John Kotze's notes to his translation of Simon van Leeuwen's Het Roomsch Hollandsch Recht, I2th edn., Amsterdam, I78o, I. II. III (translation, 2nd edin., London, I92II, pp. 459-68).
f62. While the States-General possessed legislative authority (which it did not often exercise) over the Company's outstations (Muller v. Grobler I946 Orange Free State Provincial Division (S. Africa) at p. 277, Rex v. Sacks I 943 Appellate Division (S. Africa at pp. 42 2-3), 'enactments of the Estates of the province of Holland could have had no application proprio vigore to other provinces of the Netherlands or to the Dutch possessions beyond the seas' (Spies v. Lombard I950 (3) S. African Law Reports at p. 482). However, rules derived from even provincial statutes which had been woven by the Dutch textWriters into the fabric. Of the common law, though losing

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 49
their identity as legislation, may have been applied in the outstations of the Company as part of the Common law (cp. Jafferjee v. de Zoysa (I953) 55 N.L.R. at p. I27).
I63. Cp. n. 244 below.
I64. These five writers belonged to the Province of Holland. For a list of books available for consultation by lawyers and judges in Colombo in the 18th Century, see J. van Kan, Uit de Rechtsgeschiedenis der Compagnie, ii, Bandung, I935, pp. I98-202.
I65. The provisions of the Resolution of the 16th June 1625 and of the Instructions of I7th March I632 relating to the law that was to be applied in the East Indies may be compared with the provisions of the last article of the Old Statutes of Batavia quoted in the text.
I66. van der Chijs, op.cit. (in n. 3I) i, pp. 472-3.
I67. Op.cit. pp. 593-4.
I68. This latter name, by which the code is usually referred to in the records of the Cape of Good Hope (see, e.g., the Resolution of the Governor in Council of the Cape, I2th February 1715, Cape Council of Policy Archives C 9 pp. 279-28I, declaring that the code should be observed as the law of the settlement so far as its provisions did not conflict with laws issued by the local legislative authority at the Cape) suggests that the code applied to all the settlements of the E. India Company. cp. the Preface to the Statute Law of the Cape of Good Hope for the period I7I4 to 1853, Cape Town, 1862, p. v.
I69. Valentyn op.cit., iv, Beschryvinge van Groot Djava p. 294, Dona Clara v. Dona Maria (I822) P. Ramanathan, Reports I820-33 at p. 37. In Karonchihany v. Angohainy (I904) 8 New Law Reports (Ceylon) at p. 23 de Sampagyo A. J. Said "it appears that the Statutes of Batavia were formally adopted in Ceylon by resolution of the Governor in Council on 3rd March, I666, as shown by a statement to that effect in memoir written by Heer Zwardekrwon' (sic), 'once Commandeur of Jaffnapatnam". The correctness of this statement is open to doubt if it refers to what Zwaarde croon in his Memoir for the Council of Jaffnapatnam (I697) trans. Op.cit. (in n. 76) p. 62 says about the Statutes of Batavia in their relation to the Instructions for the Assizer. Unfortunately the minutes of meetings of the Colombo Council for the relevant period are no longer extant in the Ceylon National Archives or in the Archives at the Hague or at Djakarta (the former Batavia). However, even before I666, the Statutes were cited in various enactments as applying in Ceylon (e.g., the Proclamation of 24th August I659 which penalties

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the cruel treatment of slaves C.N.A. I/2438 pp. Ioz-4 transl. C.O. 54/I24 at pp. 298-300) and in Instructions addressed to officials (e.g., Instructions from Commissioner van Goens to the Governor of Ceylon I66I in the Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon I66I trans., op.cit. (in n. 6) p. 7; cp. Commandeur Pavilioen’s Memoir I665 trans. op.cit. p. III:7).
In 1715 the Council of Seventeen in the mother-country had written to the Governor-General at Batavia ordering a revision of the Statutes and two commissioners were appointed; but nothing further was done till the second half of the century. Finally, in I764 Upper Merchant, J. J. Craan, who had been entrusted with the work of revision, submitted the result of his labours to a committee of the Council of Batavia, which amongst other things modified the rigour of many of the penal provisions. See generally van der Chijs, op.cit., ix, pp. I-25.
van der Chijs, op.cit. p. 28.
Op.cit. p. 25.
J. Burnand, op.cit. (in n. IO) p. 83 and C.N.A. 25/I/44 p. I, H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) p. (29 quoted in n. I75. Burnand hints that the approval of the Council was not given because
the New Statutes went too far in the directions of "modifying the laws of Europe' with a view to "adapting them to the custom of India' (loc.cit.).
van der Ghijs, op.cit., ix, p. 25.
In 1773 two members of the High Court of Justice of Colombo declared that the New Statutes ought to be observed in Ceylon as "being the latest and most modern Law of the Capital of India' on the subject of intestate succession (van Cleef's Case (1773) in J. W. Vanderstraaten. The Decisions of the Supreme Court of Ceylon sitting in Appeal from 1869 to I87I Appendix A pp. xxviii-xxix). H. Cleghorn, following J. Burnand op.cit. (in n. IO) at p. 83 and C.G.A. 25/I/44 p. I, wrote 'although these Statutes have never obtained from the superior tribunals of the Republic the sanction of Law, still their local utility has induced them to be adopted in all the colonies; and it is these Statutes which now regulate the functions and the duties of the different Courts of Justice and Police, in Ceylon'. (op. cit. (in n. 6) J.C.B.R.A.S., iii (New Series), I953, p. II29). In the Alexander Johnston Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' (I832) it is stated that the New Statutes "though ---.... never, finally confirmed by the Directors in Holland. were, however, transmitted by the Supreme Government at Batavia to the Dutch Government in Ceylon for their guidance and were observed by them as law upon several occasions'

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN. CEYLON 5 I
(C.O. 54/I24 pp. 6-7). These Johnston Papers contain lists of enactments applicable in Ceylon under the Dutch regime in which the New Statutes are cited on several points. Ottley C.J. in his replies to the questions of the Royal Commissioners of Eastern Enquiry (I830) said that the New Statutes were in force in Ceylon; cp. Karonchihamy v. Angohamy (1904) 8 New Law Reports at p, Io, See also the Wolfendahl Church Case S. Grenier, The Appeal Reports for 1873 Fart III at pp. 83-84.
I76. Instructions from Commissioner Simons to Governor van Assemburg of the Cape of Good Hope, I708, in F. Valentyn, op.cit. (in n. I), v, part 2. Beschryvinge van de Kaap der Goede Hoope p. I39. In order to supplement the Statutes, Simons sent to Batavia a list of law books which were to be procured from Batavia for the Cape Court (ibid.). - - -
I77. To use the words of Commandeur Pavilioen's Memoir see p. Io.
I78. See, e.g., C.N.A. I./2438 to I/2450. Sir Alexander Johnston reports having made "as accurate a collection. as can be procured' of the legislation enacted by the Dutch Government and also 'a short summary..... of the contents of each of the Regulations (letter to the Governor I4th January I815 C.N.A. 6/649). The Johnston Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' C.O. 54/I24 pp. 252-273 contain "a list of all the proclamations published in Ceylon from the time the Dutch took possession of the Maritime Provinces' (op.cit. p. 4). This list, which classifies the enactments under topics, appears also as an annexe to Johnston's letter to the Governor 4th November 1807 (C.N.A. 5/79). A more or less chronological "Index of Regulations of the Dutch Government' appears in the Christie Collection of the Johnston papers in C.N.A. 25/I./2. This latter list is for the most part the same as the somewhat fuller "Index to the Legislative Acts of the Dutch Government of the Island of Ceylon' which appears as an Appendix to C.L.A. op.cit. (in n. 2).
I79. The following heads, under which the enactments have been classified in the list of them given in the Alexander Johnston Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' (C.O. 54/I24 pp. 252-73) indicate the chief topics with which they deal: "Slaves; Religion; Concubinage and Adultery; Military Men; Duel; Taverns and Arrack shops, Weapons, Gunpowder, etc.; Thefts, Commerce; Coins; Roman Catholicks, Bazar; Maurmen and Gentoos; Burghers (or Citizens); Cinnamon; Chingaleese; Produces of the Country; Lands; Wards, Streets and Roads, ASSayer Government Duty; Public Trade; Loans of Money; Ships and Vessels; Beggars, Ramblers and Lepers; Strangers; Stamp Paper; False Evidence; Monopoly; Employments; Correspondence; Marriages; Administration of Justice; Coins'.

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JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
He was a “Meester in de Rechten', a Doctor of Laws (cp. the Tesavalamai Code ad fin., L.E. I956 vol. I p. Io9) and was Governor from IIth May 1703 to 22nd November 1707 (Ceylon Calendar II2I5 p. II,4). For his efforts to provide an up-to-date and consolidated edition of the orders issued from the home country and Batavia and to induce the members of the High Court of Justice at Colombo to study the Statutes of Batavia and the placaten (see n. I82) "which have been more than four times proclaimed here', and for the catalogue which he caused
to be made of the 'very useful library in the Council Chambers'
at Colombo, see his Memoir, I707, trans. op.cit. (in n. 45) pp. 4 and 20. ·
C.N.A. I./2.393. See n. I96 for the reasons which led to this compilation. For English translations of the Orders see the translation. in the Alexander Johnston Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' C.O. 54/I23 pp. 516-47 (which seems to be identical with the translation in C.N.A. 5/79 pp. I26-88) and that which appears in C.N.A. I./ 2393 (which also once belonged to the Johnston Collection of manuscripts). H. F. Mutukisna A Nevø Edition of the Thesavaleme, Colombo, I862, pp. 686–706 reproduces am English translation made “from the Tamil Versions published at different times by the Dutch authorities' (op. cit. p. 685). "The Tamil version of the Seventy Two Orders' that appears in the Appendix to the same book seems to have been prepared "by collating several copies' of the 'Version published at different times by the Dutch authorities' (op. cit. p. 685).
In Dutch "placaat' (plural "placaten') meant a public notice affixed to a board (cp. the English 'placard') and, derivatively, a legislative enactment promulgated by being so affixed.
Gov. Simons' Memoir transl. op.cit. (in n. 45) P. 4. -
B. H. M. Vlekke, Nusantara: A History of Indonesia, 2nd edn., the Hague, I959, pp. I 55, I65, 222-3. 248; E. S. de Klerk, History of the Netherlands East Indies, Rotterdam, I938, i, pp. 350-I.
H. Cleghorn, op.cit. (in n. 6).
See, e.g., J. C. Wolfs, op.cit. (in n. 23) p. I77, trans. op.cit.
(in n. 23) p. 272.
H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) J.C. B. R.A.S., iii, (New Series),
I953, p. 13I; cp. F. Valentyn, op. cit. (in n. I) p. 267.
See note I48.

I89. S
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 53
ee, e.g., the Placaat of 28th May I773 prohibiting marriage between persons closely related to each other (n. 22 I). The 56th Order of the Compendium of Orders for Jaffnapatnam (see p. 20 and n. 18I above) prohibited the practice of the native inhabitants, "on the occasion of the marriage of their children and when they first enter a new house, receiving money on having given beatle' i.e., betel leaves presented as a token of regard-a practice which 'in former times was a good usage amongst relatives and friends' but which later assumed 'the appearance of a tax and obligation', for "the poor ignorant people.....being awed by the great are afraid to refuse giving'. (Mutukisna, op.cit. (in n. 18I) pp. 699-700). Cp. the Council Resolutions of 27th February 1785 C.N.A. I./ I00) and 26th April 1785 (trans. C.O. 54/124 pp. 2I5-7), the Circular Letter of 5th March I 785 (trans. C.L.R., ii, I887-8, pp. 430-II) and the Proclamations of 26th November 1784 (trans. C.O. 54/I24
p. 270) and 24th October I785 (trans. Mutukisna Op.cit. p. 7 I5)
prohibition the taking of presents for securing employment under the Government, e.g., as native headmen. Note also Governor Simons' refusal to accept the suggestions, which had been made by many mudaliyars (native chiefs) that legal force should be given to the revival of the ancient Tamil custom by which emancipated slaves behaving improperly towards their former masters could be reduced into slavery (Governor Simons'
letter dated 4th June I 7o7 to Commandeur van der Duyn see
n. 200). For two other changes made by the Dutch in the Tamil customary law relating to the sale of land, see the Tesavalamai Code Part VII article I and the above-mentioned letter of
Governor Simons.
I90. The Tamil word "tecavalamai” (so spelt in the “Tamil Lexicon
published under the authority of the University of Madras, vol. 4 Madras, I93I, p. 2053), means "the custom of the country'. Various spellings of the word are to be found in different Ceylon enactments: e.g., "Thase Walema' in Regulation No. 18 of
1806 “Thesawalamy” in the title on the cover of the printed copy
of the Code issued in the early British period (C.N.A. Pending File (Old) no. Io5), "Thesavalamai' in Ord. No. 4 of I895, "Tesawalamai' in Ord. No. I of IQII and "Thesawalamai" in Ord. No. 59 of I947. In the present article "Tesawalamai'
has been used as being closest to the form adopted by the
above mentioned Lexicon and to current usage in Ceylon.
I9I. The compiler's preamble to the Tesavalamai Code, transl. in
The Legislative Enactments of Ceylon, I900 edition, Colombo, i, p. I2 and I956 edin. vol. 3 p. 76. The phrase in the Dutch text is "de Jaffnapatnamse oude Costuymen en Insettingen” (C.N.A.
I/2392).

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I92. The Instructions, dated 2Ist June 166I, from Commissioner
Rijcklof van Goens Senior to Governor van der Meyden in the Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon I66I trans. Pieters op.cit. (in n. 6) p. I2. A century later Commandeur A. Mooyaart of Jaffnapatnam wrote: "the natives are very anxious for the old customs to be maintained'. (Memoir, I766, C.N.A. I/2706, trans. S. Pieters, 19Io, at p. 6).
I93. Memoir of the Commandeur for the Council of Jaffnapatnam,
I697, trans. S. Pieters, Colombo, I9II, p. 50.
194. The preamble to the copies of the Dutch text of the Tesavalamai
Code in the Ceylon National Archives (C.N.A. I/2392) and in the Algemeen Rijksarchief at the Hague (Kol. Arch. Aanwinsten I876 no. A XXIII, I 395) gives the date of the Governor’s directive as I4th August I706. But the date given in the translation of the Code in the Appendix (at p. 740) to the translation of S. van Leeuwen's Het Roomsch-Hollandsch Recht, made in Ceylon at the request of Sir Alexander Johnston (cp. n. 225) and published in 1820, in the Alexander Johnston Papers on Ceylon Native Laws and Customs in the Public Record Office, London, (C.O. 54/I23 pp. 77, IIo) and in the annexe to Alexander Johnston's Report to the Governor on the Customary Law, November 1807 (C.N.A. 5/79 p. 189) is I4th August I704. This latter date must have been an error made by those whom Johnston had employed (cp. ch. 5n. 25) to translate the Code into English. The versions of the English translation of the Code "corrected from the original Dutch by the Hon. J. A. Swettenham' (Legislative Enactments of Ceylon, I895 edin., iii, Preface p. iii), that appeared in the Legislative Enactments of Ceylon I895 edition and in subsequent editions of the Enactments give the same date as in the Dutch text in the Ceylon National Archieves.
I95. Cp. pp. I9-20 and n. I80.
I96. S
ee Disava Isaaksz's statements in the preamble to the Tesavalamai Code and at the end of it (C.N.A. I/2392, translated L.E. I956, vol. 3, pp. 76, Io9).
The Governor is said (Alexander Johnston to Maitland 4th November ISo7, C.O. 54/I20 p. 85 and C.N.A. 5/79 pp. 46-7) to have acted on complaints, made by some residents of Jaffnapatnam, that the courts there did not follow the statutory orders and the customary law. Upon inquiry "it was found to be extremely difficult to ascertain what usages and what regulations were in force', and 'in order to simplify the law according to which the magistrates and courts were bound to decide and to prevent for the future the sort of confusion and discontent which has arisen amongst the people from not knowing the

I97.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 55
duties that they were expected to perform', the Governor directed the preparation of a compendium of the statutory regulations (for which see p. and n. I&I) and the Tesavalamai Code.
Cpl. n. I07 above.
I98. i.e., Tamil. Cp. the phrase "the Malabar or Tamul Inhabitants'
in the description of those governed by the Tesavalamai Code in the English translation in the Alexander Johnston Papers C.O. 54/123 at p. 77 and in the translation of Van Leeuwen's Het Roomsch-Hollandsch Recht, 1820, pp. 737, 741. 'The Portuguese arrived first on the western coast of India, and............. called the language they found spoken on that coast by the name by which the coast itself had long been called by their Arab predecessors, viz., Malabar'. Later "they made their acquaintance with various places on the eastern or Coromandel coast, and........... the coast of Ceylon, and finding the language spoken............on the eastern coast similar to that..........on the western, they came to the conclusion that it was identical with it, and called it. by the same name, viz., Malabar, a name which has survived to our own day amongst the poorer classes of Europeans and Eurasians. The better educated members of those classes have long learned to call the language of the Malabar coast by its proper name, Malayalam, and the language of the eastern coast Tamil'. R. Caldwell, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages, 2nd edn., London, I875, p. III.
I99. Cpl. n. I03 above.
2OO.
2O
2O2
203
See the letters from Disava Isaaksz to Commandeur A. van der Duyn, from the Commandeur to Governor Simons and from the Governor to the Commandeur, dated 5th April, 9th May and 4th June 1707, in C.N.A. I./2392, trans. in the Legislative Enactments of Ceylon, I895 edin., iii, pp. lix-lx. See also Alexander Johnston's letter to the Governor, 4th November 1807, C.N.A. 5/79 atpp. 46-7 and C.O. 54/120, and his letter of Ist May 1814 to the Governor, C.N.A. 6/469.
. The district was inhabited for the most part by people who spoke
Tamil: see, e.g., the Memoir of Governor van Gollenesse I'75 II, trans. C.O. 54/I25 at p. 260 and the Report on the district (2 by its Commandant, Elias Paravacini de Capelli, I775), transl. in part in C.O. 54/I23 pp. 58-68).
. The Report trans, op.cit. p. 58. . See n. I23 above. The ancestors of these Mukkuvar "came over
centuries ago from the coast of Malabar and settled partly in this district and partly in that of Batticaloa........ Although they have since their arrival in this Island been coverted'

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56 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
(from Hinduism to Islam or to Christianity), 'yet they all preserve a sort of hereditary affection for those customs and laws which their ancestors brought with them from their original country“ (Johnston C.J. to the Governor, Ist May I8I4, C.N.A.
.(6/469 م 204. See p. n. I3 above.
205. Johnston's letter to the Governor, Nov. 1807, C.N.A. 5/79 p. 46. Cp. Governor Falck's Report on the circuit made by him from Kalpitiya through the Northern Province to Batticaloa in 1767 C.N.A. I/2743 (transl. C.O. 54/I25 at pp. 495a-496), which adds that lesser criminal offences were to be punished in the same manner as before the cession of Puttalam by the King of Kandy to the Dutch (ibid.).
206. See n. 203 above. Even before their subjection to European rule, these Mukkuvar chiefs or 'Wannienaars' (Vanniars) had 'formed a kind of Land Raad Court to decide all cases relative to the management of the place' (Gov. Falck's Report, cited in n. 205, transl. C.O. 54/125 p. 495a). This tribunal, which consisted of eighteen Vanniars, was called the Muttrakudam (S. Casie Chitty, The Ceylon Gazetteer, Cotta, I834, pp. 277-8). Later their number was reduced to twelve (op.cit. p. 278) and later still to nine (Gov. Falck's Report loc.cit.).
207. Gov. Falck's Report cited in n. 205, transl. C.O. 54/I25 pp. 495a496, paragraph 5 of the Instructions for the Commandant of Kalpitiya and Puttalam in Council Minutes 2nd August 1773 C.N.A. I/167.
208. See n. 24 above.
209. There are many variations in the spelling of the English word for the name of the Prophet of Islam and in that of the derivative for those who follow his teachings. But, strictly, 'the word "Mohammedan', in whatever form it may be spelt, is incorrect and should not be used' - the 'correct expression' - - - - - - - 'to designate a person professing the religion preached by the Prophet' being 'Muslim' (Report of the Committee appointed to........ report upon the variations......... in the spelling of the word "Mohammedan', S.P. xxxv of 1924, Colombo, I924). In the present work this suggestion has been followed and applied also to the law applicable to the Muslims, although it has been pointed out that 'such terms as Muslim law, philosophy, science art, culture are all unsatisfactory', because 'strictly speaking ("Muslim.') cannot be applied to any thing so a o except a rational human being capable of making a decision about his faith' (A.A.A. Fyzee, Cases in the Muhammadan Law of India and Pakistan, Oxford, 1965, p. xxi).

20.
22.
2I3.
2I4.
2I5.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 57
Alexander Johnston's Letter to the Governor, 4th November
I8o7, C.N.A. 5/79 pp. 5I-2. .
. Ceylon Native Laws and Customs C.O. 54/I23 p. 494 quoted in
n. 2I5 below.
See n. 23 above.
Alexander Johnston to the Governor, 4th November I807, C.N.A. 5/79 pp. 5I-2; cp., for Jaffnapatnam, Johnston to the Governor Ist May 1814, C.N.A. 6/469.
The chapter (van der Chijs, op.cit. (in n. 3I), ix, pp. 4 IO-45 II) contains 36 sections, the 34th of which contains a code of 'civil
laws and customs by which the Mohammedans are guided in the decision of the differences among them as regards succession, inheritance, marriage, etc. collected from the Mohammedan books of law and approved by the Council of India' (op.cit. pp. 4I7-8). This latter code consists of IO2 articles arranged under two "Titles' or Chapters - the first Title consisting of 63 articles which deal with succession on death and the second Consisting of 39 articles, which deal with marriage and Some of its consequences. This code had originally been given the force of law by a Resolution of the Governor-General and Council of Batavia on 25th March I 76o (op.cit., vii, pp. 392-3). For translations of this code see the Alexander Johnston Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' C.O. 54/123 pp. 494-502. (cp. n. 2I5 below) and item 5/I7 of the Mackenzie (Private) Collection in C.L. Blagden, A Catalogue of Manuscripts in European Languages belonging to the Library of the India Office, i, pt. I, London, I9I6.
No copy of the Code of Muslim Law promulgated by Governor Falck has been found amongst the Dutch Records in the Ceylon National Archives. But at the end of volume 2 of P. Sluysken's "Eene Beschrijving van de Landdienst op Ceillon, I784, (see In. I), which was intended inter alia to be a manual for the instruction of the Land Regents in Ceylon (op.cit. p. I), there appears (at pp. 383-417) the Dutch text of what is entitled “Besondere Wetten aangaande Mooren off Mahometaanen ofte On Christenen onder de Inlandse Natien’’ (p. 244). This contains 23 of the 36 sections of the chapter entitled 'Special Laws relating to .......... Mohammedians' in the New Statutes of Batavia, including section 34 (which contains the code, consisting of IO2 articles, mentioned in n. 2I4 above).
A Petition, dated 4th July 1827, submitted by the 'Moors' of Colombo to the High Court of Appeal states that 'the Mahometan Code of Batavia was sent for during the Dutch Government and adopted as the Laws of the Moorish inhabitants of

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Colombo with certain modifications” (C.O. 4 I6/I8 F 66 pp. I-2). Amongst the Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' presented to the Colonial Office by Sir Alexander Johnston (see p. below), is a document in English, entitled "Orders stipulated to be observed by the Moormen or Mohammetan (sic) living in different places” (C.O. 54/I23 p. 494), which are stated (p. 502) to have been “sent from Batavia in Dutch language to Governor I. W. Falck on September 2nd I77o who (had them) translated into Malabar' (i.e., Tamil, cp. n. I98) "and ordered to be observed'. This document is in substance a translation of the code contained in Section 34 of the chapter, already mentioned of the New Statutes of Batavia, with slight adaptations to local circumstances (cp. the use of the Tamil 'sidenam' for "dowry' in clauses 2, 66 and 75 and 'lebbe' for "priest' in clauses 68-70, 76 and 78); and it is probably a translation of the code which was in force in Ceylon in late Dutch times, a translation of which is known to have been made at the instance of Sir Alexander Johnston.
2I6. See p. I5 above.
2I7. See, e.g., de Coste's Memoir I77o op.cit. (in n. 8) above trans. C.O. 54/I24 pp. I4 ff.), Peter Sluysken, op.cit. (in m. I) trans. in part in C.O. 54/I24 pp. 48I-5I9 and Gov. J. G. Loten's Memoir I757, C.N.A. I/27o3, trans. E. Reimers, Colombo,
I935, pp. 27-3I.
218. Lord Hobart's Minute on the Political Department I6th February I798, C.O. 55/2 p.7I. Many regulations sought to secure the faithful discharge by the native inhabitants of the services they owed to the Company. E.g., regulations prohibiting the alienation or mortgage of "service' lands (Council Resolution of Ioth December I744 C.N.A. I./93 trans. C.O. 54/I24 p. I44; Proclamation of I3th January I745, C.N.A. I/2442 trans. C.O. 54/124 pp. 157-8; Resolution of 27th August 1746, cp. Disava de Coste's Memoir C.N.A. I/2709 trans. C.O. 54/124 pp. 33, 46; Proclamation of I5th September 1746, C.N.A. 1/2442); or the evasion of obligations, based on caste, by the native inhabitants dressing like Europeans (Resolution of IIth October 1759, C.N.A. I./I3I trans. C.O. 54/124 pp. I5I-2) and regulations to determine the caste of children of parents not belonging to the same caste (cp. de Coste's Memoir trans. op.cit. at p. 36 and Resolution of 23rd August I747, trans. C.O. 54/I24 p. I45; Resolution of 23rd March I 753, C.N.A. I/I I4 trans. C.O. op.cit. pp. III 8-9 and Resolution of 2Ist August 1770, C.N.A. I/I60 trans. C.O. op.cit. p. I46; cp., for Jaffnapatnam, Orders 2I and 35 of the so-called "Seventy Two Orders' translated in Mutukisna, op.cit. in n. I8I. pp. 690-I and 695). The marriage of children of brothers and sisters was favoured as it avoided the division

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 59
of property which "prejudices the performance of the Government services which is the duty of the possessors of such property”.- (de Coste's Memoir, trans. C.O.54/I24 p.36).
2I9. Karonchihany v. Angohamy (I904) 8 N.L.R. at p. 24; cp., as regards the formalities for the constitution of marriage, Case no. 59572 D.C. Colombo (1872) K. D. G. Browne, Reports of Cases decided in the Supreme and other Courts of Ceylon, i, Appendix A p. iii.
220. The inducements to profess the "Government Religion' were many. "Proclamation was publicly made that no native could aspire to the rank of modliar' (cp. H. Cleghorn op.cit. (in n. 6) p. 133) 'or be even permitted to farm land or hold office under the government, who had not first undergone the ceremony of baptism........... and subscribed to the doctrines contained in the Helvetic confession of faith' (J. E. Tennent, Christianity in Ceylon, London, I850, i, p. 45). Cp. J. Cordiner, A Description of Ceylon, London 1807 i, p. 155, Rev. T. J. Twisleton to Gov. Maitland, 8th January I8Io in C.N.A. 2/4 at p. 268 and Gov. Maitland to Lord Castlereagh, 4 March 1809, C.O. 54/34). 'Accustomed.............. under the Portuguese and Dutch to regard baptism as the test........... for the enjoyment of numerous civil advantages', the native inhabitants even in British times "still retained the idea that the inheritance of property by their children as well as other personal privileges would be contingent on the insertion of their names in the thombo or baptismal register of the district'. (Tennent, op.cit. p. 87; cp. Rev. T. J. Twistleton to Gov. Maitland, 8th January 18Io, C.N.A. 2/4 at pp. 266-7).
22I. See, e.g., the Placaat of 28th May I773, the provisions of which are based (see Council Minutes of 28th May and 24th November I773 C.N.A. I/165 and I/I66) on Articles 54 to 66 of the Echt Reglement (Marriage Ordinance) of the States-General of I8th March I656. This Placaat recites that marriages and unions were often being entered into "amongst the heathen Sinhalese and Malabars' by persons who are closely related to each other, makes known to 'all inhabitants belonging to the territory of the Dutch East India Co.' the categories within which marriage is prohibited, renders the marriages of persons within the prohibited degrees “null and void and entirely ineffective' and penalises the parties to incestuous unions (C.N.A. I./2445); cp. Notification I3 of Ist July 1773 (transl. in Mutukisna, op.cit. (in n. 18) p. 7I2). For the penalties on adultery and fornication see, for Jaffnapatnam, Order 52 of I704 (Mutukisna. op.cit. p. 699) and see Notifications 8-I2 of Ist July 1773 (Mutukisna, p. 7I2). As regards the formalities for the Constitution of marriages of "Roman Catholics, Mahomedans and

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Heathens' see, e.g., chapter 5 of Disava de Coste's Memoir op.cit. (in n. 8) trans. C.O. 54/ II 24 p. 37; cp. op.cit. p. 73.
222. The native inhabitants must often have followed practices inconsistent with Christianity; but it is unlikely that such practices were given legal recognition in the case of these who professed Christianity (cp. the Report of the Native Commissioners in Walliamme v. Maylz0"agenam (I82I) H. F. Mutukisna op.cit. (in n. I8I) p. 18); and it may be doubted whether in other cases they were given such recognition except in special circumstances, as where they were supported or believed to be supported by religious sanctions. Muslims were permitted poly- gamy 'according to the law of Mahomet' (Article Ioo of the ... Code of 'Special Laws relating to.......... Mohammedans' (cp. nn. 214, 215) in the New Statutes of Batavia, 1766, van der Chijs op.cit. (in n. 3 I), ix, p. 43 I). The Tesavalamai Code I7O7 (see p. ) permitted polygamy to a 'Pagan who comes from the coast' (of India) 'or elsewhere' and married a 'Pagan' woman (clauses 17, 18 of Part I of the Code Legislative Acts of Ceylon. I9I3 edin., i, p. IO); cp. 'the Heathen Law among the Vellales and Chitties on the Coast of Coromandel', compiled about 1738 by J. Mossel, President of the Court of Justice at Nagapattinam, in C. O. 54/ II 23 at pp. 225, 225a. For the circumstances in which polygamy was permitted in Hindu Law see P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, ii, Poona I94 I, pp. 550-4 and J. D. Mayne, Treaties on Hindu Law and Usage, IIth edin., Madras I950, pp. I72-4.
223. Cp. p. 7 at n. 45a and nn. Io8, Io9 below. Native custom must also have played a prominent part in the decisions of the Disavas, the Fiscaals, the Chief Residents and the native chiefs (see p. above); but their courts were unfortunately not courts of record, cp. n. 30.
224. He was born in 1775 and came to Ceylon as Advocate-Fiscal in I802. He was appointed Provisional Chief Justice in 1806, Puisne Justice in 1807 and Chief Justice in 18Io. Owing to Lady Johnston's ill-health he left Ceylon on leave on 3oth December 1817 (C.N.A. 5/9 p. 3I5) and relinquished his post with effect from Ist March 1819 (C.N.A. 4/4 p. 369). After his retirement he was a member of the Privy Council and of its Judicial Committee. He died in London, 6th March 1849, aged 74 (Times of Ceylon 30th April 1849).
225. Johnston's letter to the Governor 4th November 1807 C.O. 54/120 p. 89 and C.N.A, 5/79 p. 55. He "most laudably exerted the energies of his mind to make those researches and collections which should illustrate (the island's) past and present condition'. E. Upham in his Introduction p. vii to The Sacred and

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 6.
Historical Books of Ceylon, London, I833, being a translation, made by Johnston’s “official translators” (p.x), of the Mahavamsa, the Rajaratnakaraya, the Rajavaliya and of some "curious tracts and treatises on the doctrine of Guardma' (Gautama' "and other subjects of Buddhist literature, furnished by competent native authorities'. Johnston presented the original texts of the above, as well as a translation made by his direction of the parts relating to Ceylon of V. Valentyn's Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien, 1726 (cp.n. I above), to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain (cp. C.O. 54/I24 pp. 3, 5), of which he was one of the founders (D.N.B., x, p. 940).
To the Library of the Colonial Office he presented translations of memoirs and reports by various Dutch officials and other material relating to Ceylon under the Dutch regime; see especially C.O. 54/I23, 54/I-24 and 54/I25. Amongst this material were a "Statement of the Placaats which the Dutch government made for the regulation of these settlements' (annexe to Johnston's letter to the Governor November 1807 6.N.A. 5/79 cp.nn. I78, I79) and a translation of S. van Leeuwen's Het Roomsch Hollandsch Recht, II edn., 1744, 'made under the orders of Sir Alexander Johnston by the translators of the Supreme Court' (C.O. 54/124 p. 8a). A revised version of this latter translation, with an Appendix containing the Tesavalamai and the Mohammedan Codes, was published in Londen in I820 "by Command of His Majesty's Secretary of State for the Department of War and of Colonies'. Amongst the Johnston Papers in the Library of the Colombo Museum are a translation of "such of' the Old Statutes of Batavia "as apply to Ceylon at present' and of the preamble to the New Statutes, as well as a statement of differences between the two codes (Museum Ms. No. I5), and an account of the courts which administered justice in Ceylon under the Dutch regime (Ms. No. 38).
226. Johnston's letter to the Governor, 4th November 1807, C.N.A.
5/79 p. 44.
227. Op.cit. p. 56 Cp. n. 22 above Johnston (loc.cit.) describe Colombo,
Galle and Matara as “the Cyngalese Provinces”. .
228. "Chitty's are merchants' who "do not have their origin in Ceylon but in the opposite coast' (of India); F. Valentyn, op.cit. (in n. 1) p. 8. "The Coast Chitties, Parruas' (i.e., Paravar, Tamils of a fishing caste (Gov. T. van Thee's Memoir trans. 1697, C.N.A. I/2677, S. Anthonisz, Colombo, 1915, p. 8, S. Casie Chitty, Remarks on the Origin and History of the Parawas J.R.A.S. of Gt. Britain iv, I837, p. 130) "and Moors under their respective heads' each had "their special location' in Colombo (Gov. Simons' Memoir, I707. transl. op.cit. (in n. 45) p. 20; cp. Gov. Schreuder's Memoir I762, transl., op.cit. (in n. I) p. 55).
7388-3

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The account of the customary laws of the 'Chitties' submitted to the Governor in 1807 appears in C.N.A. 5/79 pp. 3II-2. A fuller account appears in the Alexander Johnston Papers on "Ceylon Native Laws and Customs' in C.O. 54/I23 at pp. 220-247; cp. op.cit. pp. 7a-8. These Johnston Papers also contain (op.cit. at pp. I62-I64a, 258-260, cp. 2I4-2I8a) a statement of the customary law of the Paravar, 'who resort to Ceylon' from South India "for the purposes of trade and who form a considerable portion of the divers who dive for the pearl oysters at the several pearl fisheries held on the coasts of Ceylon' (op.cit. p. 7a), and an outline of the customary laws of the Parsee merchants of Ceylon (C.O. 54/124 pp. II, 476-9). Sir Alexander also had "a great number of different collections' of 'the laws which prevail in the Canadian Country' .............. 'some made by the Portuguese, some by the Dutch Government, some collected by himself from different persons whom he had sent into the interior of the country to collect information upon the subject' (op.cit. pp. 2-3; cp. n. 232).
229. Johnston's letter to the Governor, 4 November 1807 C.N.A. 5/79 p. 45. In a report, dated 6th September I8I4, to the Governor on a sessions of the Supreme Court held at Galle and Matara, Johnston suggested the need for a Regulation to be enacted setting out the law relating to Wills, Inheritance, Executors and Administrators, Guardians and Minors, and Unsoundness of Mind; and he said that 'this Regulation, in as far as it relates to Mahometans and Hindoos, must be founded upon their respective laws, but in as far as it relates to the Cyngalese, it must be founded upon the Dutch Roman Law, which, as all trace of their own law has been obliterated from their recollections by the policy of the Dutch, is the only law that at present prevails among them' (C.N.A. 6/469). With regard to the Dutch law of succession applying to the Sinhalese, even to those who did not profess Christianity, compare the 'Ceremony of Marriage as practised in Ceylon' amongst the 'Buddhist Tracts”, translated in E. Upham, op.cit. (in n. 225), iii, where a description is given of the 'manner of marrying, according to the Cingalese custom' (p. 323) 'of the people who are not Christians' (p. 324), and that ceremony is said to have been 'admitted in the time of the Dutch government, on which account the rights of inheriting property are according to the Dutch law'.
230. Johnston's letter to the Governor 4 November I807, C.N.A.
5/79 p. 56. Ср. m. 22.
23I. The Alexander Johnston Papers on Ceylon Native Law and
Customs C.O. 54/I24 p. II.

THE ADMINISTRAT ON OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON 63
232. Sir Alexander wrote (Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, iii, I83I, p. I92; cp. C.O. 54/III 24 pp. 2-3) "Although I possess a great many different accounts of the Kandyan government, laws and institutions, some of them drawn up while the Portuguese and the Dutch held establishments on the island, and some since the English have been in possession of those establishments, I have none which gives so accurate and so detailed a view of that government, and of those laws and institutions, as the one drawn up......... by Sir John D'Oyly'. This Sir Alexander presented to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain in 1820 and it was published in the Transactions of that Society op.cit. pp. I93 to 252. An abridged version of the earlier part of it appeared in the Asiatic Journal, vi. I:83 I pp. 254-9.
One of the accounts referred to by Sir Alexander Johnston as having been made in the Dutch era may have been the 'Answers given by some of the best informed Candyan Priests to Questions put to them by Governor Falck, in the year I769, respecting the antient Laws and Customs of their Country'. A translation of these Answers (which deal mainly with what would today be put under the head of Public Law but also with marriage, divorce and succession) is to be found in Appendix A of A. Bertolacci, A View of the Agricultural Commercial an Financial Interest of Ceylon, London, I817, reprinted in Asiatic Journal, iv, I8I7, pp. 22-28 and II8-I2o.
Among the Alexander Johnston Papers in the Library of the Royal Commonwealth Society in London is a manuscript containing 'Information concerning the form of government, laws and cutoms of the Kings of Kandy' (Wainwright and Matthews, op.cit. p. 225). This is dated I4th August 18oo and is probably one of the accounts referred to above by Sir Alexander as having been made in the British period.
233. See p. III above.
234. Cp. R. Knox, An Historical Relation of Ceylon, London, I68I, pp. 12I and 64, C. Langhansz in the account of his visit to Ceylon, in I695, transl. C.L.R., 3rd series, iv. I935-6 p. 42, J. Davy, An Account of the Interior of Ceylon, London, I82I, pp. Io8-9, S. Casie Chitty, op.cit. (in n. 206) p. 52, Gov. Torrington to Earl Grey I5th January I850 C.N.A. 5/37 at pp. II6-7. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Sinhalese Art, I907, p. III and H. Parker, Ancient Ceylon, London, I909, p. 30 (quoting W. Goonetilleke in The Orientalist, iv, I89o, p. 93). With regard more particularly to the law, cp. A. St. V. Jayewardene,

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235.
236.
237.
2ვ8.
239.
240.
24I.
242.
The Roman Dutch Law as it Prevails in Ceylon. Colombo, I901, p. 9: "the Singhalese laws do not seem to have received that regular and consistent application which the laws of the Moors and Malabars have received.......... it may be that the Sinhalese, whose laws were not inseparable from their religion, and who are an imitative and progressive race, possessed a sort of alloyed body of law so adulterated by the spontaneous admission of Portuguese and Dutch legal rules and principles that codifi cation seemed of doubtful utility'.
Ср. Pp. above.
See p. I5 at n. I&8.
Colombo Electric Tramway Co. v. The Attorney-General (I913) I6
N. L. R. at p. I-73, per Wood Renton J.
See, e.g., the Report of the Commissioned Members of the High Court of Justice of Colombo in Van Cleef's Case (1773) in 1869-71 Vanderstraaten's Reports Appendix A at pp. xxviii ad init. and xxx ad med.
The Report, cited (in n. 238) op.cit. p. xxx and the decision of
the Court op.cit.p. xxxi.
Cp. the last article of the Old Statutes of Batavia, quoted at p. 17. As we have seen (p. ) "the laws statutes and customs in use in the United Netherlands' were in practice understood to mean the laws observed in the Province of Holland.
See p. above.
Van Leeuwen, Censura Forensis, 4th edn., Lugduni in Batavis,
I74I, I.I.I2, Van Der Keessel Theses Selectae Juris Hollandici et Zelandici, Lugduni Batavorum, I8oo, I. 2. I8-22, Van der Linden op.cit. (in n. 7I) I.I.4, where he quotes the Resolution of the States of Holland and West Friesland of 25th May 1735 (see Groot Placaet-Boek) vii, the Hague, III77o, at p. 964) which directed the Supreme Court and all other judges in the province to "do justice according to the laws and ordinances of the land as well as the charters and well-established cutsoms and usages, and in default of these according to the written law' (i.e., Roman Law). Cp. the last article of the Old Statutes of Batavia quoted at p. above.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IN CEYLON б5
243. Cp. Master v. African Mines Corporation Ltd. I907 Transvaal
Sup. Court Reports at pp. 928-9.
244. See, eig., S. van Leeuwen, op.cit. (in n. 7I) 1.3.12 and 5.31. I3. J. van den Sande, Decisiones Frisicae, I635, Preface and J. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas I.3.19. Cf. Bandahamy v, Senanayake (I960) 62 N.L.R. at pp. 323-4.
It must be noticed that a prerequisite to the effective application of the doctrine of binding precedent or stare decisis (the duty to stand by earlier decisions)-namely, the availability to judges and practitioners of a series of continuous reports of the judgments of the higher courts-was lacking in the Dutch era. In the Netherlands the 'courts did not give reasons for their decisions' and "the views expressed by the judges remaimed secret" (J. E. Scholtens in S.A.L.J., lxxxiv, 1966, at p. 397), although the reasons could with some research be traced in the court's archives. Private collections of judicial decisions were few when compared with the number of treatises of the juristsa fact which retlects the relative importance of these two sources of law at the time.
The position was similar in the overseas possessions of the East India Company, and the following statements made with regard to the Cape of Good Hope would be applicable to Ceylon as well: "In the Cape under the rule of the Dutch East India Company (1652-1795) the Raad van Justitie gave no motivated decisions' (i.e., decisions giving reasons) "in criminal or civil cases, but simply what appeared to be ex cathedra judgments. Nor were these judgments freely available, as the day of printing had not yet dawned at the colony. In the circumstances there could hardly be said to be a doctrine of stare decisis'. (E. Kahn in lxxxiv S.A.L.J., I967, at p. 44).
245. The Instructions of Commissioner van Goens to Gov. van der Meyden of Ceylon, I66I, in The Instructions for the Company's Officers in Ceylon 1661 trans. S. Pieters op.cit. (in n. 6) p. 7, Cp. article I of the Instructions of I7th March I632 from the Council of Seventeen to the Governor-General and Council of India in van der Chijs, op.cit. (in n. 31), i, 263, and article Io of the Instructions of 5th January I689 from the StatesGeneral to the Governor of Suriname in Groot Placaetboek, iv, the Hague, I7o5, p. I 337.
246. See, e.g., n. 35.

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247. Gov. North to the Court of Directors of the E. India Co. 26th February 1799, May 1799 and 5th October, I799, C.N.A. 5./I pp. 42-3, Io6-8 and 5/2 pp. III 8-9. Some of the incidents of the "inquisitorial' procedure followed in criminal cases in the Dutch courts (e.g., the fact that not all the proceedings were conducted in open court, that an accused person did not have legal representation as of right and that he was liable to interrogation) must have been distasteful to an Englishman accustomed to the different "accusatorial' system which prevailed in the English criminal courts. But Governor North's other criticisms relate to defects of organisation and personnel which were not entirely absent in the British settlements. For example, the 'Dutch system' of 'small salaries and extensive acknowledged, though not authorised, emoluments' was 'not dissimilar to that which formerly prevailed in the British settlements'. (Lord Hobart's Minute 9th June I797 C.O. 55/2 p. 7, C.N.A. 7/2029); and the absence of a separate judicial service and the combination in the same person of executive and judicial functions (which was due, inter alia, to the insufficiency of trained lawyers in the overseas settlements), persisted in Ceylon for many decades under British rule.
248. See pp. above.

Kantarodai
Lecture delivered before the Meeting of the Society by Dr. C. E. Godakumbura, the President, on the 7th November II g67.
Half a century ago two lectures were delivered before your Society on the present subject by the well-known Scholar and historian, the late Dr. Paul. E. Peiris. I wonder if any who heard him is present today. But I am sure that most of you must have read the two papers published in the Journals of this Society.
There is but scanty reference to the Jaffna Peninsula in the chronicles. We, however, read occasionally of the Nagadipa in the old Sinhalese literary works and the Pali writings of Ceylon. At the same time a few ancient records of importanee which give the name Nagadipa, or its equivalent, and which mention other sites of the present Peninsula, have come to light, and some of these have been read and some published. Evidence from archaeological investigations supplements and adds to the knowledge gained from literary and epigraphical sources. The study of the place names of the area is also instructive.
The ancient name of the Jaffna Peninsula was Nagadipa. The guess of Dr. Peiris, made fifty years ago, has now been confirmed through inscriptions. The first site in the Peninsula which received Dr. Peiris's attention was Chunnakam, where there are mounds covering the remains of ancient dagobas. A fine standing statue of the Buddha, made of limestone, found here, is now in the Archaeological Museum at Anuradhapura. It was once suggested that the name Chunnakam was the equivalent of Pali Cunnagáma (or Sinhalese Hunugama). It is now suggested that the name may be the Tamil equivalent of the Sinhalese Sulunägama (Pali: Cullanagagäma).
I do not propose to deal with other sites explored during the years Ig|7 to I9I9 by Dr. Peiris. I shall limit my observations to a site in the village of Kantarodai about two and a half miles from Chunnakam on the Chunnakam-Manipay road. To reach Kantarodai one has to proceed along Chunnakam-Manipay road and then go by Kandiah-Upadyayar road. Coming from Jaffna one can get to Kantarodai through Uduvil along village roads also.
Before relating the story of the excavations at Kantarodai, and detailing the results obtained so far, I should like to come back to
I. PAUL E. PIERIS: 'Nagadipa and the Buddhist Remains in Jaffna', i JCBRAS, Vol. XXVI (No. 7o, pt. I), I917, pp. III-3o; XXVIII (No. 72
pt. I-4), 1919, pp. 4o -66. Also C. E. GODA KUMBUIRA: “Archaeology of the Ceylon's Northern IPeninsula' (I), Ceylon Today, January 1967; II.ibid. September, I967; III, November I 967.

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Nagadipa wherein Kantarodai is situated, and dwell on a few literary and epigraphical references to Nagadipa, Nagavihāra and Kadurugoda, as Kantarodai was known in Sinhalese. Nagadipa was also known in literature and inscriptions Maninagadipa (Pali) and Mininakdiva or -divayina (Sinhalese).
The book of Buddhistic stories, the Saddharmalankara of the I4th century, which contains material going back to the very early period of Buddhism in Ceylon, relates a story of a marriage union between a crow from the very south of Ceylon with a hen-crow from somewhere in or near Kantarodai. There were no racial or linguistic barriers between the south and the north of Ceylon. A crow whose home was on a wildbo-tree on the lower bund of the Tisavāva in Magama was journeying in search of food throughout the Island, and in course of time came to Maninaga-divayina (or Nagadipa according to the Pali version, the Rasavahini). Here the crow fell in love with a hencrow whose home was on a palmyra palm growing at the entrance to the village of Naga, and marrying her, took her to his own home at Magama, and lived on the wild bo-tree. In course of time the henCrow from Nagadipa found out that her husband was not loyal to her and returned to Nagadipa. The crow came in search of her for a reconciliation. His journey was through Matale.
The gold plate inscription of Vasabha (A.D. 65-Io9) speaks of Nakadiva. The Ramesvaram inscription of Nissankamalla (A.D. II87-II96)° has the passage "Puvagu-divayina, Minimakdivayina, Kappadivayina, Kāradivayina ādivū no-ek divayin balāvadārā”. These confirm that the name Nagadipa was applied to the Peninsula. What is now a peninsula was considered as an island belonging to the main island, that is, the Sihala-dipa.
Now we come to further inscriptional evidence of a very interesting character. This is contained in the fragment of a stone pillar on which had been originally inscribed an immunity grant of the 9th century. The inscribed pillar terminates on top with a pot of special shape, and this sculpture has been published by Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala. The original inscription on this pillar, in the Sinhalese script of the ninth or the tenth century, was on threefaces. On the fourth face the outline drawing of a wheel appears in the preserved fragments.
2. Saddharmálañkäraya, ed. Sri Jfiănesvara Sthavira, Granthaprakáša, Colombo,
1914, pp. 576-578 (Varga XVIII, No. 4). 3. Rasavdhini, ed. Saranatissa Thera, Jinalankara, Colombo, I928, pp. 5I-oo
Vagga VII, No. 1). 4. S. PARANAVITANA, Epigraphia Zeylantica, Vol. IV, London, Art. No. 29,
(pp. 229-237). 5. S. PARANAVITANA, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXXVI, ArtNo. 3, pp. 23-32. 6. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol, XIX, pt. 2 (Dec., 1961), p. 267.

KANTARODAl. - 69
From the preserved portion of the introduction on the first face, we are able to infer that the record belongs to the reign of King Kassapa. IV (A.D. 898-9I4). The rest of what is preserved of the inscription on the other two sides contains the usual type of immunities in attani. pirihar grants of the ninth and the tenth centuries and the names of two of the officers who came to the site to proclaim the immunities (Agbo and Mahakilingam Kasaba). The name of the village in respect of which the immunities were proclaimed is not found in the fragment preserved.
What is more important for the history of the Nagavihara and Kadurugoda is the later writing in very small characters executed between the lines of the original inscription and running over them. Among other subjects, these give the full text of the original inscription as given in the Compendium of Stone Inscriptions (Silalekhana-sangraha)7 compiled by Sumangala Sthavira. Dr. Senarat Paranavitana has in several places described what this "Corpus of Inscriptions' was, and I do not propose to hold my audience describing the same. I am indebted to Dr. Paranavitana for the subject matter of these interlinear inscriptions which he read after a visit to Kantarodai excavation site and the Archaeological Museum at Jaffna on the 8th of July this year.
The necessity to write the full text of the inscription would no doubt have arisen from the reason that even about the 14th century only this fragment of the pillar would have been known. The inscrip. tion has been copied after a collation of the text as it was found in two copies of the "Corpus of Inscriptions', namely, the one at the Mandalagiri-vihāra in Ceylon and the other at Suvariņapura (Palembang in Sumatra). Both versions of the text agree in giving the name of the village which was the recipient of the immunities as "Kadurugoda in the district of Valvita in the Northern Quarter', but the Suvarnapura text has the words Na-veherbad, meaning "belonging to the Nagavihara', before the name Kadurugoda. If this is accepted as the correct reading, the ruins at Kantarodai can be identified as those of the ancient Naga-vihāra.
From this record we know that the village of Kadurugoda belonged to the Nagavihāra. If you take your minds back to the love-story of the crow from Magama, you will remember that he took his bride from a palm that grew at the entrance to Naga-gama, that is, the village in which the Naga-vihara was situated. ・ 。
Further historical information relating to Kadurugoda is gathered from the interlinear writings. In the tiny writing of the 15th century
7. See C. E. GODAKUMBURA, "Epigraphical Studies in Ceylon", Ceylon
Today, October, 1968.

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one reads also the 34th chapter of the Paramparai-pustaka. This particular chapter of the voluminous historical work contained the history of the Sailendra king Samaragraviras of Yavadvipa (Java) who was the son of Samarottunga, the builder of Borobudur and of a vihara called Abhayagiri for Sinhalese monks in Java. Samaragravira's mother is said to have been the daughter of King Dappula II of Ceylon (A.D. 815-83I). Samaragravira's son was King Balaputra who built a vihara at Nalanda as stated in the well-known copper plate of Devapaladeva.
We learn from the interlinear inscriptions that King Samaragravira came to Nagadipa with hostile intentions, but the Sinhalese king of the time was strong enough to defeat the invader, who thereupon came to a treaty with the Sinhalese king. Samaragravira then built an image-house at the Nägavihåra and granted a village named Kan{darasthala for its maintenance. Kandarasthala is the Sanskrit equivalent of Kaidara-goda, which is a variant form of Kaidurugoda or Kadurugoda. 'Kandara' means a stream, or a 'water-course', and if we look for one in the area, we notice that a stream now called Valuki-aru flows in the vicinity of the present archaeological reserve at Kantarodai, and this must be the stream which gave the name to the village.
With this information before us, there is no difficulty now in identifying the Nagakóvila and the Kadurugodavihāraya of the "Demalapattanama' in the Sinhalese Nampota.
Excavationo
Before commencing the excavation a thorough exploration for surface finds was made in the reserve and the gardens near by. At the site of the pit of 1917-I9 IQ there were still visible the landing islab of a vihirage, fragments from Buddha statues, a water-trough, etc. At the north-eastern part of the reserve, where there were but few palmyra palms, were a number of spur stones and at the northeastern corner were a finial of a stipa and a Sanchi type of railing visible on ground. In a garden to the west of the archaeological reserve at Kantarodai was a large quantity of ancient tiles, similar to those that had been discovered in I917-1919. The tiles appear to have fallen with the collapsing of a roof and been there on the ground for centuries. There are yet stumps of pillars in some of the gardens close to the
reSer Ve.
In the reserve itself, to the west of the Uduvil-Kantarodai road, there was a mound which could have been mistaken to be the remains of a dagoba. But on the other side was the abandoned excavation of 1917-1919, and we were able to recognize this to be the earth heaped
8. For Samaragravira, see Epi. Ind., Vol. XVII, Art I7; Hirananda Shastri,
'Nalanda Copper plate of Devapaladeva', pp. 3Io-327.
9. See Ceylon Today, op.cit. Note I; Administration Report of the Archaeological
Commissioner for Financial yeav Igló-I947.

KANTARODAI 7K
up froin those diggings. Three pits were dug in order to clear our doubts. A collection of a variety of potherds, sea-shells, brickbats and coralslabs was made.
A systematic excavation was begun on the 24th of April, Ig6f), on the piece of land at the north-eastern side of the reserve mentioned earlier, where only a few palms grew rather poorly, and where were found a number of spur stones and other cut Stones. There were very low mounds here, the ground was not flat, and the contour was undulating.
The excavation was carried out on a grid basis. A large grid measuring Io, it. east-west by IOo ft. north-South was pegged out. In this grid were marked out Ioo Squares. A two ft. wide baulk was allowed between the squares each of which measures 8 ft. by 8 ft. The present grid was marked D, as the squares dug on the opposite side of the road now running through the reserve, that is on the north-western side, had been marked A, B and C. The squares on the grid are numbered in serial order IDI, D2, D3, D4 etc. beginning from the west and running east, and each pit has a peg with its distinguishing number painted bold in black, so that there would be no confusion in the recording.
Strata:
At the very outset it was possible to make a useful observation with regard to stratification at this site. Due to the dryness of the weather and the very strong winds that blow over the area, the top soil had eroded from time to time. This was evident in the course of the excavation. Structures belonging to a very early period, that is, to about the beginning of the Christian era, were met at relatively low levels. Remains of buildings of the same period are found at very much deeper levels in sites at Anuradhapura and elsewhere.
Structural Remains:
Coming to the finds at the excavation, we shall first enumerate the architectual remains. These may be classified first into four main divisions: (1) remains of stupas, (2) remains of a building, (3) floors (4) spur stones.
(I) Stūpas:
Up to the first week of July I967, remains of twenty stupas had been uncovered. The circumference and the diameter of these stupas varv. Until the baulks between the Squares are removed, it is not possible to give accurate measurements of the stupas. It can, however, be roughly stated that the largest stipahitherto excavated measures 23 feet in diameter, and the smallest is about 6 feet.

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An effort was made to understand the order or plan in which these stipas have been sited, but so far no set or stereotyped pattern has been observed. It may be possible that the stupas are built around a main shrine in groups. It is only when a larger area is excavated that one would be able to study the ground plan of the stupas and form some idea about their purpose. If they are built around a main shrine, it may perhaps be that the foundations of that edifice are not included in the present reserve. In such an event, the making of arrangements for excavations in the adjoining lands, which are occupied, will be a
very difficult undertaking.
Stipas of uniform design:
All the stipas have a moulded base. The base comprises four moulded tiers or courses of coral stones. The centre is filled with coral rubble. The facing of the dome may have been of dressed coral stone. The dome appears to have been capped with a harmika (a square box), sculptured out of limestone decorated on the four sides with Sanchi type railings. On the top of the harmika there is a mortice hole which would have accommodated the chatravali (finial). The chatravali is of limestone, the identical material of the harmiki, and it has about nine rings or bands on its tapering finial. It appears to have been dowelled into the haraniki. From the large collection of finials that are now in the Archaeological Museum at Jaffna, it is evident that the number of stipas has been very large. This is the first instance where so many finials have been found in a single small compact area.
Inside one of the stipas was an urn with a fragment of decayed matter, but it has not yet been ascertained whether the contents are human bone. In the same stipa there was a fragment of decayed bone, and this also awaits examination.
All the stipas are not contemporaneous. They fall into two periods Some stupas are situated on strata No. 2 (floor 2). We see that some stupas are earlier than floor 2 as the intervening spaces between the stipas have been filled up and covered with the floor.
Building:
Close to the stipas are the remains of a building with a moulded limestone base. The coping stones of this structure are lying fallen on the ground. The ground plan of this building has not yet been obtained as further excavation is needed for the purpose.
Floors:
There are three floors pertaining to three periods. Floor one is in layer one, and almost on ground level. Floor two belongs to layer two

KANTARODAI 73
Floor three lies just underneath the second floor. In one pit, the cutting has been so done that the three layers are visible together, and the visitor is able to get a clear idea as to how a site is built through occupation.
The floor is made of lime concrete with an admixture of quartz. In some places the floor is in a good state of preservation, and at some places the floor has cracked due to the subsidence of the earth. Contemporaneous with floor 2 is the stone pavement. The flagstones are of dressed coral, and are square or rectangular in shape.
Spur Stones:
Fourteen spur stones in all have come to light. Some are on floor one, and others are on floor two. It is quite possible that these spur stones belonged to the very early period, and were utilized by the builders of the later periods, raising them up to upper strata. It should be stated that the spur stones found on the top level are relatively Smaller than those found in the second level, indicating that the lighter ones which are easier to carry were raised up to the new level. The Sockets of the spur stones are about 6 in. by 6 in. and about the same depth. They evidently supported wooden posts. So far not a single stone pillar or fragment which had been fitted into these sockets has been found.
Building Material:
There is a mixture of brickbats in the debris, but no full bricks were found. However, a full brick of very large size 18 in. by 8 in. by 2 in. of the Anuradhapura type was recovered from a settlement site about 200 yards north of the site of the grid.
The chief medium of constriction has been coral stone, and coral stone dressed or plain, are found in plenty in this excavation. (Even today coral stone takes the place of bricks in buildings in the Peninsula.) Limestone, also a material found locally, has been used along with coral. There was one solitary piece of granite which has been used as a support.
Sherds pertaining to flat tiles were iound in plenty. Several complete tiles of this type were also found. The presence of tile sherds in such a mass clearly shows that there was a large building with a roof. The use of glazed tiles has not been the fashion at this site, as is evident from the fact that only a few such pieces were recovered. In the premises of a dwelling house a few yards to the west of the reserve there is a mass of tiles which has allen of a roof now lying at the spot where it fell.) The Kantarodai tilles are identical with those of Anuradhapura.
No wood has been found. Copper nails of different sizes are present.

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74 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
Jewellery and Beads:
There are bangles, rings and ear-ornaments. Fragnet its of bangles found are of glass, blue and green, and of chank. Rings, are of metal. Ear-ornaments consist of earrings and discs with a perforation in the centre.
From this excavation has been secured the largest collection of beads. The number of beads runs up to 26,000. In a single pit (D 34) were found 22, ovo.
The beads are of miscellaneous variety. The majority are of paste. Glass, livory, chank, rock-clystal, Carunelian, agate, amethyst and bowanite are the other media. The types and sizes of the beads also vary. There are flat, round, tubular and barrel beads. Double collared beads are common. Beads with a double perforation have also been found. An interesting variety are the beads with a single perforation on one side and a double perforation on the other. Disc and space beads are in the collection. The largest bead, 1.1 inches in length, is of bowanite. Gadrooned and milled heads are in plenty. A rare variety is the Sinall collection of double chamfeed six faceted coloured glass beads. Several of gold are also among the beads.
Pottery:
Among the surface finds from this site are rouletted sherds, but no such sherds were found in the excavation. A single gilded sherd was found. Sherds belonging to spouted Vessels and flat-bottomed lamps. were discovered. Sherds with the Wicker-basket inpression were found, but not in plenty as from the excavations at Gedige or the Tissarama at Anuradhapura. Generally, pottery is not so abundant at this site as at sites in Anuradhapura. Though the sherds are limited, they are of value. The elaborate shape of the rims alone deserves careful study. There was a single red polished sherd. All the pottery is wheel-turned.
Statuette:
A figurine of chank, height 2. IO in representing a Gana (an attendant on god Shiva) was found in pit DS2. The Gana is on the move. The lower part of the body is draped. There is a perforation running. through the entire body, showing that the statuette was fixed to a
vertical object.
Coins from the excavation have been briefly listed in the first article (Ceylon. Today, January, 1967, p. 10. Col. 2). The numismatic evidence, consideration of style of buildings in relation to other sites, etc. enable us to place the Kantarodai remains between about the 2nd century B.C. and 13th century A.D.

KANTARODAI 75
In August this year a grid of the same size as D, that is, Ioo ft. by Ioo ft., to the South of grid D, was pegged out into Ioo Squares. Ten pits 5 ft. by 5 ft. have been dug so far 3.II. I967), following the important finds in these pits.
In pits E 67, E 6S, E 69 and E 7o, we meet with a floor paved with coral stone. This differs from the paved floor in pit D 72 in that it begins from a deeper leyel. From pit E 66 we notice that this paved floor is covered with a concrete of lime.
Linue plastered floors of grid D are also found in Grid E.
Spur stones:
Only spur stoies made of a single stone were found in grid D. A different kind of pillar base, namely, those made of a number of stones set together are found in grid E.
Further Observations:
Haymaiká
Three harmika squares have been found during Kantarodai excavations. Two are from Grid D. One is from the north-east, near the dwelling of the toddy-tappers. What appeared to be a Sanchi railingstone, when dug out, turned out to be a harmika. The lower part of this harmika is of undressed stone, and it appears to have been embedded into the anda of the dagoba. On the top is a socket hole. This is to fix the finial. Sometimes the finial was fixed to the harmikai with the aid of a dowel stone.
Some of the dowel stones are of a special shape, having two projecting pieces.
Originally the harmika was of one stone. Later this had been composed of four separate slabs. Two of such slabs are at the Archaeological Museum in Jaffna, collected during the early explorations.
Finials:
In the earlier stage the chatraz'ali was turned out in a single piece of above. Later, the chatravali was made in parts and dowelled. Each separate part has a mortice hole through which the dowel was fixed. The finial recovered from pit E 67 is of special interest. As the top of this is well preserved, one is able to understand the shape of an old finial. A finial of limestone which is found in pit E 65, shows how sculpture in limestone decay. Only a few basal rings of this comparatively large finial now remain.

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Other objects found recently:
(e) Coloured pieces of tille (h) Laksmi plaques (c) Large crystal
Occupation levels:
As in the grid ID, several occupational levels are noticed in grid E also. The ruins of buildings from the older occupational levels are incorporated in later levels.
Extent of the Tuins:
Reillains of buildings of thic further soutli of the reserve were observed when eurth Was Teniorved to put up beds for palmyrah seedlings. Alicient remains all observed in gardens adjoining the reserve also. All this point to the fact that the Kadurugoda establishment occupied a large Elrica,
Almong the new surface finds there was a coin of Dharmiáokalewa (A.D. I2O8).
:
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, :

The foundation of a lagoba.
Siripatul.

Page 43
Square lox :LIrl sinial of a Iliniäture stip:.
 

A Tinial of a lagola.

Page 44
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A Miniature Dagaba,
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Page 45
Reills.
 

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Page 46

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Page 47
Some Aspects of the Tertiary Period in Ceylon
BY P. E. P. DERANIYAGALA Hony. D.Sc. of Vidyodaya and Ceylon Universities, M.A. (Cambridge), A.M. (Harvard)
with three plates and five text figures drawn by the author. (Paper read before the Royal Asiatic Society on Feb. 23, 1968.)
The Cenozoic Era, also known as the Age of Mammals since its mammals display greater abundance and progress than its other vertebrates, comprises the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. The former period is subdivided into the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs whereas the Quaternary period contains only a single epoch, the Pleistocene. In Asia the orogenic action that was forcing up the Himalayas during the Oligocene, had intensified during the middle Miocene, and in doing 'so had produced deep troughs along the bases of the ridges which became filled with Sedimentary deposits. At that time the land was mostly savannah, and the sea invaded and subsequently withdrew from considerable areas in the course of land elevation. Traces of this movement still persist.
Ceylon's Tertiary limestone deposits were regarded as being Cretaceous by Dixon (188o) and as Eocene by Wayland who finally Considered them to be Miocene and classified them as 'Jaffna linestone' which, he stated, formed two facies, namely, "(a) calcareous, typically shown in the Jaffna peninsula and (b) areno-argillaceous, typically shown at Minihagalkanda.” -
This limestone was considered to be highly fossiliferous but the arenoargillaceous beds were stated to be unfossiliferous except at Minihagalkanda where there are thin intercalations of fossiliferous limestone (Wayland et Davies 1923). In the north-western area the Miocene lies unconformably upon Jurassic beds.
Ceylon's Jurassic deposits were first discovered at Tabbova (Wayland I 925). These have been equated to the Kota beds of the Indian Jurassic. An older bed was discovered later and named the Andigama beds (Deraniyagala I939) and equated to the Rajntahal beds of India. The northern limit of Ceylon's Jurassic deposits was Considered to be Southern Vilpattu near the Kala-oya river, and the Coarse Jurassic grit was named the Ginkgophyte horizon (Deraniyagala I955). The northern and southern limits of the Jurassic were marked in accordance with this knowledge in a geological map (Deraniyagala.
I957).

.. /V
ܓ ܌ ̄ ܐ ݂ ܙ YA محے W
s t
仑
/
V
ኵጥ ነ፤ £S Fig. I. This map is based upon the following (a) the Surveyor General's map of 'Ceylon of 1963 (b) the map in the Royal Asiatic Soc. (C.B.) New Series vol. IV. pt. 2. I956 and (c) Deraniyagala 1958. fig. 3. The key to the letters and symbols in the map is as follows A.R; Arna Kallu. E; Eluvankulam. E.R; Extinct river. II; Ippantivu island. K. A; Kala oya. K.D; Karuvala kuda. K.D.I; Kara IDuva, island. K.O; Kollan Kanatta. K.P; Kalpitiya, promontary. K.lU; Kudremale. K.T; Karativu village. M. Moderagam oya. M.A; Malu member. M.O; Moongil oya. P; Periya arichchal Island. P.T; Palugaha turai. Small dots = land. X = site. Ladder like line = former river. Broken lines are Isobaths marked with their depth in fathoms. Large dots = the outcrop of the Malu member. Hatchures = elevated areas (seven of them). Circles = submerged forest. The latitude, longitude, north, and a two mile scale are also inserted.
P

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Golani (I967) being probably , unaware of these publications has, however, conferred the name of Manaar sandstone upon the Jurassic deposits of Mannar, the Jaffna peninsula, and the Vilpattu area. Above the Miocene beds are traces of the Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits containing river-worn pebbles and estuarine molluscan shells which were first referred to ten years ago as follows, ''Along the coast the marine Miocene-Plio-Quaternary deposits exist as low cliffs' (Deraniyagala 1958. p. Io). There are two marine terraces.
Ceylon's Miocene exists both as a broad exposure from the Jaffna peninsula down to the vicinity of Puttalam and as a small one at Minihagalkansa to the south-east. It also occurs in the outlying islands to the north and north-west, while the submerged, flat, sandStone that forms the pearl oyster beds in the Gulf of Mannar is probably also the Miocene which recurs in southern India. Since the sandstone from a depth of fifteen feet below the surface of the sea at the Great Basses to the south-east of Ceylon is also probably Miocene this suggests Some degree of faulting and submergence. The presence of Jurassic and Miocene deposits in some of the outlying islands of north-west Ceylon suggests that they had been separated from the mainland by the submergence of fault troughs. In other words such an uniserial row of islands might be the remnants of the seaward edge of the trough while a ridge or an uniserial row of ridges and horsts represents its landward margin. The fact that the five islands form an uniserial row that is parallel to the Seven uniserial ridges extending from near Arna Kallu onto Kudremale supports this view. This area extends from 8.35'N. to 8°.Io'N. by 79.40'E. to 70.55 E. Lying upon the horizontal beds of Ceylon's lower Miocene are younger estuarine and fluviatile deposits. All have been subjected to elevation upon various occasions which appear to have some connection with the three phases of upheaval of the Himalayas.
Elevation has been strong at some Miocene sites such as Arna Kallu and Kudremale to the north-west and Minihagalkanda to the South-east, but weaker at Arippu to the north west, and Keerimale to the north of the Island. Several of the stronger elevations have been caused by block faulting (Deraniyagala I958. pp. 8, 9), while the lesser ones appear to be either older eroded horsts, or the result of general slow oscillation and eustasy that are still in progress, or a combination of all these forces. This action persisted after the Tertiary period, and the British Museum's opinion on a sample of pyroxene that I sent them from Minihagalkanda is that, as its minerals are derived from unweathered rock, it is probably a post-Tertiary product, possibly from a fault fissure.
The Minihagalkanda horst 6.22 'N and 81.38 E.comprises a basal unfossiliferous bed, upon which there are beds of fossiliferous limestone and of areno-argillaceous ones. Overlying these is a Pleistocene bed of clay five to seven feet thick which contains pebbles that

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD IN CEYLON
are fewer and smaller at its base than at its top. A bed of red earth covers this layer. The block faulting appears to have been aided by a domical uplift as indicated by the upwardly bent bedding.
Coates (I935 p. Io4) who describes the elevation at Minihagalkanda as an “outlier” had partly quoted Wayland (II 923 p. 58o) and stated that it "extends inland for about a quarter of a mile and then descends steeply to plains covered with recent alluvium, through which the level surface of the underlying gneissose rocks appears occasionally at about sea level'. This description could apply equally well to the horst at Arna Kallu which is not an outlier as the limestone continues inland.
A “member” of the Miocene of Ceylon is the “Malu deposit” which contains an association of fossils of marine fishes that ascend rivers, together with those of land reptiles, and of mammals that frequent estuaries. This faunule indicates that a part of the deposit had accumulated under fluviatile and estuarine conditions. (Deraniyagala I967.) Somewhat siniilar agents had also influenced the accumulation of some of the deposits exposed in the Kankesanturai limestone quarry (Deraniyagala 1958 pl. III). At Arna Kallu at latitude 8°. I7' North, longitude 79.49' east, the horst is 260 ft. deep, three and a half miles long and one and a quarter miles wide. At its Summit are Pliocene sandstone and quartzite and a late Pleistocene bed that is about three feet thick containing river-worn pebbles and estuarine shells belonging to living species e.g. Arca granosa. This layer is identical with that at Eluvan Kulam on the Lunu ala in the plain below, which indicates that part of the original deposit had been elevated late in Pleistocene times. As five other ridges at Karativu, Karuvalakuda, Kollan Kanatta, and Kudremale lie more or less uniserially with this, all were evidently produced by the same processes of elevation (fig I.) The numerous channels into which the Kala-oya river had subdivided at about six miles prior to its entrance into the sea can be explained as follows. The river had its exit into the sea blocked by land elevation, its impounded fresh waters had thereupon developed into a lake. When the Miocene sea invaded the land it entered this lake converting it into a bay, and when land elevation recommenced later it had formed a lagoon. Further elevation of the land resulted in these lacustrine and estuarine deposits being carved into a number of islands and faulting has provided the channel for the straight southern tributary of this river.
One of the coastal peneplain's early submergences doubtless occurred when the Miocene sea inundated large land areas and the present Ceylon rivers of the north-western sector are probably vestiges of the southern tributaries of a larger Miocene river or rivers, the northern tributaries of which system exist as rivers in India. Supporting this view are the curves in the isobaths off this coast, and the similarity

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of the fresh water fish faunas of south India and of Ceylon. River action is essential for depositing heavy earth minerals. The high concentrations of monazite and ilmenite, which occur together with the red earth upon elevated areas such as at Kudremale (Coates 1935 p. IS6) were doubtless derived from pegmatite and gneiss that exist further inland and had been transported by water into low-lying estuaries. These deposits had subsequently been elevated into ridges and cliffs as a result of faulting, and other factors. The elevation of the coastal area had reduced the gradient of the land and thereby So lessened the force of the river, that it could only manage to transport the lighter and smaller pebbles and finer particles of the heavy earth minerals which it deposited upon the earlier layers. Subsequent rejuvenation enabled it to lay down a layer of larger pebbles. This cycle has been repeated more than once and it was during the earlier phase that the "Malu deposit' was laid down to eventually form a compact arenaceous, shaly, conglomerate containing fossils of invertebrates, vertebrates and small river worn subcylindric pebbles about one centimetre long and half a centimetre wide. Along the coast from Karuvalakuda near Kollan Kanatta the pebbles in the fluviatile deposit along the coast increase in size from being I or 2 cm by cm to 5 or 6 cm by 4 cm a hundred yards further north. The larger pebbles would indicate greater proximity to the river mouth. The stream appears to have either carved a gap through a ridge that extended from Kollan Kanatta to Palugahaturai or it had flowed along a fault through such a ridge. This river, however, is no longer in existence.
The stratigraphy of this area is only known imperfectly. At Tabbova the Miocene beds lie unconformably upon the Jurassic ones but a regular sequence of Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene beds occurs in the area between Arna Kallu and Marichukate to the north west of Ceylon (Deraniyagala I956 and I958).
A feebler form of elevation is shown by the land oscillation that has produced several levels of human habitation exposed at various places along the coast of Ceylon, as at Karuvalakuda and Kollan Kanatta, where each level of brick and other building material had been submerged by the sea and become covered with marine organisms. It had then been elevated and again reinhabited by man only to go under the sea in course of time and this process had been repeated. Somewhat similar fluctuations doubtless existed in Miocene times. One such area is towards Dutch Bay where its instability is shown by (a) tradition and legend which affirm that the sea had swamped parts of this area and also that islands had suddenly either appeared, disappeared or united, (b) the study of a series of ancient maps reveals that these are no idle myths but that such changes had actually occurred and are continuing. In 1720 Kalpitiya was an island. In 1891 there were three islands namely Mutwal, Karaduva and Ippantivu. By 19Io

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD IN CEYLON 9.
the first had divided into two while the channels between Karaduva. and Ippantivu had widened greatly. By 1935 the two halves of Mutwal had reunited and become connected to the mainland while Karaduva had subdivided into two. These were part of the mainland not so long ago, for until about 1930 there were spotted deer, star tortoises, snakes and the common small animals of the mainland occurring upon Karaduva island, which had evidently become isolated suddenly when this area was cut off from the mainland. None of them would have voluntarily swum across the sea on to this semi-arid island which has no fresh water for several months each year. The submerged forest in this area also results from recent submergence.
Originally the coastal limestone termed the 'Jaffna bed' was determined as being entirely of marine origin and of Miocene age. In 1923 it was Morley Davies of the British Museum who identified the fossil Foraminifera, Mollusca and other invertebrates collectedł by E. J. Wayland from the north, north west and south east of Ceylon, as being of this epoch. In I934 the present writer discovered the first vertebrates and assigned a Miocene age to them. (Deraniyagala I935.) This estimate was corroborated in I936 by Dr. Errol White of the British Museum of Natural History. The bed bearing these vertebrate fossils was termed the Malu deposit (Deraniyagala I937). The reptilian and mammalian fossils from this same deposit were also considered by me to be of Miocene age, and the sketch and measurements of a neck vertebra of a marine mammal were dispatched to IDr. Remington Kellogg, the fossil whale expert of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, who replied that it most resembled that of a whale of the family Cetotheriidae. (Deraniyagala I967.)
Paleontology. As fossils are of much assistance in determining the respective ages and changes of the different deposits some of the species that are of use in tile present study are here set down. In this Connexion it should, however, be remembered that 45% of the invertebrates, many fishes and 50% of the families of mammals that are living today, also occur as Miocene fossils in association with species that became extinct during that epoch.
Phylum Protozoa - Class Gymnomyxa Order Foraminifera
The presence of Taberina malabarica (Carter) from Keerimalai to Puttalam indicates that these deposits belong to the superficial part of the lower Miocene which is equated to the upper Gaj beds of the Miocene of India. (Eames IQ50.) This species is, however, unknown from Minihagalkanda.
Phylum Mollusca Class Lamellibranchia

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Placenta. The fossil bivalve Placenta miocenica (Suess) occurs in the various Miocene deposits of Ceylon. Since its living relative, the window-pane oyster Placenta placenta (Linné), thrives best in the muddy bottoms of shallow bays, lagoons and estuaries, it is not unreasonable to assume that the fossil species also favored such a habitat.
Ostrea. The oysters from the Miocene of Ceylon were originally considered to be Ostrea wireleti Deshayes. However, they belong to two species. One of these is O. vespertina Conrad possessing costae or ridges upon the upper valve, the other is O.peguensis Noetling which lacks such ridges and possesses a smooth upper valve. As the living marine species possesses costae whereas the estuarine one is Smooth, it is reasonable to suppose that O. vespertina was a purely marine species and that O.peguensis was estuarine. The two species appear to have been mixed after an uplift of the sea bottom.
Arca. The presence of shells of Arca granosa Linne which is a recent species of this bivalve, both in the deposits upon the banks of the river Luna ala as well as upon the summit of the adjacent elevation of Arna Kallu which is 230 feet above mean sea level indicates that the shells are part of a deposit that has been elevated upto this height from the level of the river by elevation, block faulting and horsting.
Phylum Arthropoda Class Crustacea
Subclass Malacostraca Order Decapoda
Suborder Macrura .
Tribe Brachyura Subtribe Oxystomata Genus Oxystomata de Haan
Oxystomata de Haan 1841 in Siebold's Fauna Japonica.
Carapace elongated anteriorly into an upturned rostrum, eyes minute, sand dwelling marine crabs ranging from inshore waters to depths of 65 metres. Only a few fossil forms are known.
Family Leucosidae
Carapace rounded or hemispherical and very convex, its regions not defined clearly, inhalent branchial openings at base of external maxillipeds, gills fewer than 9 on each side. Third part of abdomen enlarged and ovate in the female.
Genus Leucosia Fabricius Leucosia Fabricius I798 Ent. Syst. Suppl. page 349.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD IN CEYLON 93
The first Miocene fossil crab to be recorded from Ceylon is a single specimen of a species of Leucosia a genus which is known from its living species which occur off Ceylon.
Four out of the 22 living species of Leucosia that occur from off India and Ceylon range as far as Japan. Out of these the One that is most closely related to the Ceylon fossil is L. unidentata de Haan. Living Japanese specimens were secured from depths of 35 to 65 (Sakai I965).
జత్ర్మ్క్వ్యోక్త ^ミリ NS్వస్లో 孪懿
- 11 %疑学文
?
Α.
*”<; r
7 5
Fig. 2. Leucosia unidentata lankae ssp. nov. The Holotype of a Miocene fossil crab from the Malu' faunule at Arna Kallu. (1) Cast of Carapace (2) enlarged carapace serrations of right side (3) posterior margin of carapace (4) ventral aspect of (I); (5) under or ventral surface of ab domen (6) transverse section across (5); (7) the carapace and abdomen put to
gether to show the body depth of this crab. A left lateral view. A one centimetre scale is appended. The matrix is represented diagramatically by criss-cross lines.
Leucosia unidentata lankae ssp. nov. (fig. 2)
Holotype. This fossil Miocene species is closely akin to the living L. unidentata de Haan I84I p. I33, fig. 3 which is known from Malabar, Moluccas, Torres Strait, Hong Kong and Japan. Comparison is made with the illustration of a Japanese specimen of the latter species that is figured on pl. 19 fig. 3 of T. Sakai's work (1965). Therylous fossils
4 سم 7388

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consists of an almost perfect calcareous cast of the carapace and a part of the abdomen of a female. Both retain parts of the exoskeleton. Unfortunately all the limbs are missing. The fossil is strongly embedded in the miocene calcareous shaly conglomerate in which are visible impressions of parts of the sternites, the muscle attachments of five of the walking limbs and parts of a maxilliped fig. 2 (4), (5). There are eleven serrations upon each side of the carapace, which are curved forwards and have their bases invested in a shelf-like structure fig. 2 (2)}. The Japanese specimen displays only eight knob-like lateral Serrations that are not so invested. The posterior of the fossil's carapace is also proportionately wider and an uniserial row of pores for chaetae runs horizontally across and below its posterior margin. The section above the first abdominal segment contains 18 such pores fig. 2 (2). The Ceylon fossil is also smaller than the figured Japanese specimen which possesses a carapace that is 31 mm long and 28 mm wide. The nature of the rostrum is indeterminable since it is covered with matrix but as it possesses a dorsal carina it is probably similar to that of the living species.
Dimensions of the fossil: Carapace length 26.5 mm, carapace width 25.5 mm, width of telson I5 mm, length of telson 9, length of abdomen I8 mm, width of abdomen I3.5 mm, depth of abdomen 9 mm, depth of carapace I3.
Estimated total dorsi-ventral depth of specimen 13 + 9 - 2 = 20 mm.
Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata
Fishes. Although the majority of the marine fishes here described exist as living species which often frequent bays and estuaries and ascend rivers, they also occur as Miocene fossils in various countries, of which those nearest to Ceylon are listed herein.
Superclass Pisces
Class Chondrichthyes subclass Elasmobranchii Suborder Galeoidea
Family Galeolamnidae, Genus Galeolanna Owen
Galeolamna gangetica (Müller et Henlè)
This shark still occurs as a living species in Asian waters and is known to enter rivers and travel upstream beyond the range of tidal fluctuation. The upper teeth possess a finely serrated margin and are broadly triangular. The lower ones possess narrow cusps. The upper teeth are generally from I7-19mm high, the basal length is I6-18 mm

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTARY PERUOD IN CEYLON 95
and the thickness is 4 mm. The lower tooth is 16.5 mm high its base is 7 mm and its thickness is 4 mm. The shark is known as a Miocene fossil from Burma, Java, Japan and New Guinea.
Family Carcharinidae Genus Hemipristis Agassiz,
Hemipristis serra (Agassiz)
This shark still occurs as a living species in the Red sea and Indian ocean and also ascends rivers. The upper tooth is characterised by strong marginal serrations which are absent from the last quarter at the apex of the tooth. The height of the tooth ranges from 18-20 mm. The base ranges from I4-20 mm. The thickness is about 4-5 mm. Known as a Miocene fossil from Java.
Genus Galeocerdo Müller et Henlè Galeocerdo cuvieri (le Sueur)
This is a living species of marine shark that sometimes enters estuaries. The teeth are I6-22 mm high, length of the base 30 mm, thickness of the cusp 3-5 mm. This species occurs as a Miocene fossil in Burma and Java.
Class Osteichthyes subclass Actinopterygii super-order Teleostei
Order Acanthopterygii
suborder Labroidea Family Labridae
Living members of this family frequent reefs and shallow seas.
Genus Labrodon Gervais
This genus possesses two fossil species in Ceylon, namely Labrodon angustidentatus Deraniyagala and Labrodon sinhaleyus Deraniyagala. The length into the width of a tooth from the tooth cluster of the former species is 3 x 0.75 mm, in the latter species it is 5 x 3 mm.
Suborder Tetraodontoidea Family Diodontidae Genus Diodon Linné
Since the various living representatives of this genus frequent coral reefs, estuaries and fresh water it is not improbable that the Miocene species Diodon Sinhaleyus Deraniyagala was of similar habit.

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Class Reptilia Subclass Amapsida
Order Testudinata
Fig. 3. (a) Dorsal and (b) ventral aspects of the Holotype marginal of Geoemyda striata Jeramiyagala
Fam. Emydidae Genus Geoemyda Gray
Geoemyda striata Deraniyagala (fig. 3)
This terrapin is known from a left suprafemoral marginal. Its most salient character is that whereas its ventral surface is smooth its dorsal surface possesses fourteen grooves and ridges, seven of them are along each margin. All converge to form an apex near the periphery. The length of the specimen is 32 mm, its greatest thickness is I5 mm, its width anteriorly is 24 mm. The estimated total carapace straight length is 25o mm.
Family Testudinidae Genus Miotestudo Deraniyagala
Miotestudo ibba Deraniyagala (Pl. II fig. I)
This species is known from a part of the right humeral arch of the carapace comprising the lower part of the first costal plate which is fused with the marginals. No sutures are visible, but the specimen shows that the marginals are reverted forming an angle of about IIo With the costal plate. The holotype is 85 mm long, 50 mm high anteriOrly and the anterior marginal area is 7 mm, the posterior one is 13 mm thick. The estimated straight length of the entire carapace is 500 mm.
 

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD IN CEYLON 97
Family Cheloniidae Genus Miocaretta Deraniyagala
Miocaretta lankae Deraniyagala (Pl. I. fig. I)
This is a marine turtle that is somewhat larger than Caretta caretta gigas Deraniyagala. It is easily distinguishable as each marginal bone consists of three OSSeous elements fused together. It is known from three marginal bones which are very massive. The antero-posterior length of the most perfect marginal is 60 mm, its dorsi-ventral height is 54 mm. Estimated straight carapace length I,300 mm.
Class Mammalia
Order Sirenia
Family Dugongidae Gray Genus Miodugong Deraniyagala Miodugong brevicranius Deraniyagala (Pl. III fig. 2)
The cranium of this species is proportionately shorter than in the living Dugong dugon (Erxleben). The estimated dorsal width of the parietal would have been about 78 mm. The bilateral thickness of the squamosal is 27 mm. The height from the top of the parietal to the base of the squamosal is 81 mm.
Order Cetacea
suborder Odontocetoidea Family Delphinidae Genus Miotursiops Deraniyagala
Miotursiops mulla Deramiyagala (Pl. I fig. 2)
* In a single posterior caudal vertebra the centrum’s length is 32 mm, its bilateral width 82 mm, and its dorsiventral depth is 73 mm. Isolated teeth are subconical and IO mm. high, basal diameter 5 mm.
Suborder Mysticetoidea Family Cetotheriidae Genus Mioceta Deraniyagala

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Fig. 4. (a) Full face (b) side view of the holotype of the cetotheriid whale Mioceta bigelow Deraniyagala, a sixth cervical vertebra.
Mioccita bigclowi Deraniyagala (Pls. I. II)
This species is about 13 feet in length and is known from a sixth cervical (Pls. I and II, fig. 3), one thoracic (Pls. II, fig. 4, 5) and one lumbar (Pl. I, fig. 4 and Pl. II, fig. 6). The holotype is the sixth cervical vertebra which is 35 mm long, the anterior face of its centrum is 86 mm wide and 65 mm high. The lumbar vertebra could only be partially developed from the matrix. Its two lateral processes had been broken off prior to fossilization and its neural aspect is still embedded in the matrix. Its dimensions are as follows: Total length 120 mm, greatest width across broken lateral processes I60 mm, diameter of each terminal surface of body II7 mm, median width of body 88 mm.
Mioceta magna Deraniyagala
This species is known from two fragments of ribs found a quarter of a mile apart and probably derived from two different individuals. They reveal that this species was considerably larger than the preceding one. The ribs are 46 to 55 mm wide and their dorsiventral depth is 25 to 35 mm.
 

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTARY PERIOD IN CEYLON 99
Fig. 5. Hypothetical reconstructions based upon the above descriptions of
some of Ceylon's miocene vertebrates; by P. E. P. Deraniyagala. The fish is
Diodon Sinhaleyus, the turtle in Miocaretta lankae, the dugong in Miodugong brevicranius, the whale is Mioceta bigelo wi.
Tertiary vegetation (Pl. III)
The fossils are large fragments of xylem comprising elongate, large tracheids, with indications of stomata, there are no nodes. The trees were probably 30 to 40 cm in diameter and belong to several species. Impacted within these specimens are waterworn sand, small pebbles, and marl. Their presence together with the fact that the specimens are casts that are mineralized and ferruginized indicate that the trees had been submerged in a bog. Since they had been derived from palustrine deposits and redeposited together with masses of compacted sand they are assigned an Oligocene age, and the name of Ganeval pola flora is given to these trees of Ceylon's Oligocene

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since their fossils are most abundant near Ganevalpola on the left bank of a stream crossing the motor road from Habarana to Maradankadavala. The specimens occurred at a height of about two feet above the water and 50 yards to the south of the road at 8°.Io'N by 80.38E. These trees are tentatively assigned to the Phylum Pterophyta, class Gymnospermae, Subclass Coniferophytae, (I) Order Ginkgoales, Family Ginkgoaceae (2) Order Comiferales, Family Araucariaceae. Some trees of these two orders attain to a height of 90 feet and a basal diameter of three feet. The name of Oliginkgo lankae gen. et sp. nov is tentatively proposed for the specimen depicted in Pl. I, II, fig. I it was secured from 8°N. by 80.50'E. off the Habarana to Minneriya road in the North Central Province.
The name of Olicaria lankae gen. et sp. nov. is suggested for the fossils from near Ganevalpola depicted in pl. III, figs. 2, 3 and 4. Their tracheids are ribbed, stouter and more prominent than in the previous fossil and the stomata are better defined. The holotype is depicted in fig. 4, the other two figs. depict the paratypes.
Considerable importance has been attached to the occurrence of the foraminifer Tabarina inalabarica (Carter) in assigning a lower Miocene age to Ceylon's Miocene beds. However, it is absent from the south-eastern exposure at Minihagalkanda. The north-western beds include the "Malu member' which contains fossils of vertebrates that are marine, estuarine and terrestrial. Only a single vertebrate has been secured from the Minihagalkanda stage.
Although the fossil fishes in the 'Malu member' might be Miocene Pliocene, or Pleistocene, the fossil cetotheriid whale occurring with them can only be late Oligocene, Miocene or early Pliocene. The presence of this whale also suggests that the sea was cooler then than it is at present.
The occurrence of the mollusc Arca granosa and the presence of strata of pebbles more or less superficially in the horsts of both Arna Kallu and Minihagalkanda, the subdivision of each adjacent river into a network of meanders, and the various channels of extinct rivers that occur in the respective vicinities of these horsts indicate that some phases of these two uplifts had occurred towards the termination of the Quaternary.
Until this discovery of vertebrates was made from Ceylon, Miocene fossils of Reptiles and Mammals were known in Asia, from only three localities (Romer I966).

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD IN CEYLON
The Tertiary deposits of Ceylon are (a) the Miocene Jaffna Series comprising three 'stages' and one "member' and (b) the Pliocene Arna Kalu bed here assigned to one 'mensber'.
Jaffna Stage Cretaceous Dixon, A. C. 1880 - Rocks and Minerals of Ceylon J. Royal As. Soc. (C. B.) vol. 6, pt. 2, p. 3g.
Jaffna facies Wayland E. J. et Davies A. M. 1923 - The Mliocene of Ceylon Quart. J. Geolog. Soc. Lond. Vol. 79, pt. 4, type loc. Jaffna.
Invertebrate fossils abundant, echinoids rare, no vertebrates.
Kudremale stage
Kudremale Wayland E. J. et Davies A. M. I923. The Miocene of Ceylon Quart. J. Geolog. Soc. Iond. Vol. 79, pt. 4. p. 583. type loc. Kudremale.
Invertebrate fossils abundant, echinoids not very common, no vertebrates.
Malu member
Malu deposit Deraniyagala 1957. Some Miocene Fishes from Ceylon Sp. Zeyl. vol. XX, pt. 2, pp. 355-367, figs. 9. type loc. between tide marks west of Arna Kallu (p. 356).
Malu deposit Deramiyagala I957. Ceylon in Leaviqe Stratigraphique International vol. III. Asia. fascicule 8 c. pp. 33I-34ır.
Malu deposit Derannyagala I967 Proc. Twentyihird Annual Sess. of Ceylon Assoc. for Advancement of Science pt. I, p. 50.
Malu shalle slage Deraniyagala I958. The Pleistocene of Ceylon p. 4r.
A compacted arenaceous, shaly, conglomerate of Miocene age containing fossils of invertebrates of which the echinoids are not ulcommon, and vertebrates of marine, estuarine and terrestrial species and small river-worn pebbles about one centimetre long and half a centimetre deep. (Pl. I.) The deposit lies to the west of the ridge termed Arna Kallu at latitude 8.17’ north, longitude 70.49' east and extends from the mouth of the Kala-oya southwards for four miles. It becomes more argillaceous over the last mile of its exposure. (text fig. I.)
Types The 'types of the first fish fossils described from this deposit are in the British Museum of Natural History. The fragments

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of reptilian and possibly of mammalian bones secured with them are in the Colombo Museum (Deraniyagala I937). The 'types' of the other species are with the present writer. -
Minihagalkanda stage
Minihagalkanda facias Wayland, E. J. et Davies A. M. Ig23. The Miocene of Ceylon O. J. Geol. Soc. Lond, vol. 79, pp. 577-602, type loc. Minihagalkanda.
Minihagalkanda stage Deraniyagala I957. Ceylon, in Lexique Stratigraphique International Vol. III. Asia face. Sc. pp. 33I-34I.
Invertebrate fossils abundant, echinoids common (Deraniyagala I96L), vertebrate fossils only known from a single specimen of Diodon
· sinhaleyus.
Geothermal activity - The Miocene beds to the south-east of Ceylon display what might eventually prove to be traces of former geothermal activity. At Minihagalkanda there is a small cone about 20 ft. in diameter down which extend trails of scoriaceous-looking laterite that had been subjected to considerable heat, while among the other materials that occur there are masses of chert as well as chunks of hydrothermal chalcedony (Deraniyagala I96I a) and jasper. A dome which extends from the vicinity eastwards towards Kudumbigala and the frequency with which pumice is washed up along this part of the coast and further eastwards, suggest a submarine bed of this product and support the view that former volcanic activity had existed in the proximity, especially since about three years ago the local press had reported that a Russian oceanographic vessel had discovered an active submarine volcano about a thousand miles to the south-west of Ceylon. Submarine craters are also thought to exist off Trincomalee.
Acknowledgements - I acknowledge with thanks the valuable literature and information supplied to me by Dr. Remington Kellogg of the Smithsonian Institute of Washington while Dr. C. R. Panabokke of the SoilSurvey of Ceylon and Mr. R. Hanreck the Ground Water Investigation Advisor to the Department of Irrigation, have confirmed my view that Arna Kallu was elevated by horsting. I also wish to thank Dr. W. J. Webb of Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, U.S.A. for a gift of drill bits that proved to be of great value in "developing' the fossils. Mr. L. de Alwis, Warden of the Department of Wild Life, and his officers for their assistance during my visits to Minihagalkanda and the Wilpattu Game reserve, and most of all I am grateful to the helpers who secured specimens for me and who accompanied me.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD IN CEYLON Io3
Explanation of Plates
Plate I
Tertiary fossils of a turtle and two cetaceans from the Malu member of the Kudremale stage of north-west Ceylon. All except fig. I are embedded in the compacted shaly conglomerate matrix.
Fig. I. Holotype of Miocaretta lankae Deraniyagala; the right penultimate marginal and part of another fused to its anterior end. Note the two pits for the tips of two ribs.
Fig. 2. Holotype of Miotursiops mulla Deraniyagala; a caudal
vertebra.
Fig. 3. Holotype of Mioceta bigelow iDeraniyagala; a sixth cervical
vertebra.
Fig. 4. A paratype of Mioceta bigelow; a lumbar vertebra.
Plate II
The partially "developed' vertebrate fossils of the 'Malu faunule”.
I. Miotestudo ibba Deraniyagala, holotype; part of the right
humeral arch. Ventral view.
2. Miodugong brevicranius Deraniyagala, holotype; left parietal
and Squamosel bones.
3. Mioceta bigelow Deraniyagala, holotype; a sixth cervical
vertebra.
4. A sagittally fractured thoracic vertebra of M.bigelow; seen in
terminal view.
5. A lateral view of (4) above.
6. A lumbar vertebra of Mioceta bigelovei in ventral view, showing
the basal parts of the wide lateral processes.
Plate III
Completely petrified and ferruginized botanical fossils of Oligocene age. "Type' specimens of the Ganeval pola flora.
I. ? Holotype of Oliginkgo lankae genet. sp. nov. 4. Holotype 2
and 3 Paratypes of? Ollicaria lankae gen. et. sp. nov.

Page 56
Pilt:
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Page 57
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SOME ASPECTS OF THE TERTIARY PERIOL IN CEYION то7
References to Literature
Adal Illus, F. IO,
I929 — The Geology of Ceylo Il Cai Ferdir 77 V, os Research vol. I. Pp.
425-511, 8 plates, I maP.
Coates, T. S.
I935 - The Geology of Ceylon Spoil Zaydayria vol. XIX, pt. 2
pp. I I- St., pls. 22, text figs. 7, maps I.
Coloray, P. (f.
1967. An introduction to the Geology of Ceylon Sfolia. Zeylanca
W l. 3; II, pt. I.
Davy, J.
I8z II — Air Accord of JF || 7: ['ro P" / Catyla),
1821 - (a) On the Geology and Mineralogy of Ceylon Trails. Geolog.
Soc. (Lolidon) vol. W., Pp. 311-327.
DeTaniyagala, P. E. P.
1935. Some Fossil Animals from Ceylon J. of Roy. As. Soc. (C.B.).
Wol. XXXIII. pp. I 65-68. (see p. Ifiti.)
1937 - Some Miocene and upper Siwalik vertebrates from Ceylon Sfrī Zeyric vol. XX pl. 2. pp. II-II, pils, 2, text līgs. 4. 1937 - (a) Soille Miocene Fishes from Ceylon Spolia Ayla Fica vol.
XX. pt. 2, Pp. 355-307. text figs, g. 1939 - A Carbonaceous Jurassil shale from Ceylon Sfolia Zeyl. XXI.
1, 193. I 955 — Ginkgophyte a Irld Cotller plant Fossils from the coarse Jurassic
Grit of Tabbova Sf. Žyla 72 fra vol. 27, pt. 2, p. 23; II, pl. I. 1956 - Land Oscillation in the north West of Ceylon J. Royal As. Soc.
(C.B.) IW. (2) pp. 17-142 with pls. 4, one IILap and figs, 5. I956 - (4) Fossils from tle Miocenie Amplitheatre at Minillagalkanda,
Spolia zeylanica vol. 28, pt. I. 1957 — Ceylon: Lexique Stratigra fliqt e Instrational Vol. III Asia
fascicule 8c; Pp. 33 I-34 I with El geological Ilmap of Ceylon. 1958 — The PleistoC&A e of Ceylor, pp. I64. pls, I-LWII I Col. Mus. pub. I96I-The Miocene amplitheatres at Minilagalkanda Sp, zey; vol. 2g
pt. 2, p. Iճ0, T961 — (a) 1 fyrir. Reþort Director of Nas. Muse nas Igbo E. --
Ig67 — Sorine New Miocene Wertebrates from Ceylon. Proc. of Tietythird Artistial Sess, of Ceylon Assn. for Advancement of Science (pit. I). (Abstracts) p, 50.

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Eames, F. E.
I950 - On the Ages of the upper Tertiary beds of Peninsular India and
Ceylon Geological Mag. vol. 87, pp. 233-252.
Golani, U. I967 - Geology and Ground Water Resources of North West Ceylon
Irrigation Department publication.
Romer, A. S.
I966 - Vertebrate Paleoutology, Chicago. University Press (3rd
Edition.)
Sakai, T.
I965 - The Crabs of Sagami Bay. Imp. Biolog. Lab; Tokyo Pl. Ig.
fig. 3.
Wayland, E. J. et Davies A. M. I923 - The Miocene of Ceylon Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. vol. 79,
pp. 577-6o2. Wayland, E. J. 1925 - The Jurassic Rocks of Tabbowa Spolia Zeylanica vol. I3,
pp. I95-208.

Dedigama
Paper read by DR. C. E. GoDAKUMBURA,
President of the Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch), at the Annual General Meeting on I8-I2-67
Dedigama (Dädigama) is a large and thickly populated village situated in the Kiraweli-pattuwa (Kiravali-pattuva) East in Belligalkorale of ancient Satara-korale now included in the modern District of Kegalla within the Province of Sabaragamuwa. Nelundeniya, which is a hamlet of Dedigama, is at the 4Ist mile-post on the Colombo-Kandy highroad, and Veheravatta, that area of the village where the Kotavehera, the Sitigharacetiya of the twelfth century, the monument under discussion and the local bazaar are situated is two miles further on the Tuntota road which branches off to the right, that is, towards the South, at Nelundeniya. There were other approaches to the village from the West and the South in ancient times, and these are still in use. The central portion of Dedigama, which would have contained the dwellings of the original settlers, around which the village would have grown, is a hallow plain surrounded by hills with narrow passes, and the locality would have afforded natural protection for its dwellers. This advantageous geographic position led to the conversion of Dedigama into a city to be the home of royal princes, and at times of political disturbances in history it became the refuge of the royalty or the nobility. It was the capital of provincial kinglets, and at least of one paramount sovereign of Ceylon.
Local tradition connects Dedigama with the legends of Gajabahu I (A.D. II2-I34) and his famous General Nila. Literary references too go back to a very early date. The village or later city of Dedigama known in Sinhalese literature as Dātigama, Dadigama or Dáidigama appears to be identical with Kiravalla of certain historical documents, and texts like the 'Rajavaliys.' The village name Kiravalla is still preserved in the name of the division (pattuva) in which Dedigama is situated, the Kiravali-pattuwa. Very often a Korale or Pattuva
I. This is the spelling in the List of Villages in the Province of Sabaragamuwa. Names of villages, divisions, etc. are spelt as found in the Village Lists and other official documents where such exist, with the phonetic transcription within brackets where necessary. Less known names are given in the phonetic transcription only.
2. For the story of Gajabahu and Nila see Rajaivaliya (Pemananda's edition,
I 926, pp. 45-46; and B. Gunasekera’s, I9 II, pp. 33-34 ibid. translation, Igoo, pp. 45-46). The iron club of Gajabahu was believed to have been buried near Kotavehera.
3. See below p. 4 the story of the marriage of King Parakramabahu VI.
Io9

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gets its name from the most important or one of the important villages or cities in the division, as for example, we have in the Satarakórale itself, Belligal-kórade from Belligala, and Walgam-pattuva from Walgama. The tradition concerning Kiravălla is very old. According to the Raiavaliya' when Prince Danta and his queen Ranmali brought the Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Ceylon, King Kitsirimevan (A.D. 303-33I) prepared a residence for the prince and the princess at Kiravalla in Belligal-korale, and bestowed great favours on them. This is the earliest mention of the village or the division, so far avaliable, in historical writing. Whether the stories are authentic or not, they point to very early occupation of these fertile valleys by the ancestors of the present Sinhalese people.
There is positive archaeological evidence to support the local and literary tradition that the locality had been populated by the Aryan speaking immigrants of Ceylon quite in early times, and there were settlements of some importance. There are early inscriptions in the Brahmi script going back to pre-Christian centuries in sites not far away from this village. Of such sites in the eastern division of the Kiraweli-pattuva of Belligal Korale itself we have Lenagala (L 3/44) and Salgala (L 3/38). Still closer to Dedigama in the Kandupitipattuva of Belligal Korale there are Yataha-lena (I 23/46) and Vāvakanda at Atugoda (I 24/57). In the Otarapattuva of the same Körale are found Hunuvela-viharaya (I 23/37), Mampita (I 23/46) and Ranwala (I 23/30). The spread of these inscriptions show that they have come up to this area from the western coast through the southern tributaries of the Maha-oya and the northern tributaries of the Kelani (Kailani)-gaiga. Those who advanced up to Dedigama would have come down south through Ragala-oya and Nelundeniya-oya or gone up north along Gurugoda-oya and Dedigama-oya. In the South West corner of the village there is an ancient cave called Stri-pura which has legends connected with it.
The fragment of a stone pillar, bearing an attaini immunity grant of about the tenth century is used as a supporting post of the paddy barn of a former local chief headman (Ratemahatmaya) of BelligalkÖrale who has his residence in the village within site of the Veheravatta. The preserved portion of the writing contains what may be the part of the name of a village. The existing lines are too few to make out any names of localities or persons connected with the grant.
Before narrating the history of Dedigama, we may digress for a while to examine the Pali equivalents of the Sinhalese name Dáitigama or Dadigama. In the Mahavamsa it is Punkhagama. The portion of
4. Rajavaliya, ed. B. Gunasekera, Colombo, I 9II, p. 37; ibid. translation,
Colombo, I9oo, p. 53, Pemananda's ed. p. 5I.
5. Pali: Hemamala.
6. ASI, No. 573.
7. Mhv. Ch. 6I, v. 26; ch. 62 v. 18; ch. 79, v. 6I.

DEDIGAMA
the chronicle where this name occurs, that is the story of King Parakramabahu the Great (A.D. II53-II86) beginning from his father Manabharana, may have been written about the twelfth century. The other Pali equivalent is Jatigama, and this term is used in a Pali sandesa poem, the Vuttamala of the fourteenth century.
Let us first examine the form Punkhagama. The Sinhalese translators of the Mahavamsa in the latter part of the nineteenth century and early this century have equated Punkhagama to Pilagama. This has arisen, I believe, through some current tradition regarding the birth place of King Parākramabahu the Great. There is no literary or archaeological evidence in support of this translation.
As a preliminary to the discussion of the archaeological evidence in support of the claim of Dedigama as the birth place of the great king, we may show that on literary evidence also Punkhagama is a correct equation of Sinhalese Ditigama as was the practice of Pali writers of the period. The rare Pali word purkha occurring in the Asadisa-jataka-vannand of the Jaitakatthakatha is translated in the Sinhalese Jātaka-pota by the word pagiliya. Thus for the Pali “tam gantvā purimakaņda-puhkhe paharitvā nivattitvā” ve have 'e hīya palamu vidi hiye pagiiyé vāda gena".10 The older commentarial Glossaryll (gitapadaya) of the Pali Jataka-athakatha gives the Sinhalese interpretation of the Pali phrase punkhe paharitva by pagiliye, ditle pihira. Here we have the Pali punkha being equated to pagiliya and further to ditta, as even at that time the meaning of the word pagiliya being somewhat obscure. In the narrative of the same story of Prince Asadisa in Gurulugomi's Dharmapradipika also we have "é hiya gos palamu vidi hiyehi hi-dättelhi pāhāra navata-piya" employing hi-daitehi where the Jataka-pota has pagiliya.' Thus the equation of daiti to punkha is justified, and Puhkhagama is undoubtedly an equivalent of Datigama the older form of Dadigama.
The later Pali form Jatigama of the fourteenth century is apparently a new translation at a time when the etymology and meaning of the name Daitigama were forgotten. It is also apparent that the chronicle, the Mahavamsa, was not being continued at the time, and the word Puhkhagama would not have been available to the author of the Vuttamala. The form Natigamali is only a misreading of the slab-inscription of Bhuvanekabahu at Dedigama, and this reading may have been influenced by the form Jātigāma. The Sanskrit equi
8. See below. 9. Sumaňgala and Batu wantudāve, D. H. S. Abhayaratna, and Simon de Silva. Io. I2th-13th. century. See ed. Jinalankara Press, Hunupitiya, Colombo,
I948 fi, p. 343. II. About the IIth. century. I 2. Jataka- (atuwa)gdia padaya, ed. Haru malgoda Sirisumangala, I925, p. I24,
Ed. D. B. Jayatilaka, Colombo, 1943, p. I28. I 3. About I Ith. century, ed. Dharmārāma, 3rd ed. Peliyagoda, I9 I 5, p. 2o 5. I4. Compare with phrase from Jataka-pota cited above. I5. Bell, Kegalla Report, pp. 84-85 (see below).

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valent Jātigrāma occurs in the interlinear inscriptions which are to be attributed to the reign of Srĩ Parãkramabãhu VI of Kotte (A.D. I4I2I467). 16 s
Now we come to the story of King Parākramabahu the Great, as it is related in the Mahavamsa. At the demise of King Vijayabahu I (A.D. Io55-IIIo), Prince Manabharana, the eldest son of princess Mitta (sister of King Vijayabahu) by a Pandyan prince was appointed uparaja of Jayabâhu who succeeded to the throne.7 Vikramabahu, son of Vijayabahu I was at Mahanagahula (Manavulupura) in Rohana at the time; and when he heard of the events at the capital, Polonnaruva, he came there, having had on his way to fight several battles with his rivals. On Vikramabahu's arrival Jayabahu fled to Mānavulupura, and Manabharana to Punkhagama. The latter, (Mahabharana) dwelt at Punkhagama under the name Virabahu. Punkhagama was included at the time in the division of the kingdom called Dakkhinadesa, the southern country.
Prince Manabharana and his consort Ratanavali had only two daughters, Mitta and Pabhavati and they had no son.18 The prince then made over the whole administration of the kingdom to his ministers, and withdrawing into solitude prayed for a son. One night, as he camped in the temple of the king of the gods (Devaraja), he was promised a mighty son who would bring glory and fame to his family. The chronicle says "At daybreak he awoke full of joyful excitement, and the best of men betook himself to Punkhagama'
Pabujjhitvāna samjātapītivego “tha rattiyā vibhataya tato Puňkhagämangaňchi naruttamo°
Later in the fifteenth century Sri Rahula Mahathera of Totagamuva in his Silalihini-Sandesaya gives the credit of the gift of a son to Qeen Ratanavali to God Vibhisana of Kelaniya:
Bisovata palamu Ratnavali nam sonduru sahatuta devä himi diväsin kulunu piru me Lakața , isuru vī Pärakum raja-kumaru palakota kimeka oba soňda teda bala maharu?0
". . . . . . Prince Perakumba, whom our Lord well pleased, And with divine eyes full of kindness, gave
v o - To fair Queen Ratnamali in time past, This Ianka's chief became, what need to tell Thy Majesty's good, great, and glorious power'21
I6. Paranavitana, 'Princess Ulakudaya's Wedding' in University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XXI, No. 2, October, 1963, See below p. I4 for quotations.
I7. Nicholas and Paranavitana, A Concise History of Ceylon, Colombo, 1961,
Ch. XI, Also Mhv. Ch. LXI.
18. Mhv. Ch. LXII.
Ig. Ibid. v. I8. -
2o. Ed. Dharmarama Thera, 5th. edn. Colombo, I925, v. Io4.
2I. Translation by W. C. Macready, Kollupitiya, 1865, v. Io3.

DEDIGAMA III 3
The old sannaya-translation to the poem adds that Queen Ratnavali whose name occurs here is the daughter of King Vijayabahu the Great, and wife of King Manabharana. We may, therefore, assume that it was at Kelaniya that Manabharana had his beautiful and encouraging dream, and the next day early at dawn he started off for Dedigama. It will be seen in the sequel that there was a highway of importance between the two places.
This son of Manabharana and Ratnavali, born through the grace of God Vibhisana of Kelaniya, who was to be the future Parakramabahu the Great saw the light of day at Puhkhagama, a village also destined to be of considerable political importance even in the present century. The chronicle says that after Parakramabahu became Maharaja he built in the province of the Yuvaraja, that is, the Dakkhinadesa, among other monuments, the Slitigharacetiya, one hundred and twenty cubits high, on the site of the house where he was born at Punkhagāma :
Sake slitigharatthane so Slitigharacetiyam Puhkhagāmamhi kāresi vīsam hatthasatuggatam
Translators have taken this verse to mean that the cetiya was built at the spot where the house in which the king's birth took place actually stood. They have taken Punkhagdimamhi as a separate locative singular and translated the word by "in Pushkhagama', and taking sittigharathane separately they rendered it by "on the site' or "at the spot'. It must be borne in mind that the idiom of this part of the Mahavamsa bears a close resemblance to Sinhalese syntax, and Sūtigharatthāne can be taken as standing in apposition to Pumikhagamamhi, qualifying the latter. Taken thus, we are able to translate the two words as 'at Punkhagama which was the place of his birth'. Thus the translation of the full verse will read, 'He erected the Sutigharacetiya, one hundred and twenty cubits high, at Pushkhagama, which was the place of his birth'. The evidence obtained during the excavation and the conservation of the Slitigharacetiya in the discovery of a smaller Stilpa within the larger Cetiya, and the results of the examination of the traditional names of localities in the village of Dedigama also go some way to support the present interpretation of the stanza.
In the twelfth century we saw Dedigama as the occasional residence of some of the provincial rulers of Dakkhinadesa. In documents connected with the history of the temples of gods (devala), the name Dáidigana (which is only a variant spelling of Dadigama or Ditigama occurs among the royal Capitals in this part of the country.
22. Sanne accompanying Dharmārāma’s edition: Mahalu Vijayạþặt, ) ayn, rajjuru vangē dūvū Mānābharaņa Â#å bisOvunta.
23. See under Vuittandild.
24. Mhv. Ch. LXXIX, v. 6r.

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A MS copy of the Devanitiva25 lists the following: Kurunagal-nuvara, Beligal-nuvara, Dädigan-nuvara [sic] Māyādunu-nuvaraoo and Daňbadeni-nuvara [sic] when introducing the accession of King Paņdita Parakramabahu at Dariabadeniya in I783 of the Buddhist Era (A.D. I240). It will be noticed that these seats of kings were not far from each other. Other texts, relating to worship at devailaya temples also carry similar references to Dadigama.
In the fourteenth century Dedigama was the capital of a paramount sovereign of Ceylon, that is, King Parakramabahu V (A.D 1344-1359). This king is eulogized in two contemporary poems, the Tisarasandesaya in Sinhalese and in Vuttamalaisandesasataka29 in Pali. (See below.) The Copper-plate grant of the Medawala-vihara in the Kandy District:0 belonging to the eighteenth century, but which incorporates historical material of an older period, speaks of news concerning the state of disrepair of that temple being reported to aking of the city of Dedigama (Didigam-nuvara) and it is recorded that the king heard the message in the royal assembly (rajasabhayehi). According to the document under discussion, this was sometime after the treacherous murder of King Parākramabāhu IV (A.D I 3o2-I326) by B5dā Māpā, and the king of Dedigama mentioned in the Medawala document must be Parākramabāhu V. This is further attested to by the fact that the completion of the vihara was reported to the king when the king was seated on the royal throne at Gampola, and the latter must be Bhuvanekabāhu IV (A.D I34I-I35I) who exercised joint sovereignty with the king of Dedigama, or this may have been king Parakramabahu himself who had made Gampola his residence Bahuvanekabahu being then dead.
The Tisara-sandesaya, the oldest existing Sinhalese sandesa poem in its nearly complete and original form, purports to carry a message through a Swan from Devinuvara in the extreme south of Ceylon to a king of Dedigama, who bore the name of Parakramabahu. D. B. Jayatilaka who edited this poem with a historical introduction took this king to be Parakramabahu V, and internal evidence contained in the poem alone supports his identification. The author, a bhikkhu of Devinuvara, says that he was engaged in prayer to God Upulvan of that city to protect this king who was his friend. The work contains a poetic account of the city, along with the description of the monastery there (vv. I4I-I50). The eulogy is conventional, yet it testifies to the importance of the city as a royal residence during the time.
25. MS supplied to the writer by M. M. Podinilame, Gonnana,
Kitulgala, with his letter dated 15.9. I963.
26. This is Ambulugala in the Kegalla District.
27. MS copies and oral tradition.
28. Ed. D. B. Jayatilaka, 1935 : (Tiss).
29. In the 'Literary of Sinhalese Classics' pt. I. Grantharnavaya (I), ed. A. M.
Gunasekera, pp. I, 69-II 88. (Vmss).
3o. EZ, Vol. V, No. 48.
3 II. Ibid. p. 472.

İDEDIGAMA - II 5
The royal seat of Dedigama and King Parakramabahu are thus introduced in one of the opening verses of the Sandesa:
tuñgu manarambâ belen adahasa lesma räka deraņambã lDätigam-pura disna imi Päräkumbá naraniñduhata tosna ma mitura embå danvava me asna (v. 6)
"O my friend, give this message to His Royal Majesty King Parakramabahu, who flourishes in the city of Dáitigam protecting according his pleasure the Mother Earth through the prowess of his captivating and mighty arm'.
The message-carrying swan tarries for a while at Doravaka, a village of great importance in the same korale, and proceeding through pleasant and lovely forest region comes to a hamlet by the name of Allakola where there was a bó-tree worthy of notice. Then the bird arrives at Dedigama, the verbal account of which is cited here at some length: ܚ
äti yam siri täneka vũ lesini babaļanā
sitiyam äti noyeka rudu soňduru viimaninā bäti pem, tunuruvana äti sata nitora vanā Dătigam-puravaraţa vadu mitura situ menă (v. I40) mituru saida epura siri pasasnā vadam pas-kän (me) tā savavan sada
"Friend, with a joyful mind, enter the great city of Dātigam which is resplendent through countless stately mansions containing various paintings (in them) as if the splendour of the whole world had gathered together into one place; and where constantly reside people full of love and devotion towards the Triple Gen.
And my good friend, deck your ears with these ornaments, namely, the words with which I eulogize that city'.
gârîhbara agala mevulen pun-kuñbu teneni nitora sobana mahave siman-irini epura aŭgana malalata dum talä väni pavara gopura siri daku ma-mitura naňdini (v. r4I)
"My friend observe with pleasure the glory of that majestic city-gate, which is like a tilaka ornament in the forehead of that lady, namely, the city, whose parting of hair is the ever beautiful highway, whose waist-girdle the deep moat, and whose full breasts the 'full-pots' (symbols of fortune)'.

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Here is a quatrain describing the damsels sporting in the city which is followed by:
banda täna täna dada lela-dena nelèyä pata piļibiňibu piļimiņi-käța-telēyā bäsa suragańga sililehi suvimalèyä tosa keļanā väni surasiňdu kälēyā (w. I43)
“The reflection of flags hoisted all over and fluttering by the breeze when fallen on the crystal mirrors appear like the hosts of Devas and Siddhas sporting happily in the pure waters of the Heavenly River whither they have descended'. In a double entendre the poet likens the city to the ocean:
samata äduru rasa piri saňda sak susiru anata bujaňga isi-min, diyagosin-ituru mahata guruļu-dada vē mutumiņi sapiru satata epuravara dalaniňdu eka ayuru (v. I44)
"Eternally that city is like the ocean. In the city there reside learned teachers; it is full of enjoyment; it is the abode of pretty women and countless sportive youths, and also of countless sages; it echoes with the shouts of victory, flags carrying the garuda symbol are hoisted over the highway; it overflows with pearls and gems, just as the ocean is surrounded by the great rocks, it is full of water; it contains the moon, chanks and flutes, in it live Ananta and many a large fish; it resounds with the waves and water; it is the abode of Great Visnu; it is also full of pearls and gems'.
In the city there was a monastery, the constant abode of virtuous monks. Prosperous ministers in their riches comparable to the God of Wealth had taken up their residence here. There were huge elephants and swift-footed horses. The city was crowded with the fourfold army. In that prosperous city of Dedigama flourished King Päråklumba.
The Vuttamala-Sandesa-sataka which is known by its abridged form Vuttamala is a Pali Sandesa in one hundred and two stanzas written by a candidate for the priesthood who lived in a parivena called Gatara which was evidently at Dedigama during the time. The author was a nephew (sister's son) of Vilgammula Mahasami. The poem purports to be a message from Dedigama to Kelaniya and opens with an ornate description of Jaitigama which is another Pali equivalent for Dadigama. The eulogy of the city is followed by a praise of King Parakkamabhuja who is designated a Rajadhiraja.82 We cite a few extracts from these accounts.
sotthi” ddhĩbhũpatimhã vibudhamadhukarãsevanappankajamhã nānābhogākaramihā, vaņijamudupaņītāpanoghākulamhā bhūmitthisekharamhā vipulasiridhanīrājamantissaramhā
vijjāsindhu” dadhimhāmanujasuradumā Jātigāmappuramhā (V. I)
32. King of Kings.

DEDIGAMA п п7
'By that city of Jatigama, which is a divine tree for its residents, where there are prosperous and majestic rulers of the earth, and with lotus in the form of the city is resorted to by the bees, namely, the good people, which city is crowded with shops kept by gentle merchants of noble birth who are mines of manifod wealth, which city is the cluster of flowers worn on the head of the Earth-Lady, in which city dwell kings and their ministers, which city is like the ocean to receive the rivers of learning'.
pākārasāravalavī dhavalī visālī ādiccavam sapablnavasa narādhi pasa nakkhattarajakulato thirabandhavaya tas sūpadāya pahitā paridhī va bhāti (v. 3)
"The white and firm city wall shines like the circle of rays sent by the lunar race (family of the King of Stars) in order to make firm the connection with this king arisen of the Solar race'.
yassa nekavidhayodhavāhinī
sumsumāramikarelni sahkulā
bhāti mettasalilena pūritā
cakkacakkaputhudigglikāvalī (V. 4)
"In that city abundant with wealth, full of compassionate people, and crowded with hosts of soldiers, the row of large oblong ponds forming the moat shines with its waters which are infested with crowds of crocodiles'.
The account of the city continues: the high mansions with their gabled roofs, and flags handing from them. At the entrances to the city are decorated gateways (lorana). There are mighty huge elephants and swift white horses. The five-fold music resounds like the noise of the ocean. Special mention is made of the beautiful arecanut groves. That city with many hills and amidst which the royal palace resembles the Mahameru, is resplendent like the Milky Ocean. There lives king Parakkamabhuja:
itthambhütavibhütibhärabharite tasmim padhänodite sāmantajagatindamoliratanālisevi pādambujo bhūsento ratanattayam samakute katvāna cūļamaņim lakkhīvăsabhujo Parakkamabhujo rājādhirājā ahu (v. п7).
"In that renowned capital city which was thus laden with the weight of riches, there was a king of kings who was the abode of the Goddess of Wealth, (namely) Parakkamabhuja, whose feet were served by the bees, in the form of the crown gems of subordinate rulers, and who adorned his head with the Triple Gem, just as he did with the royal crown'.

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In that city there was also a vihara establishment (assamabhimipado),33 where students learnt the words of the Buddha. In the monastery gardens grew areca trees with blossoming flowers, coconut palms laden with fruits, crowds of campaka trees with flowers like flames of fire and mango trees bearing sweet fruits. The bo-tree is compared to a dark cloud. Here lived monks of high rank of both the village and forest fraternities. The mahatheras of the former section listed are: Upalantaram tila (Galaturumula),8. Senapatimula, Mahanettapasadamula and Sarogamamüla (Vilgammula).37 Following are the names of the mahitheras of the austere forest dwelling sect: Mahāvanaratana,38 Dhammakittika39 and Mahābhuvanekabhuja. 40 Above all of them there was also the Sangharaja whose name is not mentioned. We may assume that even if all these foremost theras of the time did not live constantly at Dedigama, they had their residences in the capital. The poem ends with a prayer to God Vibhisana of Kelaniya for the protection of King Parakkamabahu and his council of ministers.
King Parakramabahu of line 4 (now lost) of Alavala-amuna Rock Inscription also has been now taken to be Parakramabahu V of Dedigama. Moreover we have been able to learn recently the circumstances which made Parakramabahu V who is eulogized in the above Sandesa poems to leave his seat of government at Dedigama. We give here a summary of the evidence discovered by Paranavitana from some of the interlinear records indited between lines in certain lithic inscriptions of Ceylon.
Alake vara, the tenth of that name, mentioned in the Kitsirimevan-Kelaniya Inscription had a son by the name of Vira Alakesvara. The latter blinded his father who was lord of Rayigama and was about to kill Nissanka Alakesvara, his father's sister's Son who was the heir to his father's principality. While Vira Alakesvara was at ဋီyဖုံဖုံ Nissahka Alakesvara betook himself to Marttandam, that is, Arya Cakravartti and received his help. Now king Parakramabahu V of Dedigama had taken the side of Vira Alakesvara. Nissanka Ala
33. Vmss, v. 3 I.
34. ibid. v. 42. 35. ibid. v. 43. 36. ibid. v. 44. 37, ibid. V. 45. 38. ibid. v. 47. 39. ibid. v. 48. 4o. ibid. v. 49.
4. Paranavitama, "Laukátilaka Inscriptions' in University of Ceylon Review,
Vol. XVIII, Nos. I 92, January- April, I 94o, p. 39.
42. "Princess Ulakudaya's Wedding' in University of Ceylon Review, Vol. XXI, No. 2, October, I963, pp. Io 3-137 with plate and geneological tables.
43. Op. cit. p. II9. Parākrabāhur-j-Jātigrāmapure rājyam krtvā VīraAlakesvarasya paksam grhitva Aryyacakravartti Marttan dena yuddhan krtvá, parajito Rohanam gatvá-" His son, Parākramabahu, (residing) in Jatigrámapura, took the side of Vira Alakesvara, waged war with the Aryyacakravartti Marttanda, and was defeated. (He) went to Rohana....'

DEDİGAMA II9
kesvara and Arya Cakravartti advanced on Dedigama and defeated Parakramabahu V's army. The battle cost Vira Alakesvara his life. Parakramabahu fled to Rohana and having resided at Magulmahavihara for sometime went to Java, that is, Tamralimga in the Malay Peninsula.44
Even after Parakramabahu V's flight to Rohana Dedigama continued to be the seat of provincial rulers. Thakira, a Rajput prince, the descendent of a son of Bhima, the Caulukya king of Gujarat and a daughter of Vijayabāhu III of Dambadeniya (A.D I 232—I236) was in the service of Parakramabahu V of Dedigama and went along with him to Rohana. When king Parakramabahu of Dedigama went to Java, Thakura came as mandalikaraja of Ratnapura under King Bhuvanekabahu V (A.D. 1372-1408). A son of the provincial ruler of Ratnapura also Thakura by name, governed the kingdom of Jatigramapura as a mandalika of Parākramabāhu VI (A.D. I462- I 467). This Thakura's daughter, Svarnamanikya (Ranmänike) was taken in marriage by king Parakramabahu. Thus the royal family of Dedigama was again connected with the imperial throne of Ceylon.
The new findings of Paranavitana through these unique records conforms the statement of the Sinhalese historical text, the Rajaivaliya, which says that Sri Parakramabahu of Kotte had a princess brought from Kiravella, and consecrated her his chief queen. So far it was taken by scholars and readers of historical texts that the Chief Queen of King Parakramabahu VI came from an unspecified village in the Kiravali-pattuva, although some guessed that her home city was Dedigama.7We now see conclusively from the recently read inscriptions that the Queen of King Sri Parakramabahu came from nowhere else, but from Dedigama, and we also know her name to be Rammaniké (Skt. Svaronamanikya). And we know her royal ancestry also.
44. For Jaiva or Javaka see Paranavitana, Ceylon and Malaysia, Colombo
I966, pp. I 29- I 3o. 45. Some of the inscriptions in Sanskrit relating to the princess of Kiravalla read: (i) Parākramabāhu-rājasya mahişī Svarņņa-māņikyã tu Jātigrāmapure Rajaputra-Thakurasya duhita. 'The Queen of King Parakramabahu, Svarnnamanikya (Ram Manike), is the daughter of Rajaputra Thakura of Jatigramapura (Dadigama)'." Princess Ulakudaya's Wedding', p. 123. (ii) Parākramabāhu-mahārājas tu. . . . . Jātigrāma-pure RājaputraThakurasya duhitarann Svarņņamāņikyām samvāhya Candravatīñ ca, Purandarafi cajanayitva sthitan. 'The great king Parākramabahu. . wedded Svarņņamāņikyā, the daughter of Rāja putra Thakura of Jatigramapura (Dátigama) and begot Candravati and Purandala'. ibid. pp. I33-34. 46. Ed. B. Gunasekara, p. 47, ibid. translation, p. 68. W. Pemananda Bhikkhu, Colombo, I926, p. 65: Kīravāllen bisō kenekun gennavā aga-mehes un koţa. . . . . . . 47. Note what Bell says (Kegalle Report, p. 83) : “Šrī Parākrama Bāhu VI, married a princess from Kiraveli Pattuwa, and not improbably of Dedigama, at this time a Royal village'.

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During the long reign of King Parakramabahu VI extending over half a century the principality of Dedigama would have enjoyed peace and prosperity, and Dedigama would have had a place of importance being the home-town of the Chief Queen. If there were any trouble from the hill country it was easily warded off by the Yuvaraja, who was no other than the Emperor's own brother, with his seat of government at Ambulugala only eleven miles to the East of Dedigama.
At the demise of Parākramabahu VI, Jayavira Parakramabahu, son of the sovereign's daughter Candravati who was better known by her title Ulakudayadevi, succeeded to the vacant throne of Kotte. Jayavira's reign was short, and Sapumal Kumaraya, who had been adopted as a son by Parakramabahu before the birth of his grandson, came with his army from Jaffna and ascended the throne as Emperor of Kotte under the title Bhuvanekabahu VI (A.D. I470-78). A large part of the kingdom was not loyal to Bhuvanekabahu, and his reign was full of troubles and disturbances. The revolt which followed Bhuvanekabahu's accession is called the Sinhalaperaliya or the Sinhala-sange and in this the people of Dedigama along with the rebels of Satarakorale appear to have sided the opponents of the king. This fact is attested to by a stone-slab inscription of King Bhuvanekabahu VI in his ninth year which is now set up near the bo-tree in the Rajamahaviharaya of Dedigama situated in front of the Kotavehera. According to the Inscription King Bhuvanekabahu VI came personally to Dedigama and it was from there that he brought the Four Korales under his authority. This shows that up to this time Dedigama would have been considered a fit and safe place even for the temporary residence of the king. Disturbances around Dedigama are recorded to have been settled, but along with the granting of amnesty which is the subject of the inscription, further troubles beyond in Udarata are also alluded to here.
We find Dedigama under the name of Kiravălla continuing as the home of royal families at the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century. Rajavaliva tells us that two brothers of King Dharmaparākramabāhu (Parākramabāhu IX A.D I49I-I513), Šrī Rajasimha and Vijayabahu lived at Menikkadawara. The brotherin-law of Śrī Rājasimha was a chieftain of Kīravälla (Kīravälle Mahārālahami). At the death of Sri Rajasimha and his queen, Vijayabahu' married a princess from Kiravalla and also adopted a prince whom he brought from that place. As Vijayabahu later became king of Kotte, Dedigama again had the honour of being the home of the Queen.
48. This was King Vijayabâhu VI of Kotte (A.D. 15og-I521). 49. Rajävaliya, ed. B. Gumasekera, Colombo, I9 II, pp. 5o-5o ; ibid translation
by B. Gunasekera, Colombo, 1900, pp. 72-74.

DEDIGAMA 2.
The Portuguese built forts at Menikkadawara and Holombuwa. near Dedigama in the sixteenth century. The Sinhalese are also reported to have erected a stronghold at Dedigama.50 It would be of interest if an account of Dedigama could be traced in a Portuguese Tombo. The Vittipot2 also do not mention any names of royal officers or soldiers. from Dedigama although they contain lists from Belligal-korale and Kiraveli-pattuva. The Nampota, which is attributed to the eighteenth century and to an author who lived not far away from Kandy includes Dádigama among the names of villages and towns with sacred sites in them, along with certain other places in the area. The passage runs. Bisõvela, Dädigama, Arandora, Doravaka, Maçlabaçlavița. . . . . . All these are places of historical importance in the area. This shows that at least the Buddhist Vihara at Dedigama would have been remembered by the people of the Kandyan kingdom as a foundation dating back to ancient times. Up to the end of the Sinhalese kingdom in A.D I815, Dedigama was a gabadagama of the kings of Kandy, and paddy fields. in the village were set apart for the benefit of the sovereign. The Sowing extent of the fields was nine yala and twelve amuna, administered under two sections Udabage and Pallebage (Ihalavela and Pahalavela) under two Gamaralas.
Dedigama remained a Royal Village up to the end of the Kandyan Kingdom in 1815. In the early British times the village would not have witnessed the changes that were rapidly taking place as it lay out of the highways, and being protected by ranges of mountains as was pointed out at the beginning. The British advanced to Kandy along the road which went through Ruvanwella, Arandara, Iddamalpana, Hettimulla and Attapitiya. This left Dedigama to the north. The new highway from Colombo to Kandy built by the British passed through Nelundeniya, a suburb of Dedigama, leaving the main village to the South. However, Dedigama, being the largest village in Belligalkorale retained its importance. It was the residence of the Ratémahatmaya of the Korale for many years, and there was a rural court. A local school there soon became bilingual, that is teaching English in addition to the mother tongue and this at a time when very
5.o. Paul E. Pieris identifies Bidigas of Queyroz with Dedigama, see Portuguese Eva, Colombo, IO I3, Vol. I, p. 334, and p. 57 I. See also Father Fernao De Queyroz, The Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon, translated by Father S. G. Perera, Colombo, I93o, Book 3, p. 532.
5I. The writer has not been able to trace the name of the village of Dedigama in the account of KI RAVELI PATTUVA I6 I 6, by P. E. Pieris, published as Pt. 4 of the Journal R. A. S. (Ceylon), Vol. XXXVI (No. Ioo, Dec. I945).
52. For example, collection by A. J. W. Marambe. Also a MS of Hatarakorale
Viitti, dated Saka I 669 (A. D. I 747).

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few rural schools in Ceylon taught English. 58 Outside the District, however, Dedigama was hardly known, not even when the TisaraSandesaya was prescribed as a text book for some Teacher's Examination. The name of Dedigama came to be in the news when one of the fifty seats of the State Council of Io3 was named after Dedigama, and the occupant of that seat was elected Speaker of the State Council. In the later delimitations for Parliamentary seats also, Dedigama continues to enjoy prestige of being the centre of an electorate, though gradually reduced in size, and the occupant of the seat has been Minister for Agriculture, and Prime Minister several times.
An account of the excavation and conservation of the Kotavehera at Dedigama is the subject of a monograph by the present writer: The Kolavehera at Deligama, “Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Volume VII. This should have been out in I968.
53. The writer was told by some senior villagers of the place in 1947 that the residents of the locality themselves got the Education Department to give up English, as they did not want the rustic youths to speak that language.
The following was supplied by the Government Archivist: 1618 වසීයේ පෘතුගීසි තෝම්බුවේ (පෝරාල්) නමැති පොතෙහි ඉංග්‍රීසි පරිවතීනයේ:
(146) 'The village Dediguama (Dedigama) folio. . . . of the said book, shall pay forty nine xerafins as quitrent, and the native inhabitants thereof shall have no further obligation than what they had in the time of past Kings, according to the declaration of the Tombo, and it shall have the obligation of six firelocks'.

లివిధరిర రరరిరgర
KANDYAN DYNASTY
ඒ. ඇස්. හෙට්ටිආරච්චි විසිනි
මහනුවර රාජ්‍යයේ ආරම්භය පිළිබඳව බොහෝ දෙනා දරන මතය නම් එය වීරවික්‍රම නමැති රජකු විසින් ක්‍රි. ව. 1542 දී ආරම්භ කරනලද බවය. මීට හේතුව කීර්ති ශ්‍රී රාජසිංහ සමයේ ලියනලද මහාවංශයේ අග භාගයේ එසේ සඳහන් වීමය.! මේ පුවත මහාවංශයට ගෙන ඇත්තේ රාජරත්නාකරයෙන් බව පොත් දෙකේම දක්වන සමාන විස්තරයෙන් පෙනේ. රාජරත්නාකරය ලියා ඇත්තේ පුධාන වශයෙන් මහනුවර මුලින් සිටි රජකුගේ පින්කම් රැසක් විස්තර කිරීමටය. එහෙත් එහි බු. ව. 2085 දී සිරිසඟබෝ වශයෙන් රජකු රජවූ බව සඳහන්වන නමුත් ඔහුගේ නම කිසි තැනෙක නොදැක්වේ. ''.......... තමන්ගේ වීර වික්‍රමයට සුදුසු බාහු වික්‍රමයෙන් ජය ගෙන............... '''2 යන ආදි පාඨවලින් අනුප්‍රාස කර දක්වා ඇත්තේ වීරවික්‍රම යන නම යයි මුළාවූ මහාවංශ කතුවරයා එය රජුගේ නම ලෙස යෙදීය. ඒ පාඨයෙන් වික්‍රමබාහු යන නමද ධවනිත වන බව පෙනේ. මහනුවර විසූ රජුගේ නම රාජරත්නාකරයේ දැක්වෙන්නේ VII භූවනෙකබාහු රජුගේ නමටත් පසුව% බැවිනුත් ඔහු රජ වූයේ 1542 දීයයි දැක්වෙන බැවිනුත් මහනුවර ප්‍රථම රජ ඔහු නොවිය හැක. මක්නිසාද? vii භූවනෙකබාහු සහ සහෝදරයන් රජ වූයේ මහනුවර රජකුගේ ආධාර ඇතිව 1521 දී නිසාය.
එච්. ඩබ්ලිව්. කොඩ්රින්ටන් මහතා විසින් මහනුවර සිටි සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු නම් රජකු පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු රැසක් අනාවරණය කළ පසු මේ දුමිතය බිඳ වැටිණ.* සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහුගේ පහත දැක්වෙන ලිපි සොයාගෙන ඇත.
1. ගඩලාදෙණියේ ගිරිලිපිය (8 වන වස) 5
අලුත්නුවර දේවාලයේ පුවරුලිපි දෙකක්* කොබ්බෑකඩුවේ විහාර සන්නස (37 වන වස)7 වන්නිපෙයාළ සන්නස (20 වස)” කුට්ටන්ගල් විහාර සන්නස (1510) 7 ගල්ගෙණ විහාර තුඩපත (1510)” විමුක්ති සංග්‍රහය (18 වන වස)
මේ ලිපි අනුව සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු රජු 1510 දක්වා රජ කළ බවත් 37 වසක් රට පාලනය කළ බවත් ඔප්පු වේ. 1511 දී උඩරට වෙනත් රජකු සිටී බව සඳහන් වන හෙයින් මේ රජුගේ රාජාසය 1511 දී අවසන් වූ බවත් 37 වසක් රජ කෙළේ නම් අඩු වශයෙන් 1473 දී පමණ රජ වූ බවත් නිගමනය කළ හැකිය.
මහාවංශය. 92 පරිච්ජේදය, 6-32 ගාථා. රාජරත්නාකරය. (ශෝධක: ජී. ඇන්. තිසේරා.) 50 පිට.
එම 43-44 පිටු. Epigraphia Zeylanica, Vol. III, 240-244 BS
එම එම Vol. IV, BS 8-22.
එම එම Vol. IV, BƏ 261-270. රාජකීය ආසියාතික සමිතියේ සඟරාව, Vol. XXXII, අංක 84. 68 පිට.
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24 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
එවිට ඔහුගේ රාජ්‍ය කාලය ක්‍රි. ව. 1473 සිට 1511 දක්වා යයි දළ වශයෙන් සීමා කළහැක. ඒ නිසා අපට දැනට සොයා ගතහැකි පරිදි මහනුවර මුල් රජතුමා සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු ය.
මහනුවර මුලදී හැඳින්වුණේ සොරකඩගල නමිනි. මේ නගරය ගම්පළ සමයේද පැවති නමුත් රාජධානියක් වූයේ සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහුගෙන් පසුවය. iii වික්‍රමබාහුගේ අම්පිටියේ ලිපියේත්ර් v භූවනෙකබාහුගේ සගම ලිපියේත්? සොකඩගල සඳහන් වේ. එකල එය පුසිද්ධ වූයේ නාථ දේවාලය නිසාය. මහනුවර මුලින් රජවූ වික්‍රමබාහු ගම්පළ සිටි iii වික්‍රමබාහුමයයිද ඔහු ගම්පළ සිට මහනුවරට පැමිණ රජවීයයිද සමහරු පටලවා ගනිති.10. මේ දෙදෙනා අතර කාලයේ පරතරය අවුරුදු සියයක් පමණ වන නිසා මේ සිදුවිය නොහැක්කකි. එසේම රාජරත්නාකරයේ හා මහාවංශයේ 1542 දී සිටි බව කියන රජු සේනා සම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු නොවේ.
ඉහත සඳහන් ලිපිවලින් සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු ගැන තොරතුරු තරමක් සොයාගත හැකිවේ. 1473 පමණේ දී රජ වූ ඔහු සතු වූයේ උඩ රට කඳුකරය “ පමණක් නොවේ. මනුනාරම ත්‍රිකුණාමලය මඩකලපුව උදාව ආදි ඈත පළාත්ද පාලනය කළ හෙයින් ඔහුගේ රාජ්‍යය කෝට්ටේ රාජාපයට වඩා විශාල විය. සිරිසඟබෝ,තිසිංහලාධීශේවර, චක්‍රවර්ති ආදි විරුද භාවිත කළ හෙයින් තමා ලංකාවේ පුධාන රජු ලෙස සිතූ බව පෙනේ. එහෙයින් කෝට්ටේ ආධිපතාපය නොපිළිගත්තෙකි. මොහු රජවූ වර්ෂයේම කෝට්ටේ vi භූවනෙකබාහු රජ විය. මේ සිද්ධි දෙකේ සම්බන්ධයක් ඇතුවා නිසැක ය.
vi. භුවනෙකබාහු සිහසුන අල්ලා ගත් පසු රාජාපය පුරා කැරලි ඇති විය. සිංහල සංගේදම හෙවත් සිංහල පෙරළිය යනුවෙන් එය හැඳින්වේ.11 1476 දී පමණ මෙය උත්සන්න වූ විට සතරකෝරළය පාලනය කළ තම සොහොයුරු අම්බුලුගලකුමාරයා එය සංසිඳුවීම පිණිස පස්දුන්කෝරළයට යවනලදි.11 මේ අවසථාව බලා සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු සතරකෝරළය සිය රජයට ඈඳාගන්නා ලදි. මායාදුනු නුවර (අම්බුලුගල ?) සිය වසයට ගති. ඉන්පසු සතරකෝරළේ ජනතාව තමාට පක්ෂවන බවට පොරොන්දු කරවා ගෙන අභයදාන සෙල්ලිපියක් අලුත්නුවර පිහිටුවීය. අලුත්නුවර දේවාලය කරවීම පිළිබඳ ඉතිහාස පුවතේද මෙය සඳහන්වේ.* එහෙත් vi භුවනෙකබාහු පහතරට පෙදෙස් සන්සුන් කළ ඉක්බිති සතරකෝරළයට අවුත් එය නැවත 1478 දී සිය වසයට ගෙන කැරලිකරුවන්ට අභයදානය දී දැදිගම සෙල්ලිපියක් පිහිටුවිය.1* උඩරට සමගද ගැටුණ බව එහි දැක්වේ. සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහුට එයින් පසු සතරකෝරළය නැතිවූ බව ඒ රජුගේ අටවැන්නේ ගඩලාදෙණියේ පිහිටුවූ සෙල්ලිපියේ තමාට යටත් පුදේශවල නම් අතර සතරකෝරළය නොසඳහන් කිරීමෙන් පෙනේ.
සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහුගේ පරපුර ගැන තොරතුරු ලබාගත හැකි
හෝඩුවාවක් රාජරත්නාකරයේ දැක්වේ. ''......ජයමහලේන සවුලු පරාක්‍රමබාහු මහරජාණන්ට මුනුබුරුවූ පිතාපක්ෂයෙන් යටකී මෙහෙණවර වංශෝද්භූත වික්‍රමබාහු මහරජාණන්ට මුනුබුරු වූ...... '' 14 යනුවෙන් මෙහි දැක්වෙන්නේ
|vi පරාක්‍රමබාහු සහ iii වික්‍රමබාහු යන රජවරුන්ට මුනුබුරු වූ බව යයි පරණ
8. Epigraphia Zeylanica, Vol. IV, BQ 271—273.
9. එම එම Vol. IV, 8Q 296—312. 10. ලංකා ඉතිහාසය: ජී. සී. මෙන්ඩිස්, 11. University History of Ceạlom, P 679 cốoeópẽ)3x3 : 49-50 88. 12. සාහිතාන්‍ය සඟරාව : 1964, 4 කලාපය. 13. Epigraphia Zeylanica, Vol. III, 3S 278-286. 14. රාජරත්නාකරය, 49 පිට.

KANDYAN DYNASTY I25
විතාන මහතා අදහස් කරයි.15 කරුණු දෙකක් නිසා මෙය සාවද්‍ය ය. 1542 දී සිටි බව රාජරත්නාකරය කියන රජු 1469 දී ඉතා මහලු ව මළ vi පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ මුනුබුරා යයි ගැනීමට කාලය දිග වැඩිය. අනෙක නම් vi පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ සහ iii වික්‍රමබාහුගේ මුනුබුරා වීමට කෙනෙකුට එකවර නොහැකිය. එසේ වීමට නම් ඒ දෙදෙන සමකාලීන වියයුතුය. ඉහත කී පාඨයෙන් හැගෙන පරිදි මවුපසින් vi. පරාක්‍රමබාහුටත් පිය පසින් iii වික්‍රමබාහුටත් මුනුබුරාවූ බවක් සිතාගත නොහැක්කේ දෙදෙනා අතර කාලය අවුරුදු 50 ක් පමණ වන හෙයිනි. එහෙයින් මෙහි සඳහන් වික්‍රමබාහු ගම්පොළ වික්‍රමබාහු විය නොහැකිය. එසේ නම් මේ පාඨය අප තේරුම් ගත යුත්තේ පැහැදිලිව ම පෙනෙන ලෙස '' (මවු පසින්) vi. පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුට මුනුබුරුවූ වික්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ මුනුබුරා' යන ලෙසිනි. එවිට 1542 දී මහනුවර සිටි රජ වික්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ මුනුබුරා වෙයි. විකූමබාහු නමින් මෙහි දැක්වූයේ සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහුය. එවිට මෙහි කිසි අවුලක් නැත. මේ අනුව සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු මවු පසින් vi පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ 蠶 වෙයි. ඒ රජුට සිටියේ චන්ද්‍රවතී හෙවත් ලෝකනාථා නම් එකම දුවක් පමණි.16 ජයබාහු හෙවත් ජයවීර පරාක්‍රමබාහු නමින් (1469-73) රජ වූයේ ඇයගේ පුතාය. vi. පරාක්‍රමබාහු සිය මුනුබුරාට රජය හිමි කිරීම ගැන නොසතුටට පත් හදාගත් පුතු වන සපුමල්කුමරු ජයබාහු මරා 1473 දී vi භූවනෙකබාහු නමින් රජ විය. චන්ද්‍රවතියට වික්‍රමබාහු නමින් තවත් පුතකු සිටියා විය යුතුය. රාජරත්නාකරය පවසන්නේ ඔහු පිය පසින් මේණවර වයංශයට අයත් බවය. එසේ නම් සේනා සම්මත වික්‍රමබාහුගේ පියා, චන්ද්‍රවතීගේ සවාමි පුරුෂයා, මේණවර වංශයේ කෙනකු විය යුතුය. චන්ද්‍රවතීගේ පුරුෂයා නන්නුරු තුණයා බව සැළලිහිණි සන්දේශයේ අග පැවසේ. තුණයා යන්න මේණවර වංශය හා සම්බන්ධ නමක් බව ගඩලාදෙණි ටැම් ලිපීයෙන් පෙනේ. එහි මේණවර තුනයන් ගැන සඳහන් වේ. නන්නුරු තුනයාත් මේණවර වංශයට අයත් නම් සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු පිය පසින් මේණවර වයංශිකයෙක(යි කීම සතාප වේ. සොහොයුරාගේ මරණයෙන් පසු ඔහු කඳුරටට පලා ගොස් යුදහමුදා රැස් කොට ඔවුන්ගේ සම්මතයෙන් මහනුවර රජ වූ බව මෙයින් නිශේචය කළහැකිය. එවිට ඔහු vi පරාකූම බාහුට මවු පසින් මුනුබුරු වීම පැහැදිලි වේ. චන්ද්‍රවතියට තවත් පුතකු සිටි බව පොතපතෙහි සඳහන් නැතත් එසේ වීමට බාධාවක් නැත. vi භූවනෙකබාහුත් සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහුත් සමකාලීනව රජ වීමේ හේතුවද මේ නයින් අපට පැහැදිලි වේ. ජයබාහුගේ මරණින් පසු රාජාපයේ උරුමය තමාට විය යුතුබව වික්‍රමබාහු සිතූ සේ පෙනේ. එහෙයින් ඔහු ලංකාවේ පුධාන රජු යොදන විරුද නම් යොදා ගත්තේය. කොබ්බෑකඩුවේ සන්නස රජුගේ නම සඳහන් කරන්නේ ‘ත්‍රිසිංහලාධිශේවර නවරත්නාධිපති ශීමත් සිරිසඟබෝ ශ්‍රී සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු චක්‍රවර්තිසවාමීන්වහන්සේ’’ යනුවෙනි. 1476 සමීපයේ දී සතරකෝරළයත් අල්ලා ගත් පසු ඔහු ලංකාවේ බලවත්ම රජු වූවාට සැක නැත. එහෙයින් ම සිරිසඟබෝ විය; ත්‍රිසිංහලයාධීශේවර විය; චක්‍රවර්ති විය; නවරත්නාධිපති විය. චන්ද්‍රවතියගේ විවාහය 1448 දී සිදුවූ බව පරණ විතාන මහතා කියයි.16 ඒ අනුව මොහු රජ වන විට විසි වයස් ඉක්මවා සිටින්නට ඇත.
vi. භුවනෙකබාහුගෙන් පසු අම්බුලුගල කුමාරයා රජය පැහැර ගෙන 1478 දී viii වීර පරාක්‍රමබාහු නමින් කෝට්ටේ රජ විය. මොහු උඩරට රජු සමග ගැටුණ බවක් දැනගන්නට නැත. 1496 දී වීරපරාක්‍රමබාහු මැරුණු පසු කොට්ටේ රජු වූයේ ඔහු පුත් ix ධමීපරාක්‍රමබාහුය.17 මේ අවසථාව පුයෝජනයට ගනිමින් සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු තමාගේ සවාධීන භාවයත් ප්‍රදේශත් මහත් කරගැනීමට
15. University History of Ceylon 681 BO. 16. University of Ceylon Review Vol. XXI eros) 2. 1963 (232)365. 17. ტ8) Vol. XIX goza 1. 1961 e Regice.
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උත්සාහ කළ බව රාජාවලියේ දැක්වේ.18 ධම්පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජ උඩරට රජු මැඩලීමට සිය ‘ සොහොයුරු ශී රාජසිංහ කුමරුත් සුහුරුබඩු කීරවැල්ලේ රාලහාමිත් යැවීය. කීරවැල්ලේ රාලහාමි සතරකෝරළේ යටත් කොට යටිනුවර අල්ලා උඩරට රජු පැරදවීය. විශාල වන්දියක් ගෙවා තම දියණියන් කීරවැල්ලේ රාලහාමිට විවාහ කරදී උඩරට රජ සමාදාන විය. මේ සටන 1496 සහ 1500 අතර දී සිදුවූ බව පෙනේ. පසුව 1507 දීද උඩරට රජු සවාධීන විය.19 මේ වර යුඬයට යවන ලද්දේ ධමීපරාක්‍රමබාහුගේ තවත් සොහොයුරකු වන උඩුගම්පළ සිටි සකලකලාවල්ල රජුය. ඔහුද උඩරට රජු පරදවා අලුත්නුවර දේවාලයට පැමිණ පුදපූජා පැවැත්වූ බව එහි ඉතිහාස පුවතේ සඳහන් වේ. රාජාවලියේ මේ විස්තරයේ දී උඩරට රජුගේ නම සඳහන් කර නැති නමුත් ඔහු සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු බව නිශේචය කළ හැකිය.
විමුක්ති සංග්‍රහයේ සඳහන් වන්නේ මේ රජුය. එහි කතුවර සෙනෙවිරත් පිරුවන් හිමියෝ සේනාලංකාධිකාරගේ පස් වන මුනුබුරාය. එසේ වීමට පරම් පරා හයක් යා යුතුය. පරම්පරාවක් ගත වීමට අවුරුදු 25 බැගින් ගතහොත් මීට අවූරුදු 150 ක් ගතවේ. 1344 දී ලංකාතිලකය කරවන සමයේ සේනාලංකාඨිකාර තරුණ වියේ සිටියේ නම් මේ අවුරුදු 150 ගත වූ විට 1494 වේ. වික්‍රමබාහුගේ 18 වැන්නේ එකී පොත ලියන ලදී. එනම් 1491 දීය. මෙයින් පෙනෙනුයේ එහි සඳහන් රජු සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු බවය.
· මේ රජු ඇවෑමෙන් 1511 දී ජයවීර නම් රජකු උඩරට රජ වූ බව ගඩලාදෙණියේ සෙල්ලිපියක එන 'ශ්‍රී බුද්ධ වර්ෂයෙන් දෙදාස් සිවු පණස් වනු නිකිනි . අවපැලවියැ. මෙකල රජ පැමිණි ජයවීර අප මහරාජෝත්තමයාණන්වහන්සේට පස්රටින්......... ''' යන පාඨයෙන් පෙනේ.20 මොහු වික්‍රමබාහු රජුගේ පුතායයිද අලුත්නුවර සෙල්ලිපියේ සඳහන් විකූමබාහු ඈපා යයිද සිතීමට ඉඩ ඇත. vi පරාක්‍රමබාහුරජුගේ එක් මුනුපුරකු ජයවීර (ජයබාහු) නම් වූ බව යට දැක්විණ. අනෙක් මුනුබුරාගේ පුතාද එනමින් හැඳින්වුණු බවත් මේ නම ඔවුන් අතර කඳාති සම්බන්ධය දක්වන්නක් බවත් පැහැදිලි ය.
· 1521 දී සිදුවූ විජයබා කොල්ලය සඳහා උදවු ගැනීමට මායාදුන්නේ ආවේද මහනුවර ජයවීර රජු වෙතය.21 මීට හේතුව ඔවුන් අතර පැවති ඥාතිසම්බන්ධයයි. සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු ගේ දුව කීරවැල්ලේ රාලහාමිට පාවාදුන් සිද්ධිය යට දැක්විණ. මේ විවාහයෙන් ලත් දුවක් එනම්, කීරවැල්ලේ බිසෝබෙඩාර සකලකලාවල්ල රජු වෙත දු තනතුරේ ඇති දැඩි විය. පසු කලෙක ඇය මහනුවර ජයවීර රජුට බිසෝ ලෙස පාවා දෙන ලද්දීය. සකලකලාවල්ල : රජුත් මායාදුන්නේගේ පියාත් සොහොයුරන් නිසා එකී කුමරිය මායාදුන්නේට නෑකමට අක්කා විය. මේ නෑකම නිසාය, ජයවීර රජුගෙන් උදවු ඉල්ලා ගියේ. මේ ජයවීර රජ 1511 දී මහනුවර සිටි බව සඳහන් රජු වීමට බැරිය. ඊට හේතු දෙකක් දැක්විය හැක. පළමුවැන්න නම් මේ විවාහයට මහනුවර සමයේ සිරිතේ හැටියට නෑකම් නොගැලපීම යි. ජයවීර වික්‍රමබාහුගේ පුතාය. කීරවැල්ලේ බිසෝබෙඩාර වික්‍රමබාහුගේ මිනිබිරීය. පුතා හා මිනිබිරිය අතර විවාහය චාරිත්‍රයනට නොගැලපේ. දෙවැන්න නම් 1511 දී රජ වූ ජයවීරගේ බිසෝ වීමට තරම් ඇයට වයසක් නැති වීමය. 1581 දී මායාදුන්නේ මියයනවිට වයස 80 ක් විය.” එසේ නම් ඔහු 1501 පමණේ දී උපන්නා විය යුතු ය. කීරවැල්ලේ බිසෝබඩාර අක්කා
%
18. රාජාවලිය, 51 පීට. රජයේ මුද්‍රණය
19. එම 51-52 පිටු. 20. රාජකීය ආසියාතික සමිතියේ සඟරාව, Wol. XXXII, අංක 84, 21. රාජාවලිය, , 54 · පිට. . . . . 22. පෘතුගීසියුගය : ඇස්. ජී. පෙරේරා පියතුමා, 127. පේදය.

KANDYAN DYNASTY I27
වන නිසා ඇය 1498-1500 පමණේදී ඉපදිය යුතුවේ. එවිට 1511 වන විට ඇයට විවාහ වීමට තරම් වයසක් නැත. පළමු කී ජයවීරගේ පුතා ලෙස දෙවනු කී ජයවීර සලකතෝත් මේ දුෂ්කරතා දෙකම පහවේ. එවිට දෙවන ජයවීරත් කීරවැල්ලේ බිසෝබඩාරත් මස්සිනා සහ නෑනාය. එහෙයින් මෙය ඇවැස්ස නෑකමට සිදුවුණ විවාහයක් නිසා ගැලපේ. එසේම 1521 වන විට ඇයට විවාහවීමට සුදුසු වයසද එළඹේ. 1542 වන විටත් සිටියේ මේ දෙවන ජයවීර නිසා රාජරත්නාකරයේ කියන පරිදි වික්‍රමබාහුගේ මුනුබුරා යයි ගැනීමද ගැලපේ. මේ රජු ගැන සඳහන් වන සථාන කීපයක් මෙසේය:-
“රාජාවලිය (ජයවීර 1521)
රාජරත්නාකරය (නම නොදැක්වේ. 1542) සුළුපූජාවලිය (වික්‍රමබාහු 1542)**
මහාවංශය (වීරවික්‍රම , 1542) වේගිරියේ පූජාපතූය. (ජයවීර 1528)** මහනුවර නාථදෙවාලයේ සෙල්ලිපිය (ජයවීර මහවැඩවුන් තැන. 1542)25 පල්කුඹුර තඹසන්නස (වික්‍රමබාහු)* . රජසිහසිරිත II (වික්‍රමබාහු)*7
පෘතුගීසීන්ගේ ලිපි (වික්‍රමබාහු 1546, 1547)*8
. . මේ ලිපිවලින් දැක්වෙන පරිදි මේ රජතුමා ජයවීර නමින් මෙන්ම වික්‍රමබාහු
යන නමින්ද හැඳින්වුණ බව පෙනේ. රාජරත්නාකරයෙන් විශාල කොටසක් වැය කර ඇත්තේ මේ රජුගේ ගුණ හා කළ පින්කම් වැනීම සඳහා ය. මහනුවර දෙමහල් පෝය ගෙයක් කරවීම, දාගැබක් බැඳවීම, සංඝාරාම රාශියක් තැනවීම, තිපිටකය ලියවීම, මහියංගනය හා ශ්‍රීපාදසථානය වඳින්නට යාම, ධමීකීර්ති තෙරුන් ලවා උපසම්පදාකමීය කරවීම, මහාකඨිනපින්කමක් (1528) කිරීම
· යනාදි මහත් රැසක් පින්කම් කළ බව සඳහන්වේ. රාජාවලියේද මේ රජු ගැන තොරතුරු එයි. සිය පුත්‍රයා සමග අමනාප වී අවසාන භාගයේදී මායාදුන්නේ රජු වෙත ගොස් එහි විසූ බව එහි සඳහන්ය.*?
II. ජයවීර රජුගේ රාජ්‍ය කාලයේ ආරම්භය සහ අවසානය පිළිබඳ සීමා සොයා බලමු. මායාදුන්නේ විජයබාකොල්ලය සඳහා උදවු ඉල්ලා මහනුවරට ආවේ 1521 දීය. ඒනිසා මොහු 1521 ට කලින් රජ වී ඇත. අවසාන සීමාව දැන ගැනීම සඳහා පල්කුඹුර තඹපතේ එන මේ විස්තරය උපකාර වේ.
( “..............ඟුවනෙකබාහු මහා රාජෝත්තමයාණන්වහන්සේගේ සහෝදර වූ තැනක් හෙරණ පැවිදි කරවා තිපිටකධාරීව
· භුවනෙකබාහු මහතෙරුන්වහන්සේ යන නමින් ප්‍රසිද්ධව මෙනුවර (කෝට්ටේ) වැඩහිඳුනා වේලාවට මෙම මහාරාජෝත්තමයාණන්වහන්සේ කාලාතිකූබාන්තවූ නිසා මෙම තෙරුන්වහන්සේ උන්වහන්සේට සහෝදරවූ කීප තැනකුත් මෙම නුවරින් පිටත්ව උඩකට්ටුවට ඇවිත් සිඳුරුවාන බද උඩුනුවර උරුලෑවත්ත කියන ගමේ පදිංචිව සිටින අවසථාවට
23. සුළුපූජාවලිය : ජේ. ඩී.පී. පෙරේරා, 6 පිට. 24. පටිසම්භිදා, 2. කලාපය, 1962. 25. Epigraphia Zeylanica, Vol. IV, 27-34 8ga. 26. ගම්පොළ ඉතිහාසය, 148 පිට, වරසම්බෝධි හිමි 27. රජසිහසිරිත II, 10 කවිය. 28. පෘතුගීසියුගය : ඇස්. ජී. පෙරේරා පියතුමා, 57, 65,66, 69, ජේද, 29. රාජාවලිය, 59 පිට. :

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.......වික්‍රමබාහු මහරාජෝත්තමයාණන් විසින් අභිනව කරවන ලද.........ශ්‍රීවර්ධනපුරපුවරයෙහි රාජාසශීයට පැමිණ වදාළ මෙම මහරාජෝත්තමයාණන්වහන්සේට කුමාර ප්‍රාප්තවූ ජයවීර ආසථාන කියන නාමාභිධාන......... මහරාජෙලෝත්තමයාණන් වහන්සේ මෙමනුවර රාජායානුශාසනාකරවදාරණ සමයෙහි..... 26
යනුවෙන් මෙහි සඳහන් කරන පරිදි vii භුවනෙකබාහු රජ මළ ළඟදීම මහනුවරට සංඝයා යනවිට එහි සිටියේ ජයවීර රජ ය. මොහු ii ජයවීරගේ පුතාය. මේ සිද්ධිය වූයේ 1551 දී ය. ඒ වනවිට මහනුවර ii ජයවීර නොසිටි නිසා ඔහුගේ රාජාසසමය 1551ට පෙර අවසන් වියයුතුය. එහෙයින් ඔහු 1521ට පෙර සිට 1551ට පෙර දක්වා සිටි බව නිශේචය කළහැක. මහනුවර නාථදේවාලයේ බිත්තියේ දැක්වෙන සෙල්ලිපියෙන් මොහු 1542 දී පෘතුගීසීන් පැරදවූ බව කියයි. 25 මේ රජ මහනුවරට පෘතුගීසීන් කැඳවා ගත්බව කියනු ලැබේ. 1547 පමණේදී මොහුගේ දුව කෝට්ටේ ධමපාලට විවාහ කරදෙනුලැබීය. ඕ දෙjන මාර්ගරිදා නමි.29
ii. ජයවීර හෙවත් වික්‍රමබාහුගේ අන්තිම කාලයේ පුතුන් අතර රාජාස උරුමය සඳහා සටන් හා ආරවුල් පැවති බව පෘතුගීසි ලිපිවලින් මෙන්ම රාජාවලියෙන්ද පෙනේ. මේ සටන්වලට කෝට්ටේ රජුත් පෘතුගීසිනුත් මැදිහත්වූ බවත් සමහර සොහොයුරන් මැරුම් කෑ බවත් අන්තිමේදී කරල්ලියද්දේ කුමාරබ•ඩයාර රජවූ බවත් සඳහන් වේ.30 මොහුද ජයවීර නමින් හැඳින්වෙයි. දුවීල රජෙකි. ඒ නිසා නිතර පෘතුගීසීන්ගෙන් උදවු පැතීය. 1582 දී i. රාජසිංහ රජු විසින් මහනුවර අල්ලාගනු ලැබූයෙන් ජයවීර පෘතුගීසීන් වෙත පලා ගියේය. ඔවුන් වෙතදී ක්‍රිස්තියානි ධම්ය වැළඳගෙන සිටින විට වසූරිය සෑදී මළෙය. ඔහුගේ ළදරු දුව කුසුමාසන දේවි දෝන කතිරිනා නමින් ක්‍රිස්තියානි වී පෘතුගීසීන් වෙත ඇතිදැඩිවිය.* පසුකලෙක මහනුවර රජවූ විමලධම්සූර්ය රජුටත් ඉන්පසුව සෙනරත් රජුටත් ඕ බිසොව වූවාය. ඇය නිසා මේ රජවරුන් දෙදෙනාට මහනුවර රාජ්‍යයේ අයිතිය සථිර විය. ii. රාජසිංහ ඇයගේ පුතාය. රජසිහසිරිතේ මෙසේ දැක්වේ. -
'දිනිඳු ගොත් සරුසාර වික්‍රමබාහු නිරිඳුට ජාත වූ සොඳ
පසිඳ සෙත් ජයවීර නරවීර මුනුබුරු &esoo '27
මෙහි එන ජයවීර නම් කරල්ලියද්දේ රජුය. ඔහු වික්‍රමබාහු (ii. ජයවීර) ගේ පුතාය. මේ අයුරින් ii රාජසිංහ iii ජයවීර ගේ මුනුබුරු වෙයි. iii. ජයවීර 1551 පෙර රජ වී 1582 දක්වා රජ කෙළේය. ii. රාජසිංහගේ පුතා ii විමලධම්සූයයීය. ඔහුගේ පුතා වන වීරපරාක්‍රම නරෙන්ද්‍රසිංහ රජුගෙන් මහනුවර රජ පරපුර අවසන් විය. මේ අන්දමට මහනුවර රජවරු මෙසේය:
සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු 1473 - 1511 පමණ
i. ජයවීර · 1511 - 1521 පමණ
ii. ජයවීර (විකූමබාහු) 1521 - 1551 පමණ iii. ජයවීර (කරල්ලියද්දේ කුමාරබ•ඩාර) ‘ f551 - 1582
(i) රාජසිංහ 1582 - 1592)
30. කෙවරෝස්, 2, 3 වන ග්‍රන්ථ. 31. පෘතුගීසියුගය : ඇස්. ජී. පෙරේරා පියතුමා, 131 ජේදය.

KANDYAN DYNASTY 29
i විමලධම්සූර්ය 592 - 1604 සෙනරත් 1604 1635 سسس ii. රාජසිංහ 1635 - 1687 ii විමලධමසූර්ය I687 - 1707 වීරපරාක්‍රම නරෙනදුසිංහ 1707-1729
రత ఆరgర
WI පරාක්‍රමබාහු
චන්ද්‍රවතී = නන්නූරු තුණයා
ii ජයබාහු (ජයවීර පරාකූමබාහු) සේනාසම්මත වික්‍රමබාහු
w
කීරවැල්ලේ රාලහාමි පස දූ කුමරිය = ජයවීර T
කීරවැල්ලේ බිසෝ අදසින් ජයවීර II (වික්‍රමබාහු)
r རྩ་ ༢| ධම්පාල = දෙෂ්න මාර්ගරීදා , ජයවීර III (කරල්ලියද්දේ කුමාරබෙඩාර)
විමලධම්සූරිය = දෙෂ්නකතිරිනා == සෙනරත් | : * විජයපාල කුමාරසිංහ ii රාජසිංහ
ii විමලධමීසූර්ය
වීරපරාකූම නරෙන්ද්‍රසිංහ

Page 69
Book Review
YALMAN, Nur. Under the Bo Tree: studies in caste, kinship and marriage in the interior of Ceylon.
(xii, 406 pp., maps, tables, figures, bibliogr. Berkeley and-Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1967. US$8.50.)
When Morgan discovered kinship terminologies a century ago he laid the foundation for what has become the most highly developed branch of anthropology and when at some future date a reckoning is made of the contribution anthropology has made to human knowledge in general, it is possible that kinship studies alone will be assured a serious consideration. Or, as Robin Fox writes in a recent introduction to the field, "Kinship is to anthropology what logic is to philosophy or the nude is to art; it is the basic discipline of the subject." I stress this, because at least one reviewer has treated this book as if it were just another book on Ceylon. It is certainly about Ceylon, but this, and most other anthropological works on Ceylon which have appeared in recent years, are studies in anthropology and directed towards anthropological issues. This is not to imply that the nonanthropologist could not profitably read this book. There is a great deal of straightforward ethnography-some of it well-known and some obscure-which makes the book of interest to any reader concerned with traditional and peasant Ceylon. But, I would maintain that anyone who does not understand the "Dravidian terminology' and the issues involved is not competent to judge the book as a whole.
As most readers of this Journal are, presumably, not anthropologists it is perhaps worth while to make clear what the issues are. The Dravidian terminology is so called because it is associated with the Dravidian-speaking areas of India-but it is also common to the Ceylon terminologies, the variants of Sinhala and Tamil, as well as Vedda. It should be made clear that what is at issue is the relations between terms and not the (morphophonemic) form of the terms themselves. Thus though many South Indian and Ceylon terms are cognates (e.g. Sinhala massina and Toda matchuni) this is not the central issue. The Dravidian structure is also found in mainland southeast Asia (e.g. Garo) and in southwestern China (e.g. Lolo). With certain modifications it is equivalent to the Kariera terminologies of the Australian aborigines and it may be shown that most other Australian terminologies are elaborations of the basic Dravidian (Kariera) structure. For many years, in fact since Morgan, it was believed that
3o

BOOK REVIEW π3I
Dravidian and Iroquois (N. American) terminologies were only slight modifications of each other. In 1964 Lounsbury pointed out that the differences were more fundamental than had been thought. Morgan himself was well aware of the differences between the two-as is clear from his diagrams at the back of Systems of Consanguinity...... He just felt the differences were trivial, and thereby perpetuated among anthropologists the mistaken notion that with one (minor) alteration the two were identical. In fact that alteration itself was far from being minor. It involved the fact that whereas Iroquois terminologies distinguish kinsmen from affines (relatives by marriage) the Dravidian terminologies have no special terms for the latter. All this is (or should be) common knowledge to anthropologists, but there is no particular reason why non-anthropologists should be aware of any of it. .
The structure of the terminology itself may be described by a number of equivalences (though for anthropological purposes, I think this is rather misleading).
Mother = Mother's sister = Father's brother's wife (Sinhala amma,
lokи ата, Киdата)
Father = Father's brother = Mother's sister's husband (Sinhala
аффа, lokи арpa, bäффа)
Mother's brother = Father's sister's husband = wife's father (or
husband's father) (Sinhala mana)
Father's sister = Mother's brother's wife = Wife's (husband's)
mother (Sinhala indinda)
Brother = Father's brother's son = Mother's sister's son (Sinhala
аууа, тalli)
Sister = Mother's sister's daughter = Father's brother's daughter
(Sinhala akka, nangi)
Mother's brother's daughter = Father's sister's daughter = Hus
band's (wife's) sister (Sinhalandina) -
Mother's brother's son = Father's sister's son = Wife's (Husband's)
brother (Sinhala massina)
Son = Brother's son (m.s.) = Sister's son (w.s.) (Sinhala puta)
Daughter = Brother's daughter (m.s.) = Sister's daughter (w.s.)
(Sinhala duva) - - Sister's son (m.s.) = Brother's son (w.s.) = Daughter's husband
(Sinhala bana) - . . . . . . Sister's daughter (m.s.) = Brother's daughter. (w.s.) = Son's wife
(Sinhalalali). - - -

Page 70
32 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
The major influence on British kinship studies of the post-war period was Radcliffe-Brown, and though he himself was interested in kinship terminology his successors on the whole were not. Again, almost by chance, it was Africa that held their attention. The chance lay in the fact that African concern with descent and the sociological use of unilineal principles struck a resonance with an old tradition in European Socio-legal thinking. The kind of thinking which the Romans had used to cope with their problems of succession and inheritance became orthodoxy in kinship theory. A challenge came from LéviStrauss in France in I949, though the "challenge' aspects of his book Les Structures Elémentaires de la Parenté did not become apparent until some time after its publication. Very baldly, the point of view was that the so-called elementary structures of kinship were mechanisms which ensured orderly transactions, specifically marriage transactions, between groups. On this issue of descent vs. alliance many words were spent, not entirely fruitlessly. Alliance theory did not sever its connections with the idea of descent. Crucial to the alliance theorists' argument was the idea that groups which were engaged in exchange were unilineal groups. Louis Dumont writing on South India put forward a complex set of ideas which depended on the idea of perpetual affinity-affinity passed on from one generation to the next paralleling ideas inherent in descent systems of the African type. In 1962 Yalman challenged some of the assumptions behind both sets of ideas as applied to Ceylon (and South India) in a paper entitled 'The Structure of the Sinhalese Kindred: A re-examination of the Dravidian terminology.' This paper came in for a great deal of comment and some criticism. Under the Bo Tree develops the argument of that paper, documents it and irons out certain inconsistencies.
The argument, based initially on the study of a single village in Sinhale, is this. The Dravidian terminology implies basically a bilateral structure with marriage between kin categorically regulated. In South India and Ceylon this is coupled with endogamy, the unit of endogamy being what he calls variously the kindred or the micro-caste. Specific material conditions (politics, economics, ecology) may bring about certain transformations which, however, do not violate the basic structure. Other transformations may arise out of ideological or other unspecified conditions. One important suggestion being that such transformations are another manifestation of the process of individuation and separation inherent in caste, kinship and religion, throughout the region. Thus in the main village Yalman studied, the poorer peasants operate within a strictly bilateral and largely egalitarian framework, without the payment of dowry and so on. Aristocrats, however, have incipient patrilineal organization, notions of hypergamy and some payment of dowry. The fishing villages of South Ceylon are much more strongly patrilineal, pay large dowries, and are strongly hypergamous. On the east coast the Tamil speaking populations exhibit hypergamy and matriliny. The same argument is then extended to a

BOOK REVIEW I33
number of South Indian societies. In all cases not only does the basic Dravidian structure remain unchanged, but the notions inherent in the micro-caste recur, though of course with important changes-particularly in the hypergamous variants. One of the most important implications of all this is that it is, at least, misleading to look at these societies primarily in terms of a theory based on unilineal descent groups. Uniliny where it occurs is a secondary phenomenon and is the realization of one of the possibilities inherent in the Dravidian structure. Furthermore within the one society we may have a shift from the bilateral to the unilineal as a response to factors of class, politics and economics.
The notion of transformation as used by Yalman derives from modern linguistics and the writings of Lévi-Strauss. I find these highly exciting ideas, and given the impact of linguistics, particularly on American anthropology, I think we shall hear more of such things in the future. As far as this particular book is concerned I would have liked to have seen a greater formalization of the concept. As it stands I am not sure that it rises above the level of a skilfully used metaphor.
As may be expected the book is by no means perfect. I am not convinced by the treatment of the south coast variant (patrilineal, hypergamous) and the crucial chapter on Panama is also weak. The Ceylon reader is bound to spot numerous errors, but I don't think these are particularly important. In post-war anthropological writing on Ceylon, a field characterized by a general standard of excellence, this is I think the most important work to appear.
GEHAN WIJEWARDENE, Australian National University.

Page 71
Office-Bearers 1967/68
w Patron His Excellency Mr. William Gopallawa, M.B.E., Governor-General.
President Dr. C. E. Godakumbura, M.A., Ph.D.Lit. (Lond.).
Ev-Presidents
. Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, D.Sc., M.A., A.M., F.C.P.S., F.Z.S. ... Dr. S. Paranavitana, C.B.E., Litt.D., Ph.D. . His Lordship the Rt. Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris, O.M.I., D.D., B.A., Bishop of
Chilaw. - - ۔۔۔۔ ۔۔۔۔۔۔ ۔۔۔ . . Dr. R. L. Brohier, O.B.E., F.R.I.C.S., F.R.G.S., D.Litt,
Dr. G. C. Mendis, D.Lit., B.A., Ph.D. (Lond.).
Vice-Presidents Tambiah, Q.C., Ph.D., B.Sc., LL.B.
I. Dr. H. W. 2. Mr. W. J. F. La Brooy, B.A. 3. Mr. D. T. Devendra, B.A.
Members of the Council I. Sir Nicholas Attygalle, F.R.C.S., F.R.C.O.G., D.Sc. 2. Mr. A. R. Tampoe. ... " 3. Ven’ble Mirisse Gunasiri Maha Thero, B. A. 4. Mr. D. C. R. Gunawardena, B.A. - 5. Mr. S. A. Wijayatilake, B.A. 6. Prof. K. W. Goonewardena, B.A., Ph.D. 7. Mr. M. St. S. Casie Chetty, J.P., U.M. .'8. Mr. C. B. P. Perera, O.B.E., B.Sc.
9. Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, M.A., Ph.D. (Lond.). Io. Mr. M. F. S. Goonetilleke. II. Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando, M.A. (Lond.). I2. Mr. D. G. Dayaratne, B.A. (Hons.), London.
Jt. Hony. Secretaries
... Mr. P. R. Sittampalam. 2. Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu.
Hony. Treasurer Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismail, J.P.U.M., M.A. (Cantab.), B.A., LL.B. (Lond.).

Annual Report for 1967
Meetings and Papers:-The Annual General Meeting was held on 18th December 1967. One Special General Meeting and 6 Council Meetings were held during the year I967. At the conclusion of the Annual General Meeting, a lecture was delivered by Dr. C. E. Godakumbura on 'Dedigama'.
Lectures:-Five more lectures were delivered under the auspices of the Society during the year under review:- - -
The First Lecture was by Dr. N. D. Wijesekera on "Polyandry' on Monday I3th February 1967. The Second was by Dr. H. W. Tambiah, Q.C., on "Constitution and Administration during the Kandyan Period' on Friday 31st March Ig67. The Third was by Prince H. Zu. Lowenstein on "The Continued Importance of the Holy Roman Empire and its Relations with Asia' on Thursday 17th August Io67. The Fourth was by Prof. Dr. Heinz Bechert on 'The Cult of the God Skanda, Kumara in the Early Religious History of Ceylon' on Saturday 28th October 1967. The Fifth was by Dr. C. E. Godakumbura on “Kantarodai', on Tuesday 7th November 1967.
We thank the University authorities for allowing us the use of their New Arts Theatre free of charge for our Lectures and Meetings.
Membership:-27 New members were admitted during the year under review. The Society now has on its roll 585 members of whom 6 are Honorary Members, 176 Life Members (Resident and Non-Resident), 383 Ordinary Resident Members, and 20 Ordinary Non-Resident Members. -
Council:--Dr. C. E. Godakumbura was elected President of the Society in place of Dr. N. D. Wijesekera who had resigned (as from Ist July 1967) from the office of President of the Society in consequence of his appointment by the Government of Ceylon as Ambassador of Ceylon in Burma. The Council and members of the Society place on record their sincere appreciation of the invaluable services rendered to the Society by Dr. N. D. Wijesekera as President of the Society. ' . . . . . . . .
Mr. W.J. F. La Brooy and Mr. D. T. Devendra were elected Vice-Presidents of the Society. -
The Ven’ble Mirisse Gunasiri Maha Thero, Mr. M. F. S. Goonetileke, Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando and Mr. D. G. Dayaratne were elected members of the Council.
Mr. P. R. Sittampalam and Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu were re-elected as JointHonorary Secretaries, and Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismail was re-elected as Honorary Treasurer.
The office-bearers of the Society for the ensuing year were the following:-
Patyom : His Excellency Mr. William Gopallawa. Pyesident : Dr. C. E. Godakumbura. E-Presidents. Drs. P. E. P. Deraniyagala and S. Paranavitana,
His Lordship the Rt. Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris, O.M.I. Drs. R. L. Brohier and G. C. Mendis.
I35

Page 72
136 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII (New Series), I968
Vice Presidents: Dr. H. W. Tambiah, Q.C., Mr. W. J. F. La Brooy and
Mr. D. T. Devendra.
Members of the Council: Sir Nicholas Attygalle, Mr. A. R. Tampoe, Ven’ble Mirisse Gunasiri Maha Thero, Messrs. D. C. R. Gunawardena and S. A. Wijayatilake, Prof. K. W. Goonewardena, Messrs. M. St. S. Casie Chetty and C. B. P. Perera, Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, Messrs. M. F. S. Goonetilleke, W. B. Marcus Fernando and D. G. Dayaratne.
Jt. Hony. Secretaries: Messrs. P. R. Sittampalam and K. M. W. Kuruppu. Нопу. Тreasurey: Al/Hajj A. H. M. Ismail.
Govt. Grant:-A sum of Rs. 6,ooo/- was received from the Government by way of grant for the financial year 1967-68.
Library:-During the year under review I2 books were added to the Library by purchase, I7 Miscellaneous Journals and Periodicals were received as donations from local and foreign Institutions and individuals and T86 Journals and Periodicals were received in exchange for the Society's Journal. Lists of all such purchases and donations are published annually in the Society's Journal.
Publications:-Journal Vol. XI (New Series) for 1967 was published and released to the members. Journal Vol. XII (New Series) 1968 is now in with the printers and will be issued to the members very shortly.
Constitution and Rules of the Society:- A General Meeting was held on 13th February 1967 for the purpose of obtaining approval for amending Rules 26 and 43-53 which were taken up for consideration at this meeting. 2,ooo copies of the amended Constitution and Rules have been printed and each member has been issued a copy.
Library Books:-It has been found that members who borrow books from the Society's Library do not all return the books within the time specified in Rules
44-47, and this has caused inconvenience to other members. It is therefore kindly requested that members should note to return the books within the time allowed.
The Asia Foundation financed the publication of Dr. D. C. Gunawardena's book on "Etymological and Historical Account of the Flowering Plants of Ceylon' which was sponsored by the Society. (Vide Annual Report for Ig66.)
P. R. Sittampalam K. M. W. Kuruppu
Jt. Hony. Secretaries. Colombo, 26th October 1968.

Honorary Treasurer's Report for 1967
The Balance Sheet for the year ended 31st December 1967 discloses an Excess of Expenditure over income Rs. 4939/32.
The Bank Balances were: Rs... cts. I. State Bank of India, O XX ` 4,368.3I 2. Ceylon Savings Bank 8 is 8 3,455.99 3. Chalmers Oriental Text Fund 8 3,II7.47 4. Society Medal Fund * M YR O A O 2,666. п.4 5. Chinese Records Translation Fund 4,847.95
Receipts last year by way of Annual Subscription amounted to Rs. 2,992/7o.
Rs... cts.
Arrears of Subscription recovered amounted to I,522.50 Entrance fees a 4- O a 25o.oo Life Membership fees - «A - I,095 OO Sale of Journals a I,492.05
A sum of Rs. 2,259/o8 was expended on purchase and binding of books. A sum of Rs. 7, I43/25 is due as arrears of subscriptions for I967 and earlier.
Attention must be invited to the neglect of a large number of members who have delayed payment of their subscriptions.
Every effort has been made by writing to the defaulting members on several occasions requesting payment of the arrears. Efforts, however, to recover the arrears of subscriptions are being continued. Defaulting members are not allowed the use of the Library, and Journals of the Society are also not made available to them until they have paid their subscriptions.
Members are reminded that the annual subscription of the Society has been increased from Rs. 5/- to Rs. 20/- for resident members, and from Rs. 7/5o to Rs. Io/- for Non-Resident members per year as from 1967.
The Society would be greatly obliged, if members would pay their annual subscriptions regularly and promptly and thus avoid the need for unnecessary
expenditure on postage for reminders.
A. H. M. Ismail
Hony. Treasurer.
Colombo, Eth October 1968.
I37

Page 73
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ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY (Ceylon Branch)
CURRENT ASSETS SCHEDULE * 1'
Rs... cts. Rs. cts. Subscription for I967 and earlier - - 7, I43 25 Dept. of Cultural Affairs a o п,5оо оо Staff Loan a 2oo oo Cash & Bank Balances ,
State Bank of India w ... 4,368 3I Ceylon Savings Bank . . 3,455 99 Cash in hand - 36 OI 7,860 3r
Total as shown in Balance Sheet 0. ۔ I6,703 56
PROVISIONS & CURRENT LIABILITIES SCHEDULE * 2'
Provisions
Messrs. Pope & Co. . . . . . 300 OO Printing of Journals . . 4,500 oo 4,8oó oo
Current Liabilities
B.F. Stevens & Brown is - O 22
Subscriptions paid in advance .. . 55 63
Sale of Journals-Vol. VI Sp. Number .. 822 25 879 Ιο
Total as shown in Balance Sheet . . 5,679 Ιο
AsSETS REPRESENTING SPECIFIC FUNDs SCHEDULE 3' Ceylon Savings Bank Account No. 133495
Balance as at 3I-I2-I967 . . .
(Chalmers Oriental Text-Fund) 3, II747
Ceylon Savings Bank Account No. 141850
Balance as at 3I-I2-I967
(Chinese Records Translation Fund) ' . 4,847.95
Ceylon Savings Bank Account No. 226282
Balance as at 3I-I2-I967
(Society Medal Fund) o e 2,666 I4.
Total as shown in Balance Sheet .. IO,63I 56
139

Page 74
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY (Ceylon
GENERAL, EXPENSES
SCHEDULE 4"
Rs... cts. Salaries 4 8 4 5,o8o oo Maintenance of Typewriter 36 oo Cycle Allowance . 60 00 Printing & Stationery 655 4I Bonus to Peon I5 00 Audit Fees & Expenses 33I 60 Postage 495 40 Sundry Expenses I8 oo Lectures & Meetings 9ვნ 50 Bank Charges I2 74 Arrears of Increment I4O OO Commission on Sale of Journals п77 78 Arrears of Subscription written off I,925 00 Total as shown in Income & Expenditure Account y d 9,883 43
GOVERNMENT ACCOUNT
Rs... cts. Rs... cts. To Purchases 474 58 By Balance B/F 4,700 oo , Binding I,784 5o , Govt. Grant 6,ooo oo
, Printing of Journals 9,3II 75 , Excess of
Expenditure over Grant-as shown '' Provisions in Income and
Printing of Journals 4,500 OO Expenditure A/c. 5,370 83 I6,07o 83 I6,o7o 83
I46
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Page 75
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY
Receipts and Payments Account for the
Rs. Cts. Rs... ctS. To Balance on 31st January 1967
State Bank of India a . . . IO,720 O9 Ceylon Savings Bank a . . 3,355 34 Cash in hand e ❖ o፡ 47 97 Stamps . . Y. 5 04 I4, I29 04
To General Account
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(CEYLON BRANCH)
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By General Account
Salaries .
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By Government Account
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Refund of Subscription
Current Subscription Staff Loan
Cash & Bank Balances
State Bank of India. Ceylon Savings Bank Cash in hand Stamps in hand
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Page 76
Abstract of Proceedings
Minutes of the 122nd Annual General Meeting of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society held at 5.15 p.m. on Monday 18th December 1967 at King George's Hall, University of Colombo.
Present.--Dr. C. E. Godakumbura, the President nominate, presided. A large gathering of members and visitors were present.
Vote of Condolence.-The President proposed a vote of condolence on the death of the following members of the Society during the years 1966 and 1967:- Gate Mudaliyar N. Canaganayagam, Mr. C. L. Unambuwe and Mr. A. M. Caldera. The vote of condolence was passed in the usual manner.
BUSINESS
1. Minutes.--The President called upon Mr. P. R. Sittampalam, the Honorary Secretary, to read the Minutes of the last Annual General Meeting, held on I6th December 1966, and the Annual Report of the Society for 1966, which had been printed and circulated among the members. Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya proposed the adoption of the Minutes which was seconded by Dr. G. C. Mendis. The Minutes were adopted unanimously.
2. Annual Report.-Mr. D. T. Devendra proposed the adoption of the Annual Report of the Society for IQ66, which was seconded by Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya. The Annual Report was adopted unanimously.
3. Audited Statement of Accounts and the Honorary Treasurer's Report for 1966.--Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya proposed and Dr. G. C. Mendis seconded the adoption of the Statement of Accounts and the Honorary Treasurer's Report, which had been printed and circulated among the members. The Statement of Accounts and the Honorary Treasurer's Report were adopted unanimously.
4. Donations.--The Honorary Secretary announced the names of the donors from whom donation of books have been received since the last Annual General Meeting up to the end of December 1966.
5. Acquisitions.--The Honorary Secretary tabled a list of books which had been purchased during the year ended 31st December 1966, and announced that the list of books donated to the Society and acquired by the Society was available at the Society's Library for perusal by the members.
6. Announcement of New Members.--The Honorary Secretary alloulced the names of 23 new members who had been admitted since the last Annual General Meeting up to 3Ist December 1966.
7. Election of Office-Bearers.--The President then read out the names. of the Office-Bearers who had been nominated by the Council for the ensuing year 1967/1968.
The following nominations by the Council were unanimously accepted by the members.
President : Dr. C. E. Godakumbura was elected President for the ensuing 3 years, under rule 18, in place of Dr. N. D. Wijesekera who had resigned as from I st July 1967 from the office of President of the Society in consequence of his appointment by the Government of Ceylon as Ambassador of Ceylon in Burma. Proposed by Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu and seconded by Mr. N. G. L. Marasinghe.
I44

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS I45
Vice-Presidents: Mr. W. J. F. La Brooy and Mr. D. T. Devendra were elected Vice-Presidents of the Society. Proposed by Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando and seconded by Mr. Ran Banda Nugegoda.
Ordinary Members of the Council: The Ven’ble Mirisse Gunasiri Maha Thero, Mr. M. F. S. Goonetilleke, Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando and Mr. D. G. Dayaratne were elected ordinary members of the Council. Proposed by Mr. Ran Banda Nugegoda and seconded by Mr. N. G. L. Marasinghe.
Honorary Secretaries: Mr. P. R. Sittampalam and Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu were re-elected Joint Honorary Secretaries of the Society. Proposed by Mr. D. Wickramarachchi and seconded by Mr. D. R. Wickremaratne.
Honorary Treasurer: Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismail was re-elected Honorary Treasurer of the Society. Proposed by Mr. D. Wickramarachchi and seconded by Mr. D. R. Wickremaratne.
Auditors : Messrs. Pope & Co., Chartered Accountants, were re-appointed auditors for the ensuing year. Proposed by Mr. N. G. L. Marasinghe and seconded by Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando.
After the election of the above Office-Bearers, the President called upon the Honorary Secretary to read out the full list of office-bearers of the Society for the year 1967/1968.
The President expressed the Society's thanks for the services rendered to the Society by the Joint Honorary Secretaries who had arranged five lectures for the year, which were very useful to the public.
8. Lecture.--Dr. C. E. Godakumbura, the President of the Society, then delivered his Presidential Address on 'Dedigama'.
Mr. D. T. Devendra proposed a vote of thanks to the President and thanked him for the lecture.
The President in winding up the proceedings thanked the members for their presence. The meeting was then declared closed.
COUNCIL MEETINGS
Summary of the Proceedings Date & Venue:-29th November, I967 at 5. I5 p.m. at the Society's Library.
Present.--Dr. C. E. Godakumbura, the President nominate, in the Chair and the following members:-Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, Rt. Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris, O.M.I., Hon’ble Dr. Justice H. W. Tambiah, Q.C., Ven. Mirisse Gunasiri Maha Thero, Mr. S. A. Wijayatilaka, Prof. K. W. Goonewardena, Mr. C. B. P. Perera, Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, Mr. M. F. S. Goonetilleke, Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismail (Hony. Treasurer), Mr. P. R. Sittampalam and Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu (Jt. Hony. Secretaries).
Minutes.-The Minutes of the Meeting of 5th October 1967 were confirmed.
New Members.-4 new members were elected.

Page 77
I46 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), I968
Books (a) Donation.--'Sahitya Mandalaya, Articles Series No. I-History of Ceylon' (in Sinhalese).
... (b) Purchases.-Indo-Ceylon Relations since Independence-S. N. Kodikara; South India and Ceylon-K. K. Pillay.
Arrears of subscription.--The names of 2 I members were removed from the roll and the arrears outstanding against them were written off.
The amounts due from two deceased members were also written off.
Dr. P. E. P Deraniyagala's letter dated 26. Io.67 in connection with the issuing of instructions to authors was referred to the Editorial Board.
Further to his letter, the council suggested that C. E. L. Wickremasinghe be written to suggesting that he should become a Life Member of the Society.
The Annual General Meeting was fixed for 18th December 1967. The President announced that the subject of his Presidential address would be "Dedigama.'
Office-Bearers.--The following nominations to the Council were made (Ordinary Members):--Mr. D. G. Dayaratne and Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando, in place of Mr. S. C. Fernando and Prof. J. L. C. Rodrigo.
Joint Hony. Secretaries.-Messrs. P. R. Sittampalam and K. M. W. Kuruppu.
Hony . Treasurer.—-~-Al-Hajj A. H.ʻ M. Ismail. Auditors.-Messrs. Pope & Co.
Reports & Accounts.-Reports of the Hony. Treasurer and the Hony. Secretaries were accepted for submission at the Annual General Meeting.
Auditors' Account.--The payment of the Bill submitted by Messrs. Pope & Co., for Rs. 33 1/6o for auditing the Society's accounts was authorised.
Book Review.--Council directed that the publication Vidyanand 'Videh', the Exposition of the Vedas-Vol. I, be sent to Prof. D. E. Hettiarachi for review.
Date & Venue.-24th April I968 at 5.15 p.m. at the Society's Library.
Present.-Mr. D. T. Devendra, Vice-President in the Chair, and the following members:-Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, Rt. Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris, O.M.I. M. W. J. F. La Brooy, Mr. D. C. R. Gunawardena, Mr. S. A. Wijayatilaka, Prof. K.W. Goonewardena, Mr. M. St. S. Casie Chetty, Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, Mt. W. B. Marcus Fernando, Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismail (Homy. Treasurer) and Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu (Jt. Hony. Secretary).
Minutes.-The Minutes of the Meeting of the Council held on 29th November 1967 were confirmed.
New Members.-18 new members were elected.
Books (a) Donations. Ceylon of the Early Travellers by Mr. H. A. J. Hulugalle; Indian Erotics of the Oldest Period by Dr. Ivo Fiser; Gupta India by Mr. P. Jayatilleke, Canada-One Hundred 1867-1967 by the High Commissioner for Canada in Ceylon; Encyclopaedia of Buddhism— Vol. 2 Fasc. 2 by Director of Cultural Affairs; Relations between Burma and Ceylon-Off-print. J.B.R.S Vol. XLIX Part 2 by Dr. C. E. Godakumbura; Ceylon Sessional Papers 965-Report of the Bandaranaike Assassination Commission; Administration Reports of the Archaeological Commissioner-1958; I959; 1960 and 1962-63 by Mr. A. R. Tampoe; The State Engineer Vol. I, No. 1 by the State Engineering Corporation of Ceylon; and Dictionary of the Sinhalese Language by the Editorin-Chief, Sinhalese Dictionary, University of Ceylon, Peradeniya.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEOINGS I47
* * * (b) Purchases.- Artibus Asiae—Vol. 28 Nos. 2, 3 and 4 and Vol 29 No. I; Kiratarjuniyam,—Parts I-4; Hindi-Sanskrit Dictionary; Anglo-Hindi Dictionary; and The Evolution of the Buddha Image by Benjamin Rowland.
- Permission was given to the General Secretary, Sri Lanka Sahitya Mandalaya, to translate into Sinhala and publish 4 articles from the Society's Journals.
Payment of an additional sum of Rs. 25/- per month, with effect from I.I.68, to both Mr. G. M. de S. Wijayasekera (Librarian) and Mr. W. G. Mudali Singho
(Peon) was approved.
Arrears of subscription-The name of Mr. P. F. E. J. Van Geyzel WaS deleted from the roll of members and the arrears of subscription from I965I968 were written off.
Government Agents” Diaries.-Mr. S. C. Fernando's correspondence with regard to the Government Agents' Diaries was tabled and a sub-committee comprising Dr. R. L. Brohier, Mr. D. C. R. Gunawardena, Mr. W. J. F. La Brooy and Prof. K. W. Goonewardene was appointed to go into the matter and advise the Council. r
Mr. B. Sivaramakrishna Sarma was granted permission to reproduce extracts from articles in some past Journals. -
It was decided to take up the question of re-printing past Journals at the next Council Meeting.
Date & Venue.--5th July 1968 at 5.15 p.m. at the Society's Library.
Present.--Dr. C. E. Godakumbura, the President, in the Chair, and the following members:-Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, Rt. Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris, O.M.I., Dr. G. C. Mendis, Mr. S.A. Wijayatilaka, Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, Mr. M. F. S. Goonetilleke, Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando, Mr. D. G. Dayaratne. Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismail (Hony. Treasurer), Mr. P. R. Sittampalam and Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu (Jt. Hony. Secretaries).
Minutes. The minutes of the meeting of the Council held on 24th April I968 were confirmed. -
New Members.--3 new members were elected.
Books (a) Donations.-Sahitya Mandalaya Lipi Mala No. I, Lanka Ithihasaya (Sri Lanka Sahitya Mandalaya); People in Germany (Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany); and Genera et Species Plantarum Zeylaniae-- The Flowering Plants of Ceylon-An etymological and historical study (Lake House Investment Ltd).
(Th (ಬ್ಲೌಜ್ಡArtibus Asiae—Vol. 29, No. 2-3, and Shilappadikaram
e Ankle 5aCeel.
The correspondence between the University of Colombo and the Society with regard to the number of University staff and students using its Library was read out. The President suggested that the Society should have a independent building of its own for which purpose a piece of land close to the site of the present Library or within the race-course land reserved for the expansion of the University should be acquired and a building constructed. The mlajority of the members of the Council were of opinion that the University might be persuaded to offer the Society a suitable piece of land for this purpose and the Vice-Chancellor might be persuaded to include a site for the Society's Library in the new building plan for the University. It was decided that the President and the Honorary Secretaries should interview the Vice-Chancellor on this matter. X. Yr y

Page 78
148.JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol, XII, (New Series), 1968
Re the resignation of Mr. D. C. R. Gunawardena from the Council it was decided that Mr. Gunawardena's name should remain till the forthcoming Annual General Meeting.
It was decided to write to M/s. Swets and Zeitlinger, book-dealers of Amsterdam, who were desirous of reprinting out-of-print journals of the Society, for more details and particulars as regards the terms of the proposed contract, and in particular 6 queries were raised in elucidation. After further discussing this topic, the Honorary Secretaries were directed to bring up this matter after hearing from them.
Dr. C. E. Godakumbura's articles on "Kantarodai' and "Dedigama.' ' and Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala's article on 'Some Aspects of the Tertiary Period in Ceylon' were accepted for publication in the Society's Journal Vol. I2 (1968).
Resignation.--The resignation of Mr. L. V. Cabraal was accepted. The Council approved the proposed lecture by Dr. Friedrich Wilhelm.
Dr. H. W. Tambiah's letter informing the Council that he will be away from the island for six months, was tabled.
Report of the sub-committee with regard to obtaining extracts from the Govt. Agents' Diaries in the various Kachcheries in Ceylon and the Govt. Archives was tabled. It was decided to await the result of the steps which the sub-committee proposed taking in the matter to take further action.
As regards the activities of the Society, the Hony. Secretary was requested to send 2 journals of the Society to the Director of International Development of Social Sciences with other information as regard the activities of the Society.
Any other Business.-(a) Society's Journal Vol. XI (1967) was tabled. (b) Permission was granted to sell Journal Vol. XI @ Rs. 8/- per copy instead of Rs. Io/-. (c) The Council was informed that a sum of Rs. 6.ooo/- was received from the Department of Cultural Affairs by way of grant.
Date & Venue.-26th October 1968 at 5.15 p.m at the Society's Library.
Present.--Dr. C. E. Godakumbura, the President in the Chair, and the following members:-Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, Rt. Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris, O.M.I., Dr. G. C. Mendis, Messrs. W. J. F. La Brooy, D. T. Devendra, S.A. Wijayatilake, M. St. S. Casie Chetty and C. B. P. Perera, Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando, Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismail (Hony. Treasurer), Mr. P. R. Sittampalam and Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu (Jt. Hony. Secretaries).
Minutes.-The Minutes of the Meeting held on 5th July 1968, were confirmed.
New Members.--Nine new members were duly elected.
Donations.--Encyclopaedia of Buddhism-Vol. 2 Fasc. 3 by Director of Cultural Affairs,The History of Sri Munneswaram Temple (3 copies) by Mr. B. Sivaramakrishna Sarma, Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalamkara of Vadi Devasuri (English Translation & Commentary) by Dr. Hari Satya Bhattacharya, Some Issues in Ceylon Education 1964. By Professor J. E. Jayasuriya, (Aluvihara Edition) The Papanca Sudani or the Commentary of the Majjhimanikaya (Sinhalese) by Mr. M. R. Fernando, A Dictionary of the Sinhalese Language-Vol. I Part Io and II by The Editor-in-Chief, Sinhalese Dictionary, University of Ceylon, and Port of Colombo-Official Handbook 1968 by Port (Cargo) Corporation, Colombo.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS I49
Purchases.--Sinhala Samaja Sanvidhanaya-Kandyan Period (Sinhalese), Shiia Lekhana Sangrahaya-Parts 4 and 5 (Sinhalese), Scenes of a Life TimeThe Autobiography of Dr. Lucian De Zilwa, Sinhala Laws and Customs, Ferguson's Ceylon Directory I968, History of Sinhalese Newspapers and MagazinesParts I-4 (Sinhalese), Land Tenure in Village Ceylon, Ceylon Journal of Historical and Social Studies Vol. 2 No. I and Artibus Asiae-Vol. 3o No. I.
The Annual General Meeting was fixed for 29th November 1968. The President announced that the subject of his Presidential Address would be on ''History of Archaeology in Ceylon'. Council resolved that next year's Annual General Meeting should be held earlier,
Nomination of Office-Bearers:
Ordinary Members of the Council: ܬ ܼܲ Dr. G. P. Malalasekera and Mr. S. C. Fernando in place of Mr. D. C. R. Gunawardena and Mr. A. R. Tampoe.
Jt. Honorary Secretaries: - - Mr. P. R. Sittampalam and Mr. K. M. W. Kuruppu were nominated for re-election.
Honorary Treasurer: Al-Hajj A. H. M. Ismall, was nominated for re-election.
Auditors: Messrs. Pope & Co., Chartered Accountants, were nominated as Auditors of the Society for the ensuing year.
The Audited Statement of Accounts.-The Honorary Treasurer's report and the Honorary Secretaries' report were accepted for submission at the Annual General Meeting. Mr. La Brooy requested the Hony. Secretaries to inform auditors that in addition to the normal report, a further detailed report too should be submitted to the Council.
Payment.-Payment to Messrs. Pope & Co., for Rs. 324/20 for auditing the Society accounts was authorised. Mr. D. T. Devendra suggested that the payment should be approved by the Hony. Secretaries and covering sanction may be taken later.
Book Review.--Council directed that the publications "Mahayana Monuments in Ceylon' and The Eightfold Noble Path and its background' (Sinhalese) be referred to Mr. W. B. Marcus Fernando and Dr. K. T. W. Sumanasuriya, respectively. The above books were handed over to them at the end of the meeting.
R. A. S. Library.-A deputation consisting of the President, Rt. Rev. Dr. Edmund Peiris, O. M. I., Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, Dr. G. C. Mendis and one of the Secretaries were appointed to meet the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Ceylon, Colombo, in connection with the removal of the R. A. S. Library.
(a) Mr. W. P. S. Jayawardena's offer to translate Vol. VI (New Series) Special Number into Sinhala and to donate the translation to the Society was accepted.
(b) Council directed the Hony. Secretary to write to Mr. H. J. S. de Zoysa thanking him for offering his services for translating some of the important articles published in the Journals of the Society for a suitable remuneration and he would be informed whenever his services are needed.
Govt. Agents' Diaries.-Report of the sub-committee was accepted and it was proposed that Dr. Lakshman S. Perera and Prof. Ellawala be requested to help the Society regarding the Diaries.

Page 79
so JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala's letter regarding 7 illustrations to his paper on 'Some Aspects of the Tertiary Period in Ceylon', was tabled and it was decided to have the blocks in half-tone line drawings in zinc instead of copper for illustrations. - - . . . r. Mr. D.T. Devendra's letter regarding 'Notes and Queries'; Mr. S. Syskandarajah's letter regarding the paper on 'Polyandry' (JCBRAS. N. S. Vol. XI); Mr. S. Thommanupillai's letter regarding the 'Portuguese Period in Ceylon' Mr. S. Deraniyagala's article on 'Pre-Historic Ceylon 1968'; Mr. W. P. S. Jayawardena's article on 'Sinhalese Animate Noun with Inanimate Significance', and the reply from Messrs. Swets and Zeitlingers with regard to the re-printing of Society's Journals, were referred to the Editorial Board.
It was resolved that a correction slip be pasted on Journals when the price of the Journal is changed.
Exchange of Publications.-The Hony. Secretary was directed to write to Vidyodaya University of Ceylon inviting them to membership in the Society, instead of exchanging the Journal. -
Permission was granted to Mr. J. Kolinsky, 3rd Secretary, Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, to publish the article 'Studies of Ceylon in Czechoslovakia' by Dr. Ivor Fiser (JCBRAS. N. S. Vol. IX Pt. 2) in compliance with the Society's rules.
Tabled Mr. D. C. R. Gunawardena's reply stating his willingness to continue to be a member of the Council until the next Annual General Meeting.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED 151
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED IN EXCHANGE PERIOD 1-10-66 TO 30-9-67
America - − American Oriental Society . . . . Journal-Vol. 85 No. 4 and Vol. 86
- Nos. I-3. California Academy of Sciences Occasional Papers-No. 55-59 and No.
6Ι-62.
Proceedings-4th Series-Vol. 33 Nos. I 5-I9; Vol. 34 Nos. l-I6 and Vol. 35 No. I. Miscellaneous Collections-Vol. 149 Nos. I o -II; Vol. u 5 I Nos. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9 and Vol. I52 No. 5. Smithsonian Contribution to Astrophysics-Vol. 9 (whole number) and Vol. Io No. 2. Bureau of American Ethnology—— Bulletin I96, 197 and IQ9. Smithsonian Contribution to Anthropology—Vol. 2 No. 1-4; Vol. 3 (whole number). Annual Report for 1966. " ; , ; American Journal of Philology—Vol. 87 Nos. 3-4 and Vol. 88 Nos. I -2.
Smithsonian Institute -
Johns Hopkins University
Australia Royal Society of New South Wales Journal and Proceedings-Vol. Ioo parts
I ά 2.
Burma
Director, Archaeological Survey ... Report for the year ending 3o.9.6I.
Ceylon - Ceylon Forester 0 - . . (New Series) Vol. 7 Nos. 3 & 4. Department of Commerce . . Ceylon Trade Journal-Vol. 3. Nos. 7-12
and Vol. 32 Nos. I -8. Ceylon Year Book 1966 (English); Ceylon Census Report I966 (Sinhalese); Statistical Abstract of Ceylon 1965. Engineering Association of Ceylon ... Transactions for I964-1966. GQvernment Archivist . . . Catalogue of books October-December 1963 (English & Sinhalese), 1964 January-March (English & Sinhalese).
Department of Census and Statistics
Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia Oriental Institute.. Archiv Orientalni--Vol. 35 Nos. 2-4 and
Vol. 36 No. I.
Denmark Det Kongelige Danske Videnskaber-. . mes Seliskab
Historik Filologiske Meddelelser Bind 41 Nos. 3 & 4 and Bind 42 Nos. I, 3 & 4. .
p. o a
England
Eastern World Imperial Chemical Industries
India Office I library . . . institute of Historical Research
John Rylands Library . . .
Vol. 2o Nos. 7-I, 2; Vol. 2 I Nos. I-6. Vol. 25 Nos. 96 and Vol. 26 Nos. 97 and 98.
Report for the year ended 3I.3.g65. Bulletin-Vol. 4o No. IoI and 45th Annual Report. Bulletin-Vol. 49 Nos. I & 2. .

Page 80
152 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) ፲yoÃ. XII, (New Series), 1968
Royal Asiatic Society (Great Britain - - and Ireland) ... Tournal I966 Parts 3 & 4.
Royal Anthropological Institute .. Proceedings for I966. Royal Commonwealth Society . . Journal Vol. 9 Nos. 4-6 and Vol. Io
- Nos. I-3. Royal Geographical Society ... Journal Vol. I32 Parts 3 & 4 and Vol. I33
parts I & 2.
School of Oriental and African Stu- Vol. 29 part 3 and Vol. 3o parts 1 & 2. dies - un •
France
Societe Asiatique, Paris . . . . Journal-Tome CCLIII Fasc. 3-4 and
Tome CCLIV Fasc. II.
Germany
Baessler-Archiv Beitrage Zur Volker- Neue Folge Band XIV Heft I & 2
kunde, Berlin . . w w . . and Band XV Heft .
Holland
Koninklijke Instituut Voor Taal Bijdragen-Deel 122 Nos. 3-4 and Deel Land-En Volkenkunde . . . . I23 Nos. I-2. Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie Mededelingen-Deel 29 Nos. 4-9 and Deel Van Wetenschappen, Afd Letterkunde 3o Nos. 1-9.
Kern Institute . . ... Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeo
: . logy Vol. 2o. Rijksherbarium Leiden . . . . Blumea-Vol. I 4 Nos. I & 2 and Vol. I 5
No. I.
Verslagen, Omtrent 5 Rijks Onde
Archiven Tweede-Serie 37 and 38.
Hungary Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia . . Acta Orientalia-Tomus 2o Fasc. II.
India
Academy of Tamil Culture . . Vol. I 2 Nos. 2-4.
Adyar Library and Research Centre Vol. 3o Parts I-4. Asiatic Society, Bengal . . . . Journal-—Vol. 6 Nos. I & 2.
Asiatic Society, Bombay . . ... Journal-Vol. 39-4o. Connemara Public Library ... Bulletin of Madras Govt. Museum
Vol. 9 No. 2 and Vol. Io No. I. Deccan College ... Silver Jubilee Volume. Indo-Asian Culture a . . Vol. I 5 Nos. 3 & 4 and Vol. I 6 Nos. I & 2.
(Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta): Maha Bodhi-Vol. 74 Nos. III-I2 and Vol. 75 Nos. I, 2, 3 and 7.
Mysore Economic Review , . Vol. 5 I Nos. 9-I2 and Vol. 52 Nos. I-6. Oriental Institute, Baroda . . Journal-Vol. I 5 Nos. 3-4 and Vol. I 6
Nos. I-2.
Soil and Water Conservation of India Journal-Vol. I4 Nos. I-4. Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal a . . Vol. 4 part 2 and Vol. 5 part I.
Italy
Instituto Italiano Per Il. Medio Ed. Extremo Oriente Historical Institute, S.J., Archivum Historicum Societates a . . Anno-35 Faeş. 7o.
East and West-Vol. I 6 Nos. I-2.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED I53
Japan
Japanese Association of Indian and
Buddhist Studies . . Journal—Vol. I 5 Nos. I, & 2.
Malaya . . . w
R.A.S. (Malayan Branch) ... Journal-Vol. 38 Part I & 2; and Vol. 39
Part I.
Moscow
Societé des Naturalistes de Moscou Studies on the Soviet Union Vol. 5 No. 4
and Vol. 6 No. 2
Rumania
Studia Universitatum Victor Babes
Et. Bolyai - - . . . Series-Ig66.
Sarawak
Sarawak Museum ... Journal-Vol. I3 No. 27.
UNESCO .. o . . Indian Science Abstracts Vol. I No. II-12
- and Vol. 2 Nos. I -8,
Vietnam
La Societe Des Etudes Indo
Chinoises Bulletin-4 No. 2-4.
L'Ecole française D'Extreme Orient Bulletin-fome LIII Fasc. I Publi
cations-Vol. LIX and LX.
PUBLICATIONs ADDED TO THE LIBRARY DONATIONS 1-10-66 TO 30-9-67
I. Abie George ... . . . . . Autobiography of a Yogi whispers from Eternity the Master said-sayings of - Yogananda. *。 2. Chandaratna Thero, Ven L. . . “Dhara" Pali Sahitya Sangrahaya Vol. 9 & Io (Sinhalese). Rhys Davids Memorial Volume-Pali Sahitya Sangrahaya. 3. Devendra, D. T. ... The East Vol. 3. No. I. 4. De Lanerolle, S. D. - ... Kurunegala and Gampola Periods of
Ceylon History (Sinhalese). 5. Dhammasena. Thero, Ven. D. Sri . . Samaru Kalamba (Sinhalese). 6. Dhammisara. Thero, Rev. M. . . Subhashita (Sinhalese). 7. Editor-in-Chief, Sinhalese Dictio- Dictionary of the Sinhalese I.anguage
nary. . . . Part I4, 15, I6. 8. Publicity and Public Relations . . .
Bureau, Port (Cargo) Corporation Port of Colombo Handbook 1967.
PURCHASEs 1-10-66. To 30-9-67
I. Ferguson's Ceylon EDirectory ... Ig66. : 2. Getty, Alice .. - ... The Gods of Northern Buddhism. 3. Kannangara, P. D. . . . . . . .The History of the Ceylon Civil Service
18oz-I833. 4. Ludowyke, E. F. C. . . . . ... The Modern History of Ceylon. 5. Narada Thero, Ven. . . . ... Buddha and His Teachings. 6. Sanskruti (Sinhalese) . . . . Vol. 12 No. 4. 7.Wainwright, M. D. and Noel A Guide to Western Manuscripts and Mathews a Documents in the British Isles relating to
South and South-East Asia. 8. Wriggins, W. H. w a ... Ceylon-Dilemmas of a New Nation,

Page 81
Members admitted during the year 1968.
Life Member
Mahinda Thero, Ven. H., B.A. (Hons.), Nalanda University Pirivena.
Kudanduwa, Horana.
Ordinary Members Abayakoon, D. W., Advocate, I27/8. Kirula Road, Colombo 5. Amarawansa Maha Thero, Ven. K., B.A., Graduated Pracheena Pandit, Teaching, Dakshinaram aya, 92, Temple Avenue, Colombo l (r. Charles, H. G., Lecturer, Vidyodaya University of Ceylon, Nugegoda. Decker, Patrick, Photographer, Studio Times, Times Building,
Colombo I. - De Silva, S. B. D., Ph.D., Deputy Superintendent, Employees Provident Fund, Central Bank, Colombo I. ་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་ Fernando, A. D. N., Asst. Supdt. of Surveys, Air Survey Branch,
Survey Dept., Colombo 5. Fernando, Dr. W. H., Obstetrician & Gynaecologist, 73, Isipatana Mawata, Colombo 5. - ་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་་ General Manager, Anuradhapura Preservation Board, Anuradhapura. . . Jayawardene, Mrs. K., Ph.D. (Lond.), 69, Gregory's Road, Colombo 7. Jinawansa Thero, Ven. K., Viharadhipati, Pusparamaya, Paiyagala. Kailasapathy, Dr. K., Lecturer in Tamil, 29, 42nd Lane, Colombo 6. Karunaratne, Miss C. M. M., Advocate, 67/7, Mahasen Mawatha,
Nawala Road, Nugegoda. Karunaratme, W. S., Asst. Commissioner (Epigraphy), Arçhaeological
Dept., Colombo 7. Katugaha, U. E., B.A., Club Road, Pelmadulla. Kularatnam, K., Professor of Geography, University of Colombo,
6, Abdul Caffoor Mawatha, Colombo 3. Meegama, A. F. H., 4I4/I, Baseline Road, Colombo 9. Nagendran, T. 37/3, Pedris Road, Colombo 3. w Obeyesekera, Gananath, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Univer
sity of Washington, 45.4/29, Piachaud Gardens, Kandy. Pande, H. D., Teaching and Research Dept. of Mathematics, Univer
sity of Western Australia, Nedlands-6oog, Australia. - Perera, Sam W., Govt. Clerk, "Mihira', 34, Jambugasmulla, Nugegoda Ralapanawe, Mrs. B, Asst. Lecturer, University of Colombo,
2I, Rajamaha Vihara Road, Nawinna, Maharagama. Ranasinghe Mrs. D. M. P., B. A. Hons. Sinhalese (Ceylon), 14, Sarasavi
Lane, Castle Street, Colombo 8. . - - - Ratnayake, Mrs. F. A. I., Proctor S.C. & N.P., Horanaduwa Walauwa,
Talangama.
Ratnam, Mahesa, Magistrate, 2, Fairfield Gardens, Borella.
Rengarajan, K., M.A., Tamil Lecturer, Khadir Mohideen College,
Adirampattinam, Madras State, India. •
Rohandeera, M., Lecturer Grade II History Vidyodaya University of
Ceylon, Nugegoda. . . . . . . .
Rouch, Maurice, Cultural Counsellor, French Embassy,62, Vajira Road,
Colombo. 4.
I54

N. R .
MEMBERS ADMITTED I55
. Salgado, Dr. M. L. M., Agricultural Adviser & Consultant, 49, Lady
Catherine Housing Estate, Ratmalana. The British Council, Steuart Lodge, 154, Galle Road, Colombo 3.
Change of Address-Life Members
Abeysekera, R., c/o. Buddhist Publication Society, P.O. Box 6,
Kandy. ܗܝ ". - - - - Boudens, Professor R., O.M.I., Ph.D., Nieuwe Beggaardeustraat 16,
Mechelen (Belgium). Deraniyagala, R. St. L. P., C.B.E., B.L., B.A., 15, Race Course Avenue,
Colombo 7. − Gunasekera, S., No. 85, High Level Road, Kottawa, Pannipitiya. Jayatilleke, K. V. P., B.A., 4 I, Horana Road, Panadura. Jayawardena, W. A., M.A., I76/22, Thimbirigasyaya Road, Colombo 5. Jayawardena, W. P. S., II, 1st Lane, Pagoda, Nugegoda. Perera, G. Quintus., B.A., Hons. Classics (Lond.) B. A., Hons. Sinh. (Lond.) Ph.L., S.T.L., B.C.L., S.S.L. (Rome), Matron's Bungalow, 6o, Baseline Avenue, Colombo 9. Ratwatte, A. C. L., M.B.E., J.P., The Ceylon High Commission,
P.O. Box 717, Kuala Lampur, Malaysia. Straus, M. A., B.A., M.Sc., Dept. of Sociology, University of New
Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire -o3824, U.S.A. Vitharana, V., Ph.D., 67/I, Samudrasanna Road, Mt. Lavinia.
Change of Address-Ordinary Members
Abeyawardena, H. A. P., M.A. (Ceylon), Additional Govt. Agent, Matale. Chandrapala Kariyawasam, I59, Dutugem unu Street, Kohuwela,
Nugegoda. De Silva, G. P. S. H., 43/91, Purvarama Mawatha, Kirillapone,
Colombo 6. Edussuriya, Miss V. K., 517, Thimbirigasyaya Road, Narahenpita,
Colombo 5. Karunatileke, K. G., IIo/II, Old Police Station Road, Mirihana,
Nugegoda. Lokubandara, W. J. M., Official Language Dept., Reid Avenue, Colom
bo 7. Palihawadana, M., M.A., Ph.D., 48/I7, Vijayarama Road, Udahamulla
Nugegoda. Pathirana-Wimaladharma, K., B.A. (Socio.) Cey., C.A.S., Administra
tive Officer, Education Dept., Matara. Perera, M. D., M.C. Perera Gunanusmarana Samitiya, Perimiyan
kulam, Anuradhapura. Perera, B.F.A.L., B.A., Hons. (Cey.). No. 4, St. Jude's Road,
Diyalagoda, Maggona. Perera, P. T., B.A. Hons. (Ceylon), 'Sudharsana', Heiyantuduwa. Ratnayake, H. A., B.A. (Cey.), M.A. (Cal.), Ph.D. (Lond.), I 5/5-A,
Kirula Road, Colombo 5. Russell, M. B., 62, Eaton Flace, Ilondon-S.W. I. Weeraman, P. E., The Residency, I 27, MacCarthy Road, Colombo 7. Wijayawardena, K. H. P., Kadangamu wa Maha Vidyalaya, Miri
gama. Wijayaratne, N. P., C.A.S., 32/8, Sir Earnest de Silva Mawatha,
Colombo 3.

Page 82
156 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON) Vol. XII, (New Series), 1968
The following Ordinary Members were transferred as Life Members
I. Mr. E. E. C. Abeysekera 2. Mr. D. C. G. Abeyawickrema 3. Mr. M. St. S. Casie Chetty 4. Ven. H. Dhammananda. Thero 5. Prof. K. W. Goonewardena, 6. Mr. G. A. Gimana muttu 7. Mr. R. G. G. O. Goonesekera 8. Mr. S. Gunasekera, 9. Mr. H. D. J. Gunawardena Io. Mr. W. P. S. Jayawardena II. Mr. P. N. Kirthisinghe I 2. Mudaliyar P. D. Ratnatunga, I3. Mr. M. A. Straus (non-resident). I4. Mr. C. E. L. Wickremasinghe I5. Mr. E. A. Wijeratine I6. His I ordship Mr. Justice C. G. Weeramantry 17. Mr. Mohamed Rafeek

Notice to Contributors
Contributions from members are invited. Papers submitted for reading or publication should be legibly typed on foolscap sheets on one side only. Typing should be double spaced. There should be a margin of I; inches wide at the left hand side of each page. Pages should be clearly numbered and fastened together in their proper ဝှိe. Authors are advised to keep a duplicate copy of their contri
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The Editor welcomes papers from Members for consideration in this feature.
157

Page 83


Page 84

Centenary Volume (I845-1945) New Series, Vol. I
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بلوچی
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Upon election After two alınlızıl payı elı After four annual payment After six annual payments After te or rimore
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Application for Membershi
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Published on 15th May, 1969.

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