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ANCEN
Journal of the Archaeological S
No. 7
Papers submitted to the Towards the Second Century
on 7th一13th
Colo
VOU
Published by the Conn Department of
C
 
 
 
 

CE Y ON
urvey Department of Sri Lanka
1990
| rational sermiriar - of Archaeology in Sri Lanka
July 1990
O
|rine II
issione of Archaeology
Archaeology
հիo 7.

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ANCIENT
Journal of the Archaeological Si
No. 7
Papers submitted to the
Towards the Second Century c On 7thー13th
V
Published by the Cc Department of Archae

CEYLON
urvey Department of Sri Lanka
1990
2 International seminar -
of Archaeology in Sri Lanka
July 1990 - Colombo
olume 1
ommissioner of
cology, Colombo 7 anka.

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Printed at the State Pri |

nting Corporation, Sri Lanka.

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CON
1. Preface
2. King Milinda's conversion to Buddhism. factor fi
3. The Excavation of Mantai. - JOHN CARSWELL
4. Recent Interpretations of Borobudur, A critical s
5. The Giant Buddhist Thupas of Sri Lanka. - M.M.)
6. Love Unanswered: Sri Lanka and Kalinga.-J.G.)
7. Some Ideological Aspects of the Early Brahmi Ins
8. The Craftsman as Artist and Innovato
R.A.L.H. GUNAWARDANA
9. Evolution and Development of Islamic Funeral
AHAMAD NABI KHAN
10 Display of the Relics in Early Buddhist art. - KR
11. Sri Lanka in Vortex of Cultural Cross Currents,
South and Southeast Asia from pre-historic tin
PERERA
12. A Tale of two Seas. - GREGORY L-POSSEHL
13. A Technique of Polyester Resin casting of Archi
Vulcanised rubber latex. - H.R. PREMARATN
14. Indian and Sri Lankan Epigraphy - A Comparat
15. Developing Programmes for Maritime Archaeo
16. New light on Dark Age Wales. - M.REDKNAP,
17. Some Unidentified objects discovered from the
GUNAPALA SENADEERA
18. The standing statue at the Gal-Vihara (Utta1
SENADEERA
19. SriLankan Archaeology (1890-1990) and itscontr
SHUKRI
20. The Brahmiinscriptions as a source for the studi
- SKSTRAMPALAM

PAGE
i
tion? - OSMUND BOPEARACHCH 1.
17
urvey. - J.G.De CASPARIS 29
ELKANIOZIE 53
De CASPARS 57
riptions of Lanka. - M.M.ELKANIDZE. 77
r in Early Medieval Sri Lanka -
81
y Memorial Architecture in Pakistan. -
109
VANKOOLJ 125
A brief analysis of cultural phenomena in
he up to early historical times. - A.D.T.E.
147
, and M.H.RAVAL 157
heological objects using flexible moulds of
A. 165
ive study.-K.V.RAMESH 179
logical survey. - M. REDKNAP 85
A. LANE and E. CAMPBELL 209
Ruvanvali-saya Premises Anuradhapura. -
226
aramaya). Polonnaruwa. - GUNAPALA
243
bution tohumanism and culture.-M.A.M.
253
of puranic Hinduisminancient Sri Lanka.
285

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PREF,
The International Seminar titled "Tow in Sri Lanka" is organised by the De commemorate the event of the establishm Sri Lanka in 1890. The papers of the pres the invited delegates to the seminar frol international community of South Asian are as follows: a. Letters, Literature and Archaeology c. Science, Research and Archaeology. In this connection it may be the delay in the submission of papers, the published unedited versions of papers opportunity to participate actively in the has been decided to publish an edited diacritical marks which have been omn included in the final print. Any incoveniel in this regard is very much regretted. Fin opportunity to thank all the delegates accepting our invitation. We also exten department and our friends and wellwish publication in a successful manner.

\CE
ards the Second Century of Archaeology artment of Archaeology in order to 2nt of the Department of Archaeology of 2nt publications are the contributions by m the seven SAARC countries and the Archaeology. The themes of the seminar Archaeology b. Man, Environment and Archaeology d. Culture, Tourism and : mentioned that due to lack of time and organising committee was compelled to in order to complete the publication forthcoming deliberations. However, it version of the proceedings later. The hitted due to technical reasons will be ice caused to the authors and the readers ally, the organising committee takes this who made their contributions in time our thanks to all the members in the :rs who helped in various ways to get this
Organising Committee.

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Page 8
KNG MILINDAS CON FACT OR F.
By Osmund Bop
Menandervas no doubt the mostimporta territories'. He was the only Greek king appearance in Indian literature, and his rel that stirred some of the classical writers. given about the death of Menander by th Pali Milindapanha, itis said: "...afterwards he (Milinda) handed over his kingdom t life for the houseless state, grew great in "The Greek account of Menander, that king's deathis different. We learn from Pl : "When a certainman named Menander, v died in camp .3ܙܐ
Our aim here is to reexamine, in numismatic evidence, the question of Me try to answer at the same time to the fo dismiss the idea that Menander becam Buddhist order ? What political reas Buddhism?
The most informative written soul "The Questions of King Milinda". The relates a conversation alleged to ha (Menander), chief of the Yonaka (the G1 the nature of the soul, on the Eightfold of birth. It is usually believed that the bo than a century and a half after the death originally written in Sanskrit or in some lost in the land of its origin, but there ex version translated in Sri Lanka. From SI to both Burma and Thailand. The origin

WERSON TO BUDDHSM
>TION?
arachchi
it Greek king that everruled in the Indian in India who made a clearly identifiable utation as a good king gave rise to legends However two contradictory versions are e Pali and Greek texts. At the end of the , taking delightin the wisdom of the Elder, his son, and abandoning the household insight, and himself attained to arhatship of Plutarch, concerning the manner of the utarch that Menander's death was sudden. who had been a good king of the Bactrians,
the light of other literary sources and nander's involvement with Buddhism. We llowing questions : Should we accept or e Buddhist in the sense of entering the ons motivated him to be interested in
ce about Menander is the Milindapanha main purpose of this work is doctrinal; it ve taken place between king Milinda eeks), and the Buddhist sage Nagasena on ath, and on the liberation from the wheel bk was written in Northern India, not later of Menander. It is also believed that it was north-Indian Prakrit. The original book is st two versions of this work. One is a Pali Lanka it was transferred, in its Paliform, l Indian Sanskrit or Prakrit text was three

Page 9
times translated into Chinese in the 3",
translations, two recensions of the secon Chinese "Sutra of the bhiksu Nagasi scholars,especially L. Finot', have gen corresponds to the authentic text and Milindapanha, of which only the second first, appear to be authentic. Books IVLanka, book IV having existed there sin hupothesis, it is obvioud that one cannot a at the end of the second part of the Pali since the Pali version added a marginal passage according to which Menander ret to his son was derived from a manuscri spurious supplement and should be consi noteworthy in this context that the Ch translation of the authentic text, ends sim partir. Alors le roi se leva et salua Na-sier
If we take the contents of both Greek is no reason to believe in the story narrate Pali Milindapanha. However Rhys David both part 1 and part 11 are the work of a Sylvain Levi seem to think that the two C recensions of the workthan the one prese to me, as at present advised, at all certai recension, merely because it is shorter, mu It is quite as possible that the longer one
Even if one may admit that both par of a single author, the numismatic data understanding of Indo-Greek history, cor the second part of the Pali Milindapanha, i version according to which king Milinda's
It is generally agreed that Agathocl number of coins in association with th

" and 5" centuries of our era. Of these version have come down to us, called in na". Sylvain Levi' followed by many irally agreed that the Chinese version oncluded that the first part of the Pali nd the third books and a small part of the VII were added at different times in Sri xe the 5"* century A.D. If we accept this tacha greatimportance to the story given Milindapanha. V. Trenckner argued that note to the effect that the whole of this red from the world and handed his throne it brought from Siam, so it belongs to a dered as a work of a different hand. It is inese version, considered as a faithful py :"Ayant fini de parler, Na-sien desira
.
and Chinese versions into account there 'd by the author of the second part of the s, against the general belief, argued that single author: "Both M. Specht and M. hinese books were translations of older ved in Pali, This argument does not seem n. It by no means follows that a shorter st necessarily be older than a longer one. ave ise to shorter one 10.
s of the Pali Milindapanha was the work
which form a major criterion for the tradict the peaceful conclusion given by favour of the Greek historian Plutarch’s death was sudden and unexpected.
a whose name and portrait appear on a se of her son Strato was the wife of

Page 10
Menander'. When the coins of Agathocll can indeed observe that Agathocleia, during the infancy of her son Strato**:
A. On the first series of coins the name and Greek appears on the C while the name and titles of Strato in kh; the reverse Maharajasa tratarasa dhram takes the title" ego to d no g (p
B. In the second stage the portrait that of Strato, with the legend in Greek
XTPMTSQNO KAI ATAeo OKEA2 and on the reverse, appears the lege dhramikasa Stratarasa Agathukriae asso Athena Aikidemos". In the next series legent (pl. 1, no 14). Thus the numismati her son, Agathocleria gradully ceases to b name disappear completely from the coi
In spite of the fact that she was the seem to inherit any of her husband's mir she uses on her coinage were introduced would seem therefore that she inherited
The only monogram P< whichis c only on the latter's coins characterized by close examination, Strato's coins can be The multiplication of titles in the legend royal portrait:
1."Soter" = tratara, with young fa 2."Soter Dikaios" = tratara dhrav 3."Epiphanes Soter" = pracachat 20).

eia are setin a chronological sequence, we venander's widowed queen, was regent
portrait of Agathocleia together with her bverse: eMcIMExHz AtaeokMEAs, iroshthi, without portrait, are relegated to ikasa Stratarasa". On the next issue, she L. 1, no 13).
of Agathocleia occurs in association with BAoASOS og ATHPO2
nd in kharoshthi Maharajasa Tratarasa ciated with her husband's monetary type her name disappears from the kharoshthi c evidence shows how, with the growth of e queen-regant, until her portrait and her
nage.
legitimate wife of Menander, she does not its. The two monograms kesands which during her regency (see below table 1).It none of her husband's territories.
ommonto Menander and Strato 1, appears amiddle aged portrait (pl. 1, no 20). Upon : divided into many chronological phases. correspond to the correlative ageing of the
ce (pl. 1, no 17); nika (pl. 1, nos 18 & 19); ratara with a middle-aged portrait (pl.1, no

Page 11
It is obvious that Strato I could only r by the monogram at the end of his re Agathocleia and Strato I Who succeed possessions?
Five of Menander's monograms s1, Zoilos I (see below table 1), who represer his coins (pl. 1, nos 15 & 16). It is the Menander's territories. His use of three characterize the issues of Antimachos Nil the Paropamisadae and Arachosia, is following table sums up the chronolo SCCCSSOS.
KINGS - MC
MENANDER fir1 éỆ9 Ke
AGATHOCLEIA
ZOILOSI ħ4 éỆ9 ke
STRATOL
ab
We are thus almost certain that Zoil was the immediate successor of Menandel both kings, another valuable argument ca area of Bajaur, hundreds of coins of Apo Menander are associated with a very smal first and 4 in the second“This Small nur
4.

:cover the geographical area represented ign. Who was then the contemporary of 2d Menander in the major part of his
, ^ and appear on the coins of ts Heracles as the predominating type of this Zoilos I who did gain control of
monograms NA, ( and Kel which kephoros, Eucratides I and Menander in
very significant in this respecto. The gical order of Menander's immediate
NOGRAMS
•ệs (2 P:
KÐf bfa ? ?ہ
& KƏ Bf) NK
bs II, allong with Agathocleia and Strato II, . Other than the monograms common to n be added. In two hoards found in the llodotos I, Antimachos Nikephoros and number of Zoilos I's coins, 1 coin in the aber,in contrast with the large number

Page 12
of coins of the predecessors of Zoilos Ig
One may assume that Zoilos I on the her son Strato I on the other hand cam territories, broadly Zoilos I in the P (Taxila = n.d.). If Menander died in ca. come to an end unexpectedly. Was Zoil Menander's death? Did Zoilos I by figur his coins like those kings Euthydemos reigned in Bactria, wish to manifest th: family? In order to answer these question upheaval in the territories north of consequences over the developments in 1
On the basis of archaeological data the French excavators showed that once burnt down the Greek settlers who had f led to assume that the cause for this trag steppe, which occurred precisely at a time movements of tribes travelling westwar Siberia. The Chinese imperial Annals (t with texts based on a report made by a emperor Wu Tito the Western provinces the arrival of the Yueh-chi in Central Asi a conquest which took place progressiv provided by the Qunduz and Ai Khal progressive stages of their advance. In 1 have taken northern Bactria on the rightl of the plain of Bactria, including Ai Khan southern Bactria must have already bee Chinese ambassador Chang K'ien in th the successor of Eucratides I was the la nomad invaders continued to imitate his final nomadic assault must have expelle inclined to think that like Heliocles II, forced to abandon Bactria, and invade In

"es a clear terminus post quem.
ne hand and Agathocleia associated with to power at the same time in different ropamisadae and Strato I in Gandhara hp as Plutarch said, his reign would have os I the rival king who is responsible for ng Heracles as the predominating type of , Demetrios I and Euthydemus 11 who it he belonges to the Euthydemid royal , one has to examine whether the political the Hindu Kush mountains had any he Indian terriroties.
from the Ai Khanum site in Afghanistan, the Greek establishments of the city were led away never returned. One is therefore edy was an invasion by the peoples of the when Chinese records mention large scale 'ds from north-west China and southern he Shih-chi and the Han Shu) provide us certain Chan-K’ien, an envoy of the Han between 138 and 126B.C. He tells us about a in the second half of the 2"century B.C., ely in two stageso. The numismatic data num hoards would thus corroborate the he first stage, the Yueh-chi nomads must bank of the Oxus, and the eastern extremity um. The second stage of this move towards completed at the time of the visit by the se regions in 129-128 B.Co. Heliocles I, st Greek king to reign in Bactria, and the
coins along with those of Eucratides 1. The il all the Greek noble out of Bactria. I am Toilos I was one of those "chiefs" who was lian territories at the detriment of the other

Page 13
Greek kings. If our hypothesis is exact w Menander joined the Buddhist order lea that Menander died during the battle wit her child.
Once the idea that Menander did not monk is dismissed, should we also reje Menanderstood very close to Buddhism Greek historian Plutarch in this respect who had been a good king died in camp," in other respects, but in respect of his re with difficulty came to terms, agreeing th: go away and should erect monuments reputation as a pious mangave rise to ale, in the Maha-parinibbana sutta in Dighan among the Indian kings to divide up the them in a series of stupas.' There is no Buddhism. Nevertheless it is not imposs himself a member of the Buddhist order, this dhamma. The wheel (chakra), onani a discreet allusion to his personal belief have represented for him the Buddhist chakravartin, the universal monarch par « His celebrity appears to have spread to chronicle of Sri Lanka, among the fore Sinhalese king Dutugamunu, a close inauguration of the great stupa Ruwa Buddhists from Greek territories: " "yonanagaralasanda", came the thera Yo bhikkhus'. The name of the Buddhist of course subject to usual exaggeration, was an important Buddhist community Buddhist reliquary found in Bajaur, with year of the reign of Menander, is very sig
It is worthwhile, at this point, to ask

fe have to reject once for all the idea that Ving his kingdom to his son, and admit l Zoilos I, leaving his widowed queen with
give up his kingship to become a Buddhist ct at the same time the hypothesis that ? The answer is no. The evidence of the is decisive: he says that when Menander, ... the cities celebrated his funeral as usual mains they put forth rival claims and only at they should divide the ashes equally and to him in all their cities'. Menander's gend. This episode reminds us of a passage ikaya, the famous dispute that took place ashes of the Buddha in order to deposit o proof that Menander was converted to ible that, even if the Greek king was not he might have been a great benefactor of solated copper coin may be interpreted as (pl. I, nos 10 & 11) **. The chakra would emblem as well as the lay symbol of the 2xcellence according to Indian tradition 23. distant lands. The Mahavamsa, the great ign delegations who were invited by the contemporary of Menander, for the nvali Dagoba, the Mahar etc.mentions and from Alasanda the city of Yona (hamahadammarakita with thirty thousand monk and the number of the delegation is but one cannot ignore the fact that there in the Greek territories at that time. A an inscription bearing the date of the 14th nificant in this connection'.
the question, what really made Menander

Page 14
interested in Buddhism? Was it a genui psychological motivations behind it? The Greeks when reigning in regions of India to given circumstances.
Relyingmainly on numismatic evide metrology, the issues of Agathocles and of all the bilingual coins ever circulated two kings while remaining true to the meant for circulation in Bactria with thei Zeus holding Hecate (pl. 1, nos 1 & 2), circulation in Indian territories. They sl bilingual coinage, reflecting the origina policy. When they came to minting coins f more foreign to a Greek than that of a a proclaim themselves kings to them in th (brahmi and kharoshthi) they used, but a their gods.
The most important feature of iconography' remarkable types indeed a silver coins of Agathocles found in the figures, identical in pose and dress, buth Samkar-Sana holding a plough and Krish spokes°. The image of a goddess hold Agathocles (pl. I, nos 3 & 4) and Pant considered by certain historians art to b sister, or as Lakshmi, the goddess of fert normal attribute. These images are in fact Indian deities.
The second testimony in connection religion comes from an inscription engra stands near the site of the ancient Vidisa." (garudadhvaja) indicates, originally supp bird, was erected in honour of Vasudeva

he feeling or were there any political or re is very clear evidence to show how the 1 culture adapted their policies according
nce, mintingtechniques, iconography and 'antaleon are to be considered the oldest in the territories of Indian culture. These raditional Greek attic-standard coinage r monolingual reverse legends, and type : introduced a bilingual coinage meant for hould be credited with creating the first lity and the boldness of their monetary or subjects whose culture always appeared ly other country, they decided not only to heir own language and in the two scripts also to represent in their issues images of
these coins is their purely indigenous re the ones represented on the bilingual Ai Khanum excavation'. The two male aving different attributes are identified as ina-Vasudeva holding a large wheel of six ing a lotus represented on the bronze of aleon (pl. I, no 5) is on the other hand e Ekanamsa or Subhadra, Krishna's own ility, and plenty for whom the lotus is the virtually the most ancient we have of these
with the Greek involvements with Indian ved on the famous Besnagar columnwhich This monument, which, as its designation orted a statue of Garuda, Vishnu’s sacred , the god of gods, by a Greek from Taxila,
7

Page 15
Heliodorus son of Dion, ambassador of Bhagabhadra the Saviour. In his dedicati of the Lord-god" and in witness there profession of faith, summarized in the t piety (dharma), self-denial (tyagah) and as the ones preached by the Krishnaic te
The existence of the Bhagavata cult, 2"century B.C., as witnessed by the H coins depicting the iconographic represe same cult, minted by Agathocles and Pan suggest that the Greeks in India were al Indians inspiteof their different beliefs.
What compelled Menander to favo believe there were good political reason Justin, by their allusions to better known Menander as a conqueror of India. Strabo that Menander advanced as far as the Ja sources mentions Menander as conquer Indian texts which refer to an invasion oft to Indians as Yavanas) which can be ass main source of information is the Yuga P handbook of astrology, the Gargi Samhita is thought to derive from an actual histo than a century after the events of which it Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra : "A Kosala, close to Ayodhya), the Pancalas Yavanas (Greeks) will reach Kusumadhvi that confirms or amplifies the informatio in the Yuga Purana, is the Mahabha commentator on Paninio. The work cor the imperfect tense in Sanskrit to denote "The Yavana was besieging Saketa"; Aru was besieging Madhyamika". It is usually 150 B.C. If this was so, we have to plac
8

he great king Antialcidas to the local king on, the Greek proclaims himself a 'devotee of he has had engraved additionally his hree typically Indian cardinal virtues, viz. consecrated activity (apramada), the same aching of the Bhagavadgita.
popular among the Greeks, as early as the eliodorus' dedicatory inscription and the ntations of the divinities belonging to the taleon who reigned about 80 years before, ble to establish friendly relations with the
our Buddhism rather than Hinduism? We s for it. Two classical authors, Strabo and historical events of that period, talk about o (XI, xi, 1) quoting from Apollodoros says mna. Although none of the Indian literary or of India, fortunately there are several he Middle kingdom, by the Greeks (known ociated with Menander's expedition. Our urana. It is a chronicle interpolated into a l, written in the form of a prophecy, which rical chronicle written in Prakrit no more tells. The Yuga Purana, describes how the ter this, having invaded Saketa (a city of (Doab) and Mathura, the viciously valiant lja (Pataliputra)"”. Another Indian source on the Greek invasion which is preserved sya by Patanjali, the grammarian and tains two sentences illustrating the use of a recent event: Arunad Yavanah Saketan nad Yavano Madhyamikam "The Yavana agreed that the Mahabhasya was written c. e the Indian conquest of Menander more

Page 16
or less at the same time. Meanwhile there Greek military actions in North-Ce Malavikagnimitra**, which preserves a m where a Yavana force was defeated by Pu reign of the former, who dies according sources seem to refer to a single invasion the rising Sunga power. We know that Maurya and seized the crown was a dev therefore naturally desired to see restore at once became concern to every Buddhis State favoritism. Indian Buddhistsmay ha
and protector against the rising Sunga po
The Milindapanha contains no doub setting. Menander's encounter with Naga told in the Milindapanha that Menandel someone to talk to in order to dispel his verily chaff There is no one either rec me,and dispelling my doubts'. The ca psychological, and we have discussed else them briefly.
Menander ascended the throne in th Paropamisadae where all his predecess Apollodotos I hadreigned. We make this the Milindapanha says that Menander wa first issues were minted and found only ir kingdom. Menander's military campaigr earlier, was launched immediately after was deeply engaged in the war against the the king of Bactria for a long time, conquered the kingdom of Menander. ferocious war which broke out among t according to the same Yuga Purana”, M reconquer his kingdom, but failing to do real political reason for Menander's

is another source which has a bearing on htral India. This is Kalidasa's play, mory of a conflict on the banks of a river yamitra's grandson Vasumitra during the to Indian Puranas c. 150 B.C. All these
which would have been directed against usyamitra Sunga who murdered the last otee of the Brahman religion, which he d as the religion of his realm. The matter tin India who under the Mauryas enjoyed e looked upon Menander as their saviour
WC.
: a good deal of actual facts in its historical Lsena at Sagala was not accidental. We are in his utter desperation was looking for doubts: "All Indian is an empty thing, it is cluse or Brahman, discussing things with use for Menander's desperation is partly where the reasons for it, butletus recall
e city of Alexandria of the Caucasus in the ors such as Antimachos Nikephoros and assumption on the basis of two facts, firstly, s born in Begram-Kavisi, and secondly, his the western territories of the Indo-Greek against the Sungas, that we have evoked he ascended the throne. While Menander Sunga empire, Eucratides I, who had been rossed the Hindu Kush mountains and Hearing the news about the terrible and le Greeks themselves in his own country, enander made a hasty retreat and tried to so he took refuge in Sagala. This was the esperation. Hearing about Nagasena's

Page 17
wisdom Menander met him and discusse with him. However it is clear from the n years later, was able to reconquer his lost that Eucratides was assassinated by his C At that moment Menander decided to re-conquer his lost kingdom.
At the end of the authentic version reason why Menander refused to give up long, convincing conversion, Nagasena pleased he gives no sign of being pleased king of beasts, when put into a cage, thi even so do I live as master in the house b go forth from home into homelessness enemies'".
tAe
In conclusion, one may thus assun Menander gave up the kingdom and ent unique copper piece bearing the Indian e Menander's coins, known to us through types, shows decisive signs of his conve remained Greek until he was killed in t pointed out, when the author of the P converted to Buddhism he may be inventi cannot deny the fact that Menanderstoo benefactor of this dhamma. It was his kin the Supremacy of the Kushana, became tl
10

l various doctrinal problems of Buddhism mismatic evidence, that Menander, a few territories. We learn from Justin (XLII, 6) wn son who shared the kingship with him. ake advantage of this political unrest to
of the Pali Milindapanha we learn the real his kingship to become a monk. After the asks himself: ... though king Milinda is ". Menander says in reply: "As a lion, the bugh it were of gold, is still facing outside, ut remain facing outside. But if I were to I would not live long, so many are my
le that there is no reason to believe that ered the Buddhist order. Other than the mblem "chakra" (pl. nos. 10 & 11), none of thousands of specimens and 38 different rsion (see pl. nos.6 - 9, 12). Menander he battlefield. As Rhys Davids correctly ali Milindapanha says that Milinda was ng for his own purpose. Nevertheless, one d close to Buddhism, as a protectorand a gdom that two hundred years later, under le cradle of Graeco-Buddhist art.

Page 18
NOTES
1.There were no doubt two Greek kings in India named Menant of Indo-Greek Coins, Calcutta, 1965, p. 160, also in the Journal O. Bopearachchi, "Menandre Soter, un roi indo-grec. Observa
(now in print). Here and all along the simple designation "Men
2T.W.Rhys Davids, The Questions of King Milinda, Sacred Boo
p. 374.
3 Moralia, 821, trans. H.N.Fowler, 1936, p. 278.
4 VTrenckner, The Milindapanho, London, 1880. This work Questions of King Milinda, Sacred Books of the East, vols. XXX thentranslated into Germanby OF. Schrader, Die Fragen des
5 P. Demieville, "Les versions chinoises du Milindapanha", Bull
6. Proceedings of the Ninth international Congress of Orientali
1892, vol. 1, p. 520-529.
7 L.Finot translated into French the part that he and many of
authentic text: Les Questions de Milinda, Paris, 1923, see p. 1-1
8 Milindapanho, Introduction, p.V and VI.
9 BEFEO, 24, p. 180.
10 Questione of King Milinda, part 11, p.XII. However Rhys D
11 A. Cunningham (CASE, p. 256) thought that the connectio
andwife orkingand queen. A. von Sallet (Zeitschrift fur Num
12We have justified in the light of coin overstrikes the chronol
successor of Menander and the predecessor of Heliocles 11,
2 S.P.C. 90683

er, one Soter and the other Dikaios, see A.N. Lahiri, Corpus of the Numismatic Society of India, 1958, p. 73-75; see also ionschronologiques et geographiques”, Studia Iranica 1990
under" is meant for Menander Soter.
is of theast, (vols. XXXV-XXXXVI), Oxford, Part II, 1894,
was first translated into English by T.W.Rhys Davids, The V-XXXXVI), Oxford, part 1, 1890 and Part 11, 1894. It was Konings Menandros, 1905, Winternitz, part 11, 1920.
etin de l'Ecole Francaie d'Extreme Orient, 1924, p. 1-253.
sts, London,
her scholars considered as the version corresponding to the
1.
avids did not believe that Milinda was converted to Buddhism.
between Strato and Agathocleia could only be that of man smatik, 1879, p. 128-9) showed that they were motherandson.
gical order usually attributed to Agathocleia as the immediate
Monnaies indo-grecques surfrappees" Revue Numismatique
11

Page 19
1989, p. 55-59.
13 R. Curiel and D. Schlumberger, Tresors monetaires d’
Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian Coinage, vol. 2, series 304.
14 The predominating reverse type of Menander (see correctly identified as Athena Alkis by W.W. Tarn (GBI, p American Numismatic Society, Museum Notes 1950, p. 5:
Akidemos, which stood in the temple of Pella.
15. It is noteworthy that the coins of Zoilos I, in all the knc specimens in the Cabinet des Medailles and 5 in the Kabul Bajaur hoards (An Inventory of Greek Coin Hoards, New
16. In Bajaur 1 (IGCH, no.1845):1 drachm = Mitchiner 2,
17 On the attribution of this monogram to Taxila, se
1955, p.13-14; ADH.Bivar, Numismatic Chronicle 1965, p.
18 We use the translation by B. Watson in Records of the chien, vol. 11, London, 1961: "The Great Yueh-chih live sor they are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place wit have some one or two hundred thousand archer warriors" (p moved far away to the west, beyond Ta-Yuan; there they att they (the Yueh-chi) attacked arid conquered the people of bank of the Kuei river (Oxus)" (p.268 ch. 123). "After the (
the entire country came under their sway" (p.269, ch. 123).
19See the remarkable studyon this question by P. Bernardar Khanoum (Afghanistan), Paris, CNRS, 1978.
20 Moralia, 821, trans. H.N. Fowler, 1936, p. 278.
21T.W. Rhys Davids, "Maha-parinibbana Suttanta", in Bud "Maha-parinibbana Suttanta", in Dighanikaya, vol. 111, Oxf
2

Afghanistan (MDAFA), Paris, 1953, pl. VIII, no18 = M. Mitchiner,
l. 1, nos.6 &12), Athena Alkidemos brandishing hunderbolt, was 349, n.5). According to A.B. Brett, "Athena Aikidemos of Pella",
72, this monetary type was a faithful copy of the statue of Athena
wn cases, were found in the Paropamisadae and in Arachosia 11 viuseum all from the Mir Zakah deposit;5 drachms from the two (ork, 1973, nos 1845 and 1846).
56,...; in Bajaur 11 (IGCH, no.1846)4 drachms (Mitchiner, 256),
: the convincing arguments put forward by G.K.Jenkins, JNSI 84; O. Bopearachchi, RN 1989, p. 68.
: Grand Historian of China translated from Shih chi of Ssu-ma me two or three thousand liwest of Ta-Yuan, north of Kuei River h their herds and their customs are like those of Hsiung-nu. They , 267, ch. 123), "...after they were defeated by the Husing-nu they acked and conquered the people of Ta-hsia..." (p.268,ch. 123). "... a-hsia (Bactria) and set up thecourt of the king on the northern
ireat Yueh-chi moved west and attacked and conquered Ta-hsia,
j H.P.Franfort, Etudes de geographie historique sur la plained'Ai
ist Suttas, Oxford, 1881, p.130-136;see alsoTWRhys Davids, rd, 1890, p. 186-191.

Page 20
22 Ch. Masson was the first to publish this coin in his collect since then it has been mentioned by many scholars, especial Menander, no 73, pl. IV, 11; P. Demieville, BEFEO 1924, p 1930, p. 148; W. W. Tarn, GBI, p.262-264: A.K. Narain, IG,
23 A. Cunningham (CASE, p. 274) evoked the possibility o "supreme ruler". Also see A. Foucher, "A propos de la con
des inscription et Belles-lettres, XLIII, 1943, p. 259-295.
24 W.Geiger, The Mahavamsa or The Great Chronicle of
bouddhisme indien, des origines a l'ere Saka, Louvain, 1958
25 N.G.Majumdar, "The casket of the reign of Menander", E of the reign of Menander, Epig. Ind. XXVI, p. 318-321; S.Ko
XXVII, p.52-58.
26R. Audouin and P. Bernard, "Tresor de Monnaies indier
7-41.
27 Ibid., p. 9, fig. 1 and p. 13, fig5.
28The column stood in a shrine in front of the holy place, re. (Appendix to Epigraphia Indica X, Calcutta 1912), No 669; ASR 1913-1914, p. 186-226 and 1914-1915, p. 66-72.
29 K.P.Jayaswal, "Historical Data in the Garga-Samhita an more versions of the same passage : H. Kern, The Brhat-S: Society of Bengal), Calcutta, 1865, p. 35-40; and D.R.Mar Uttar Pradesh Historical Society, 1947, p. 32-64. See, rega GBI, p. 452-456, and A.K.Narain, IG, p.174-179.
30 Kielhorn, Mahabhasya, II, p. 118 - 119.
31 M.A. Mehendale in The Age of Imperial Unity (The F

on, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 1836, pl. XLVII, 7; ”: A. Cunningham, CASE, pl. XIII, 13, p.274; P. Gardner, BMC, 35 ; La Vallee Poussin, L'Inde aux temps des Mauryas..., Paris,
p. 97-98; Mitchiner 2,241.
these two interpretations; W. W. Tarn (GBI, p. 263) preferred version au bouddhisme du roi indo-grec Menandre", Academie
Xeylon, London, 1912, p. 194; also see E. Lamotte, Histoire du
reprint 1967, p. 129,399.
'pig. Ind. XXIV, p. 1-8; D.C. Sircar, "A note on the Bajaur casket
now, "Note on the Bajaur inscription of Menandros", Epig. Ind.,
nes et indo-grecques d’Ai Khanoum (Afghanistan), RN 1974, p.
presented by a platform. H. Luders, A List of Brahminscriptions.
A. Cunningham, ASI10, 1874-1877, p.34-46; D.R. Bhandarkar,
d the Brahmin Empire", JBORS, 14, 1928, p. 410. There are two nhita of Varaha-Mihira, vol. XLVII, (Bibliotheca Indica, Asiatic kad, "A critically edited text of the Yugapurana", Journal of the
rding different versions given in several manuscripts, W.W. Tarn,
story and Culture of the Indian People), Bombay, 1951, p.269.
13

Page 21
32 Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa, ed. by Pt. Ramchandra Misra 227-8; French translation by Ph. Ed. Foucaux, Malavika et Ag
33 Questions of King Milinda, p. 10.
34 See O. Bopearachchi, "Menandre Soter.", ioc. cit.
35 Kern op. cit, p.38, andJayaswal, loc. cit, p. 411.
36 Milindapanho, III, 7.
'Coin photographs are in natural size, e No.10. I am extremely greateful to Mr. Medailles of Paris and Mr. Joe Cribb, Cu kindly authorizing me to publish them.
14

Haridas Granthmala Series, Chowkhamba, Banaras, 1951, p. imitra, Paris, 1877, p. 110-111.
xcept No.11 which is an enlargement of S. C. Morrrison, Director, Cabinet des rator, the British Museum, London, for

Page 22
Pl. 1, Nos. 1,3,4 Agathoclls ; Nos. 2 & 5 Pan & 14 Agathocleia and Strato II ; Nos. 15 &
I s IP , GIFF,.:
 

taleon; Nos. 6 - 12 Menander; Nos. 13
16 Zoilos II; Nos. 17 – 20 Strato I.

Page 23


Page 24
THE EXCAVATIC By John C.
The excavation of Mantai is a record C significance of the site, failure to inter remains, and failure in the face of logistic, the power of the archaeologists to cont difficulities appear to be inherent in this
an important part of the record. After a h its secrets; but as a result of three recent ca precise definition of the spatial and physic site. The publication of Mantai, now in th fold aim. First, to document in detail what during the past century: second, to defin recent, though imperfect, excavations: anc interpretation of the new evidence from objective is to provide a springboard forf for the next generation of Sri Lankan arc
Following the sequence outlined ab abandoned as a result of the Chola onslaug for an account of our own activity. When it maritime emporium of South Asia in th reverted to nature; the presence of a scal the surface of the site indicates that disintegrated. We found no evidence destruction of the site, and it is highly lik economy until gradually swallowed up by flourishing international mercantile com Perhaps more significant must have bee throughout the dry zone, for this wo agricultural surplus and economic capita
When the Portuguese arrived in th more than a source of readily dressed st
4 S.P.C. 90683

N OF MANTA
rswell
f failure-failure to understand the true ret the extremely subtle evidence that personal and political difficulties beyond rol. This is no new situation, for these particular site, and in a way they are also undred years or more, Mantai still keeps mpaigns, we have inched closer to a more al charateristics of this most extraordinary le final stages of preparation, has a three was accomplished by previous excavators 2 the site as it appeared to us during our I third, to present a detailed catalogue and Mantai. But beyond all else our major luture excavators, a tabula rasa as it were, haeologists-who knows, as yet unborn?
ove, a brief history of Mantai since it was htamillenium ago provides a springboard ceased to play a crucial role as the leading le early eleventh century, Mantai swiftly tering of Chinese Song dynasty sherds on it did not entirely collapse, but rather of a final conflagration or deliberate ely that it limped along with a diminished the scrub jungle, and the departure of its munity for freshpastures across the water. in the breakdown of the irrigation system uld most effectively have removed any
for trade.
a late sixteenth century, Mantai was little one, which could be quarried for the new
17

Page 25
fort at Mannar. Subsequent travellers no the discovery of Roman coins in the area it was an ancient site. But it was not until systematically, if somewhat simplistically a large palatial building, old streets and figures, broken tiles, and pieces of pot hampered by the surprising hardness of brickstructure, and examples of Far East variety of beads, glassbangles, local earth and iron slag, and much local earthenwa were, he at least appreciated Mantai's report a translation of Suntaramurrti N delights of Tirukkestisvaram (Mantai).
His successor was John Still, who i Commissioner made a survey of the area and Chola coins, glass and shell bangles, Mannar of the period of Sena II, dated 8 He also excavated at Mantai, where h recorded by Boake, and in addition the ri also noted a rival excavation, by a group workmen for six months to find the reput was that Mantai was "a disappointing pla
Twenty years later, after the first W campaign at Mantai. In 1926 he underto subsequent report succinctly appraises th Mantai in particular. This is far ahead of
"What is wanted first of all is as establish our chronology. Stratifie the shallowness of the soil, andwa on rock. Mantai is one of the few, b are nine feet of debris and may be further been very much complical consist of digging holes and throw
18

ed remains of brick structures, a tank, and so there was a general consciousness that 1887 that W.J.S.Boake visited the site and , recorded the presence of part of a moat, wells, and "a few fragments of sculptured ery." His own modest excavations, were the ground, but he did find remains of a ern glazed ceramics, Near Eastern glass, a enware, cowries, sawn chankshells, copper re pottery. Unimpressive though his finds historic significance, and included in his ayanar's sixth-century epic describing the
n his capacity as Assistant Archaeological in 1907 and noted brick remains, Pandyan glazed pottery, a stone pillar deposited at 78 A.D., and a number of smaller statues. is finds duplicated the kind of material 2mains of a small statue of the Buddha, he of wealthy Tamils, who had employed 300 edlocation of a lingam. Still's final verdict Ce".
orld War, A.M. Hocart mounted another ok to clear and survey the site, and in his 2 problems of Sri Lankan archaeology, and its time, and worth quoting in full:
ratified site, because there alone can we isites are not common in Ceylon owing to haways, and above all the habit of building ut it is an exceptionally good one, for there a great deal more....The excavations have ed by previous so-called excavations wich ing up earth on the site.

Page 26
We had to spend a fair amount on any work. The stuff coming formth what came from our excavations, not known."
Hocartphotographed the site and his with an increased labour force. Overw earthenware - here he is prophetic of ou draughtsmen, so he is still recording his plan a major building at the centre of t photographs. Back again in 1928, with arc began to defect. At one point he dug 19 f changes in the pottery were noticed ... if upper ones another two years will have g yeild, namely a pottery and bead sequenc Hocart took ill, and returned to England
It was not until after the second worl Sanmuganathan excavated a pottert ringto 32 feet below the surface to the water Far Eastern ware, beads, and a miniatur Museum. He also foundan intact burial OI with material including Roman Arretine and mica. Sanmuganathan excavated agai of places, and although there were nos Chinese and Islamic ware, and "objects fi Rome". Excavations were then resumed Raja de Silva; these, however, have not material recovered along with that of pr Archaeological Commission at Anurad) general area at the centre of the mound prove invaluable to us by providing easy
Apart from actual excavation, the it scholars' consciousness in the succeeding site, and collected a great deal of surface )

removing the debris before we could do ese spoilmoundsis more interesting than but is useless since its original position is
workin detail and returned again in 1927, helmed by the sheer quantity of local own dilemma - he also bemoans lack of brevious season's work. He did, however, he site, and provided a further series of uous working conditions, his labour force eet below the suface, and although "minor the lower strata are as ransacked as the ot out of the mound all that it is likely to e" Again, photos accompained his report. without ever returning to Mantai.
dwar that any fresh interest developed. S. well and two sone lined wells, one of them level. He also found Roman and Near and e ivory chariot now in the Anuradhapura laslope outside the ruins, the area covered sherds, and others dusted with gold, silver nin 1951, reachingvirgin soilina number ignificant arhcitectural remains he found urnishing evidence of the intercourse with by the Archaeological commissioner, Dr. yet been published, though much of his evious excavators lies in the depot of the lapura. His deep trenches lay within the previously worked by Hocart, and were to access to the lowest levels of the site.
nportance of Mantai impingedon various years. In 1960, William Willetts visited the material. As he subsequently reported, "the
19

Page 27
paramountancy (of Mantai) among the the Pamban or Mannar channels were n or whether, as has been suggested, goods overland across the isthmus between Ma makes no difference. The actual finds references to it in the Chronicles and v without doubt the emporium for the i excavation."
In 1973, in a seminal paper on Villiamson suggested Mantaivas the pi sixth century A.D. by Cosmas Indicoplel and they noted the discovery of a Nes Anuradhapura.
This, then, was the situation som researcher first visited the site. Here I; target when I arrived in Sri Lanka in 19 and I was led to Mantaisimply by a chan when Ilanded in Mannar from South Ind result of this conversation - the petrol pu history graduate of Colombo University ( what so many previous visitors had also over the area. As my major interest at tha ware, I notched up Mantai as a site wort
It was not, however, until six years li investigate it in depth. During the inter the Maldives and the role they played surveyed much of the coast of India a classical, Islamic and Chinese sources. I ceramics of the song dynasty in a sanc excavatedatiny coastal site south of Van Island, with a conjunction of 12th centul material. After almost a hundred ye investigation, Mantai was an obviou
20

orts of the island is indisputable. Whether vigable at all periods in its history as a port, in transit had to be transhipped and carried ntai and some port south of Mannar Island, at Mantai, plus the wealth of historical arious foreign texts, prove it to have been land. Mantai is crying out for systematic
Sasanian maritime trade, Whitehouse and incipal port of Sri Lanka mentioned in the stes. The port had a Nestorian community, orian stone cross, now in the museum at
2 fifteen years ago, when the present should confess that it was not my primary 74 on my way to investigate the Maldives, ce encounter with a petrol pump attendant lia. A preliminary visit to the site as a direct imp attendant was in fact a knowledgeable the pumpbelonged to his family) revealed noted, a plethora of Chinese ceramics all t time was the export westwards of Chinese ly of further study.
ter that I was able to return to Mantai and ening period I had concluded my study of n international maritime commerce, and d Sri lanka, charting ports mentioned in had also found a mojor hoard of Chinese
dune on Kayts Island, near Jaffna; and kalai, near Mannar on the west coast of the A.D. Islamic, Chinese and local ceramic rs of speculative digging and abortive choice for a scientifically controlled

Page 28
excavation; and thanks to the generous
funding of a number of International age in 1980. When we embarked on our exca sorts of difficulties we would encounter. A at Mantaiwere far from completely succes they a total failure.
Here perhaps is the moment to desc First of all, is the significance of its locatio route between the Near and Far East, north-south axis, at the point for any importance is further reinforced by the extremity of Adam's Bridge, the string effectively prevent the passage of shipping . This means that it became a point of cor the Near and Far East, before vessels be design to sail the notoriously dangerous w
As far as the littoral is concerned, M Ari river, which would have once linked Anuradhapura would have lain approxima and the symbiotic relationship betweenth development of Mantai as an internation the organisational and political structure v on Anuradhapura; but it is clear that C successful agricultural exploitation of t irrigation system could have generated M a remarkable system of urban control themselves securely within the framewor
In physical terms, a striking-featur Surrounded by a virtually intact deep dou has a depth of deposit up to ten metres. M are eroded by the twice-yearly monsoons But Mantai has less than 40" of rainfall a south-west and north-east monsoons,

permission of Dr.Roland Silva and the cies, that possibility was finally realised ation in that year, little to we guess the Isaid at the beginning, our three seasons sful; but nor, should I hasten to add, were
ibe the site as we found it ten years ago. l. It lies athwart the main maritime trade and it is also strategically placed on a incursions from mainland India. This fact that it is situated at the southern of underwater reefs and islands which of any size between India and Sri Lanka tact and interchange for ships both from came large and Sophisticated enough in aters off the south coast of Sri Lanka.
Aantailies on an old estuary of the Aruvi it to the inland capital at Anuradhapura. tely two days journey by land to the south, e two cities must have been crucial to the al trading emporium. We have no idea of hich would have made Mantaidependant nly the excess capital derived from the he northern dry zone with its complex antai's success. There must also have been to allow foreign merchants to establish c of the city.
e of the site is the fact that it exists at all. ble moat, Mantai is horseshoe-shaped and ost sites in the monsoonbelt of South Asia which prevent any accretion of material. year, lying just out of the path of both the
and as a result there is a mound of
21

Page 29
archaeological debris covering an area
suggest that Mantaiis not subject to the c of sites lying within the monsoon b. precipitation and relatively high temp perish. This means that the archaeologic and is highly imperfect in documenting of materials which much have been international emporium. That this is so of goods known to have been traded in th during the Song dynasty, and a couple of have survived are italicised :
GOODSTRADED WITH MALABA 960-1279 A.D.) silks
porcelain camphor rhubarb
cloves lump camphor sandalwood cardomans gharu-wood
GOODSTRADED BY CHINESEME
silver porcelain beads lacquer ware silks art-objects satin copper Cash porcelain cloth china-ware- Buddhist Sutras rice iron pans
beans
22

f over 48 hectares. However, this is not to imatic problem inherentinallinvestigation lt. With intense humidity if not actual iratures, an organic material is bound to ulrecordislimitedto non-organic material, a comprehensive picture of the wide range traded at Mantai in its capacity as an can be seen from a compilation of records egeneral area of South Aisa by the Chinese centuries later; the materials which would
R AND COROMANDEL (Song Dynasty.
(chau Ju-Kua, 1225 A.D.) RCHANTSABROAD (14th-16th century)

Page 30
cloves
nutmeg
pepper sandalwood
musk
putchuk span-wood iron bars (Rockhill, 1915-16) (Hagenaeur, 1935)
What is left is precisely the kind of excavators at Mantai over the past century the latter usually badly corroded. What is c conclusions from such a paucity of evid literary evidence to amplify the picture, a sites known to have been in contact wi conditions did not exist, for instance on til
Today, the site is covered with scrl modern temple and its associated buildin the mound, the site of Hocart’s and othe seasons of excavation in 1980, 1982 and 1 the whole site and the adjacent land by th was amplified by further detailed plans a surveyor and achitect in 1984. Perman across the whole site, so that in spite oft should be relatively easy for any futurer exact location of the trenches. The first excavate an area close to where Hocarth A) and peripheral sondages at the sout (Trench C), as well as take a series of co a general sequence of material. The sec the excavation of the lower levels of one the mound (Trench D), to reveal the ear

(Reischaeur and Fairbanks, 1961)
material to be found in quantity by all the " - ceramics, beads, some coins and metal, bvious is the difficulty of drawing detailed ence. This in turn points to the value of nd the contemporary evidence from other sh Mantai where these extreme climatic he Red Sea.
bjungle, apart from the area around the gs, and the uneven terrain at the centre of :r previous excavations. During the three 984 a comprehensive survey was made of e Sri Lankan Survey Department, and this nd sections made by the excavation's own nt concrete bench-marks were inserted he encroachingjungle in years to come, it esearcher to re establish the plan and the eason in 1980 was largely exploratory, to ld dug at the centre of the mound (Trench of the site (Trench B) and to the north 'e sample from various points to establish nd season (1982) added a new objective, of Dr. Da Silva's trenches at the centre of, iest levels; this produced evidence for the
23

Page 31
initial occupation of Mantai in the mes B.C., when it was a hunting-gathering microlithic tools and animal and fish b phase, for which a carbon' date has be abandonment was succeeded by a megal the 2nd c.B.C., to the 2nd c. A.D., whi early levels at Kantarodai on the Jaff Arikamedu on the south-east coast of trading contact with the Roman empir trench right across the southern moat a mound (Trench E). This entailed cuttin ten metres wide and over a hundred me
In 1984, work was intensified and the mound. The main trench was extel double moat (Trench F). At the centre c the removal of material by previous exc adjacent to the first season's activity (Trc An investigation of a causeway betweer opened up three new areas (Trenches J, site, remains of a structure were excavate internal structure of the mound examine moat (Trench M). The third season wa involved a far greater number of personI from the Ford Foundation, it was possib for Sir Lankan graduate students in field in the trenches, they were also taught the photography, Surveying and draughtsma drawn from four campuses, Colombo, P is noteworthy that although they cam backgrounds, they worked in total harm the more regrettable that civil strife ma any return to Mantai for scientific purpc The excavted material was rescued from 1985, and a workshop established at K Archaeological Commissioner. Althoug
24

lithic period, during the second millenium community on the seashore. A variety of nes have been excavated from this earliest in obtained of 1840-1570 B.C., A period of thic/early historicphase, with material from h can be compared with remains from the a peninsular, at Anuradhapura, and from India, when the whole area was in direct . Also in 1982, work was begun on a main d intended to link up with the centre of the g a great swathe through the jungle, some tres long.
a number of new areas opened up all over lded, and a new extension dug across the f the mound, advantage was again taken of avators, and two new trenches begun, one inch G), and a second close by (Trench H). l the west flank of the mound and the sea KL); and at the northern extremity of the :d on the outer rampart (Trench N) and the dat a pointjust opposite across the double s much longer, lasting three months, and el and labourers. Thanks to a special grant e to use the excavation as a training gound archaeology, and besides their experience essentials of conservation, archaeological ship and object recording. Students were radeniya, Sri Jawardena and Jaffna, and it : from a variety of religious and ethnic bny side by side for three months. It is all ked the end of the excavation, and made e highly unlikely in the foreseeble future. Mantai by the writer and Alan Graham in itte for its study that year, thanks to the ut a certain amount of classification was

Page 32
undertaken at Kotte in subsequent years bulk of the material apart from the local where it has been studied in detaii, prior the excavation publication. That this
enlightened policy of the National End States, who have allowed funds earlier a the prepartion of the material for publica the Archaeological Commission of Sri La exported for this purpose, and to use its (
What, then, have we learned from th to an unexpected end in 1984? Althoug investigated, and none have provided a c earliest levels to the upper most phase, a number of different areas has allowed a postulated. Within the individual areas, successive phases from intrusive pits and has been decided to publish material in phases, which has greatly reduced the am the same time, various categories of mat Eastern ceramics, glass and beads have actual presence at Mantai has its own considerations. It will be clear from the f categories of material, such as the bea (Leonard Gorelik and John Gwinnett), studies of the metal technology (Jill ( Karunaratne), flora (M. Kajale), and pr far transcend the parameters of Mantai:
In light of this, the evidence for Mar trade has been greatly amplified. After ti and South India, an intermediate phase appears to correspond with the Sasania tell us that there was a Persian outpost ( have been Mantai. As we know from

, this proved to be unproductive, and the eartnenware was then moved to England, o its return to Sri Lanka on completion of has been possible is entirly due to the owment of the Humanities in the United located for excavation to be expanded on tion. No less liberal has been the policy of hka, to allow the material to be temporarily wn counterpart funds to further this end.
le excavations at Mantai, abruptly brought h none of the areas excavated were fully omplete sequence for the mound form its a careful correlation of the evidence form a continuous chronological sequence to be it has also been possible to separate the other disturbances. With this evidence it depth only from these successive, intact ount of actual material to be processed. At erial, such as imported Chinese and Near been catalogued in their entirety, for their significance outweighing any indigenous inal publication that the analysis of certain lds (Peter Francis) and bead technology Far Eastern ceramics, and glass, as well as juleff), fauna (Kenneth Thomas and P. e historic evidence (Siran Deraniyagala), alone.
tai's crucialrole in Internationalmaritime he period of contact with the Roman world from the third to the eighth century A.D. in presence in Sri Lanka. Literary sources on the island, which in all probability must Byzantine sources, the Persians had the
25

Page 33
monopoly of the silk trade from Cl unsuccessfully encouraged the Ethiopia Cosmas Indicopleustes described Sri La
"Taprobane (Sri Lanka).... the sapphire?)... there are two kings on the is The one has the hyacinth country (the s other the rest of the country where the ha the Island being, as it is, in a central posi parts of India and from Persia and Ethi own. And from the remotest countries, receives silk, aloes, cloves, sandalwood, these marts which we have mentioned while at the same time exporting its own
Confirmation of the sasanian conta of a baked-clay bulle, typical of the si impressions on it, of a two-humped Ba Nestorian cross. Evidence for contact wi burnished impression of a scene from th back of a crocodile with some Brahmi representation of this particular fable, it
to become part of the Kalila wa Dimna se literature. . . . . . . . .
Finally, in the 8th-11th century emporium, with a combination of materi and the Indian mainland. It must also hav of whom must have settled there perma stones from the site indicate they died t quantites of glass, and lustre and painted bodies, themselves imitating Chinese pr fragments of Tang dynasty white ware, C from south central China, and even a few previously virtually unknown outside several sherds from Changsha ewers, on
26

ina, a monopoly which the Byzantines ls to break. The early sixth century writer nka thus :
2 is found the hyacinth stone (quartz, land and they are at feud with one another. outh central area near Ratnapura) and the rbour (Mantai) is and the centre of trade. ion, is much frequented with ships from all opia, and it likewise sends out many of its mean Tzinista (China) and other places it and the island receives imports from all and passes them on to the remoter ports, produce in all directions."
act was found at Mantai with the discovery th/seventh century A.D., with three seal ctrian camel, a persian inscription, and a ih India during this period is a sherd with a e Jataka stories, of a monkey riding on the
letters above. This is the oldest known self translated at a later date into persian, :quence of stories so well known in Arabic
A.D. Mantai became an early medieval al from the Islamic Near East, Tang China e been a haven for foreign merchants some lently - early Arabic inscriptions on tomb here, as well. The Islamic ware consists of | pottery, with typical Abbasid white-ware ototypes. From China itself are numerous hangsha painted pottery and green wares herds of sancaithree-colour earthenware, hina. There have also been uncovered of which has an impression of a bearded

Page 34
gentleman of western Asiatic origin weari indicative of Tang taste for western esoti Fustat, the site of old cairo, and at Nishap
Among the natural products are cov have been used as small currency. There banks of antiquity close by in the Gulf chank-shell debris, sawn across to form sl fragments have also been found with c number of half-sawn cores and other wor a major manufacturing site.
The industrial character of the site is of glass cullet of various colours, and glass There are also masses of iron and others recovered of a wide variety, with imports and the Mediterannean. The most spect various kinds of coloured glass, of which of the very few early European beads eve stone bead manufacturing site, and mai completed or fractured in manufacture quartz beads has revealed the use of a di earliest record of such bead drilling techi
In the latest phase of the site, parall are striking. For instance, the same Chal with the Tang white stoneware, and lap already noted, Tang China had a taste for overland through central Asia, the Tai reverse current, of Far Eastern materia Islamicworld, including Africa. Similarm at Aqaba on the Red sea, and inland in S. excavations in China, recent finds includ glazed ware from southern Mesapotami: the turquoise ware from China comes f significance as far as the chronology at M

ng an elaborate robe and floppy hat. Itself ca, similar sherds have been excavated at ur innorth-eastern Iran.
vry shells of Maldivian origin which must were also pearls, from the famous pearl of Mannar. There are also quantities of nellbangle, ofwhich a number ofbangles arved and incised ornament. The sheer kshop debris is evidence for Mantaibeing
further amplified by a significant remains beads in different stages of manufacture. slag. Over two thousand beads have been from as far afiled as India, Afghanistan, acular bead is of complex design made of aparallel exists from Germany, this is one :r found in Asia. Mantai was also a major ly drilled and polished specimens never have been found. Micro-analysis of the rill hafted with a double diamond bit, the hology in Asia.
els with material from other parts of Asia nsha material is found at Nishapur, along is lazuli, jet and onyx bead pendants. As western exotica of all sorts, which arrived ng material from Mantai represents the l exported by sea to south Asia and the aterial has been found at Sirafon the Gulf, ind, Mesapotamia, Iran, and Egypt. As for e examples of Sasanian/Islamic turquoise l, of a type found also at Mantai. Some of rom dated tombs, which gives it an extra (antai is concerned.
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Mantai came to an abrupt conclusio the tenth centurey A.D. with the Chol Anuradhapura and the devastation of th northern dry zone led to the swift econc reasons, our own excavations came to an them being resumed within the foreseabl arrives and work at Mantai starts again, record of all that has gone before, encap as an aid and a blueprint for future wor Dr.B.K. Thapar, observed when he was w excavated Mantai may well establish itsel Asia.
28

n as a dynamic trading centre at the end of a conquest of Sri Lanka. The capture of e finely balanced irrigation system in the mic decline of Mantai. For not dissimilar abrupt halt in 1984, with little prospect of 2 future. But when that auspicious moment we hope that the detailed and complete ulated in the Mantai publiction, will serve k. As our distinguished Indian colleague, orking with us in 1984, that when properly fas the greatesturban complexin all south

Page 36
RECENT INTERPRETA
A Critic
B
J.G. de
There is no ancient monument in Southe discussion as Borobudur." This is not on work of art and a monumental expression to the mystery still surrounding its true interpretation of its statuary , its nar ornamentation have been satisfactorily s generally accepted interpretation of them know how to classify Borobudur. In In Borobudur since candi is often applied to we have to be aware that it is not a candi i temple, in particular one devoted to the Western publications it is defined as astu. in its true and limited meaning. Othe 'externally a stupa, "internally, aprasada defined as an "Encyclopaedia of Buddhi started by Professor Malalasekera. Aga 'mystery or as a mysterious happening the basis of a probable reference to Borc inscription, has emphasized its meaning : Sailendra dynasty as the foremost patri designation may appear a problem of sec the above-mentioned terms imply a pa Borobudur. As long as there is no conser to avoid any parti pris by using neutral designation quite open.
It should also be emphasized that it living monument different generations C about the meaning of Borobudur. Thus, it Nagarakertagama mentions Budur amc (Vajradhara) sect, and it is generally thoug

TIONS OF BOROBUDUR al Survey
у
Casparis
ast Asia which has given rise to as much (y due to its importance as an astounding of Buddhist religion and learning, but also meaning. Most problems concerning the rative reliefs and its architecture and olved, but we have come no nearer to a Ionument as a whole. We even do not quite donesia it is usally mentioned as Candi all ancient, pre-Muslim, monuments but n its true and limited meaning of a Saivite : cult of a deified royal persono In most pa, but it is again clear that it is not a stupa 's has defined it as a stupa-prasada, i.e. for as Tantric mandala. It has even been mo: a precursor of the admirable work in, Borobudur has been described as a instone.“ Finally, the present author, on obudur in an eighth century Old Javanese as a monument glorifying the kings of the ons of Buddhism." Although its precise Ondary importance, it is evident that all of rticular interpretation of the meaning of sus in the scholarly world it is preferable terms such as " monument' or leave its
h the course of its many centuries as a f Buddhists may have had different ideas is well-known that the fourteenth century png the foundations of the Bajradara ght that this name is an abbreviation of the
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Page 37
monument known to us as Borobudu although it is possible that some of the
situated in Central Java. If it is correct, i fourteenth century considered Borobud sect; it does not imply that this was the
country (the Netherlands) many Protest were once Roman Catholic, but were c Reformation in the sixteenth centur monuments may have been adopted by apparently become predominant.” Yet,
of a monument it is preferable to conce can be ascertained.
In the present paper I may discuss as a whole, i.e., omitting explanations ( where such details have a direct bearingo We should always be aware of the mutu parts: on the one hand, the view one monument will often determine or influ parts, while, on the other hand, a new into a revision of one's idea about the meani course, no more than a possibility, for a in one of the Borobudur reliefs is unlike monument itself.
As the earlier views have already reci is confined to those expressed during th Only a few older publications, in p: understanding of the more recent work works is given in the bibliography.
The basis of all Borobudur research and N. J. Krom, Architectural and Archc volumes of text (both in Dutch and in El published between 1920 and 1931." Sir the last half century (although the re
30

: The identification cannot be proved, other sites mentioned in this list were also implies that the Javanese Buddhists of the ura monument belonging to the Vajrayana case in earlier centuries.Just as in my own unt churches, such as the Dome of Utrecht, onverted to Protestant churches, after the , in a similar way "orthodox’ Buddhist /ajrayanists in a period when the latter had n any attempt at determining the meaning trate on its original meaning as far as that
some recent interpretations of Borobudur f individual details, except in those cases in the meaning of the monument as a whole. al dependence between the whole and its may have of the meaning of the entire lence the interpretation of its constituent rpretation of a significant detail may entail ng of the monument as a whole. This is, of new interpretation of, e.g., a particular tree ly to compel us to modify our view on the
ived sufficient attention the present paper e last thirty years or so, i.e. from c. 1960. rticular those necessary for a correct , have also been included. A list of these
s, of course, the great work by Th. van Erp eological Description of Borobudur in two glish) and three large portfolios of plates, ce many details have deteriorated during :ent restoration completed in 1983 has

Page 38
succeeded in reestablishing its originals as the Borobudur Monograph in the N serious study ofthe monument... Kromha in the Monograph in a shorter publi conscientious as always, confined himse details as far as possible, but did not pi meaning of the monument, which he r monument of Buddhism. His careful des of many theories and much speculatio Borobudur. It is unnecessary to mention no longer important for the present state an exception for several works by W. F. dealing with Borobudur: Name, Form expressed in these works have been el: survey may not be out of place here. Sor response to Kromos cautious interpretat
Stutterheim's own interpretation v not search for Buddhist texts in far-awa Borobudur, but try to find Buddhist text indeed been published a few years Kamahayanikan, freely translated as Buddhism’.”This old Javanese treatise i than one Indian text. The oldest of the followed by an Old Javanese paraphrase. ofking Sindok (c.929-947), but the other It is therefore obvious that the Sang Hy been at the basis of Buddhism as expre exclude the possiblility that the doctrine than even the oldest part of the text. B Stutterheim are needed before his theol
Quite understandably, stutterhei most convincingly by J.Fontein in his bea Apart from the uncertainty wheth Kamahayanikan was already current i

tate in most cases), this great work, known Netherlands, is still indispensable for any s also summarized the main data contained cation in 1930. Krom, very careful and lf to the description and explanation of all opose any startling conclusions about the egarded above all as a stupa or simply a scription led, however, to the development in about the meaning and significance of these manifold theories most of which are of our knowledge. Ishould, however, make Stutterheim, in particular a short treatise and Meaning.' As many of the views aborated by more recent scholars, a brief me of Stutterheim's ideas clearly arose as a
OS.
was based on the principle that one should y countries like India or Tibet to interpret s in the same island of Java. Such a text had earlier, viz, the so-called Sang Hyang the 'Sacred Doctrine(s) of Mahayana is actually a compilation of glosses on more se is a collection of Sanskrit slokas, each This part of the text dates back to the reign parts may be several centuries laterin date. ang Kamahayanikan cannot possibly have ssed at Borobudur. One cannot, however, s set out in this compilation are much older It stronger arguments than those given by y can be accepted.
m’s views have met with serious criticism, utifulwork on The Pilgrimage of Sudhana, 13 ler any prototype of the Sang Hyang n ancient Java at the time of the (final)
3.

Page 39
construction of Borobudur, there are sor accepting Stutterheim's interpretation as these is the absence of any clearly Tant Borobudur. It is ture that any monumer used for tantric cerenomies, but in that assist us in our interpretation of Borobu proposed to see Borobudur as a huge man of the monument do recall some mandal the other hand, it is obvious that the anc this manner, and on ground level, let Borobudur dose not give the impression is therefore unacceptable.
Despite such serious criticisms SI nature of Borobudur similar views have p as Moens, Pott, Lokesh Chandra and oth One of the main foundations of the in mandala is the identification of the monu Buddhist centres of the Vajradhara, Thu century Nagarakertagama Canto 77: veı Javanese centres are mentioned in this l be made. Some uncertaintly, however, r. Bara. It has been explained as the moder to indicate a Buddhist monastery, but s other buildings in addition to a monaste quite regularo The proposed identific though likely, is not entirely beyond dou indicates that Borobudur belonged to century, - which is hardly surprising if on group whitin the Buddhist community at at a fewyards' distance to the west of then became associated with the Vajradharas indications of Vajrayana in the reliefs or probable that the vajra belongs to a late monument. Some aspects of the Tant examined in connexion with some recent
32

ne other no less serious objections against set out by Fontein. The most important of ric representations in the iconography of it (or even no monument at all) could be case one cannot see how Tantrism could dur. In another publicationo Stutterheim dala“Itisindeedcorrect thataerialviews as as depicted, e.g., on Tibetan tangkas. On ient Javanese could not see Borobudur in alone from the galleries and terraces, ofbeing a mandala. Such an interpretation
utterheim's view on the basically Tantric Prsisted upto the present day. Such scholars hers have elaborated Stutterheim's views. interpretations of Borobudur as a tantric ument with Budur, mentioned in the list of nderbolt-bearling school in the fourteenth "se 3a. As a few other apparently central ist astrong case for the identification can mains, mainly on account of its first part: in Javanese form of Wihara, normally used sometimes a Buddhist centre, comprising ry' but the phonetic development is not ation of Budur in the Old Javanese text, bt. I may add that, even if it is accepted, it
the Vajradhara sect in the fourteenth Le considers that this was the predominant that time. The discovery of a double vajra honument may indicate that the monument ." On the other hand, there are no clear in the iconography of Borobudur, it seems :r period long after the completion of the ric interpretation of Borobudur will be : publications.

Page 40
The third work which has become Borobuduris the detailed analysis by Pau Histoire du Bouddhisme fondee sur la Cri first as a number of articles in the B.E.F. appears from the title, it was intended as on Buddhism, culminating in Borobuc architectural and religious interpretation ideas about the symbolism of Borobudur centre of the universe. In this connexior stupa-prasada: externalyastupa symboli a temple pyramid (Prasada as a symb Mahameru of the brahmins. In elaboratin of Borobudur as a closed world (“monde phenomenal world.It is indeed true that writer, have experienced this sensationw with the main wall on the right hand side. main wall and the balustrade being decor Buddhist texts). This almost claustrophol of the galleries themselves, which are div of the form of the plan of Borobudur wit
It is true that such discussions abo Borobudur) carry the risk of becoming va susceptible to these sensations, yet I feelt fundamental features of Borobudur, whic in its Mahayana form. It is often formul relative truth of the phenomenal world, a truth which hidden from us by the very sometimes be approached by mystical int visions of the Highest Truth, as alluded remain insensitive to the experience of th galleries of Borobudur.
The present author is convinced t Borobudur, as set out by Krom/Van Er
foundations of all subsequent researchon
S S.P.C. 90683

a basis of most later interpretations of l Mus, entitled Barabudur. Esquisse d'une tique Archeologique des Textes, published E.O., combined into a book in 1935." As an analysis of the archaeological sources lur. After a critical discussion of both s of Borobudur, Paul Mus sets out his own and emphasizes its importance as a cosmic he elaborated Stutterheim's idea of the zing Buddha-hood and Nirvana internally ol of the cosmos corresponding to the g this view Mus introduced the conception clos') which is somehow shut off from the many visitors, not excluding the present hen walking along the successive galleries and a high balustrade on the left (both the ated with narrative reliefs depicting pious pic sensation is strengthened by the shape ided into compartments as a consequence h its double-protruding sides.
ut symbolism (not only with reference to gue and unconvincing to those who are not hat Mus has rightly emphasized one of the his also a feature of Borobudur especially ated as the lore of the twofold truth: the s we observe it around us and the absolute nature of our physical existence, but can uition. But even if one cannot accept such to in many Mahayana texts, one cannot e "closed world' as one proceeds along the
hat the three different approaches to
b, Stutterheim and Mus have become the the meaning of Borobudur. The remaining
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part of this paper will be concerned with On account of the ever-continuing strear related topics it is necessary to make a bound to be personal; it is therefore ine may have to go unmentioned.
Although most of this later, post-wa of the main works mentioned above, the light as a result of the great restoration, a of view. Among these special attention article by a Dutch Buddhologist which h on “Mahayana', written by D. Friedman was the first to notice that Borobudur is a six lower terraces are basically square, th of these four upper terraces are covered \ each with a sitting Buddha image in dha basis of the large terminal stupa. Suchter bhumi in Sanskrit, for the latter term not in the sense of "floor' or, more generally stands. Borobudur cantherefore be said t first of these is already situated above gr
Friedmann was the first to notice the Bodhisattva, intent on taking the roa strengthened by the use in Mahayana o successive stages during which the B existences, may accumulate the meritan Buddha-hood. Some Buddhist texts give bhumis and the achievements requiredo to the next. The most detailed, but dry a are found in the Dasabhumikasutra, "Ma another Buddhist sanskrit text, the Gand rendered as The pilgrim's Progress descriptions* These are probably of mo of Borobudur, as the Gandavyuha was we as the basis of the majority of narrative a
34

some aspects of this more recent research. of publications on Borobudur and directly choice. I am fully aware that any choice is vitable that a few important contributions
r research can be regarded as elaborations re are some new data which have come to bout which later, but also some fresh points should be given to a short, but important, as almost passed unnoticed, viz. an article n in a Dutch Encyclopeadia.' Friedmann ctually built as ten successive terraces. The he four upper ones round and open. Three with a considerable number of small stupas, Tmacakramudra; the fourth constitutes the races, like the stories of a palace, are called only indicates the "earth', but is often used , the place where somebody or something O consist often superimposed bhumis. The ound level.
2 striking parallel with the ten stages of the d to Perfection. This parallel is further f the same term bhumi to describe these Odhisattva gradually, i.e., during many lwisdom which may ultimately lead him to detailed descriptions of each of these ten fa Bodhisattva to progress from one stage nd scholastic, descriptions of these stages nual for the Study of the Ten Stages, but avyuha, Array of Flowers' (?), more freely of Buddhism' gives more picturesque e direct importance for the interpretation ll-known in ninth-century Java and served nd didactic reliefs of Borobudur.

Page 42
The present author remembered this term bhumisambhara as the name of a r landgrant was made by a Javanese queen dated A.D.842.'" As this name fitted Bol topographical data pointed to a site insou situated, the conclusion that this was the a beyond reasonable doubt. The inscriptio monument to be identified with Borobud prasada or mandala, but as a kamulan.“ however, difficult to determine. Linguistic origin' etc. with affixes used especially to kamulan can therefore be translated as indicate some sort of sanctuary in which a the origin of a river, a mountain etc., is wo seem that the term alludes to the origin o.
In the publication of 1950 I drew t bhumis of Borobudur would be connectec which would take the beginnings of the d beginning of the seventh century. There is, should be such close relations between in seems much more likely, as I argued man place of origin, i.e., the earliest centre of unjustified conclusion in this early public present name of Borobudur to the ancie: inscriptions of 842. It seems much more monument is rememvered in that ofbum immediate vicinity of Borobudur.*
The workby C. Sivaramamurti, Le S add new materials but it provides a fre represented in the reliefs of Borobudur. I of detail represented in the reliefs, includ: instruments, dancing poses, religious rit compared with similar details in Indian r with all such details the author draw

interpretation when he came across the ligious foundation in favour of which a n two identical old Javanese inscriptions obudur as well as could be expected and hern kedu province, where Borobuduris ncient name of the monument appeared 1 revealed also a new fact, viz., that the ur was not described as a stupa, nor as a 'The precise meaning of this term is, ally it is a derivative of mula, “root, cause, denote the place of something. The term place of origin'. It regularly occurs to local deity, believed to be connected with orshipped. In this particular case it would f the Sailendra dynasty.
he unjustified conclusion that the ten(2) l with ten generations of Sailendra rulers, ynasty two to three centuries back to the however, no convincing reason why there dividual kings and Bodhisattva-bhumis. It years latero that kamulan indicates the power, of the Sailendra dynasty. Another :ation was an attempt at tracing back the nt name Bhumisambhara as found in the likely that the original name of the great isegoro, the name of a large village in the
tupa dи Barabшdит, 16 of (1961), does not sh look at some aspects of material life is mainly concerned with various matters ng dressandornaments, tools and musical es, royal emblems, etc., which are often liefs or as described in texts. In connexion attention to the astounding variety in
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representations of the same objects, wh encyclopaedia of art and culture. Adher stupa, he further defines it as an udde proclaim the glory of Mahayana Buddhi an important aspect of Borobudur anc reflect also on the glory of the Sailendra this wonderful monument could be buil
A few years later, in 1966, J. Font nearly 400 relief panels on Borobud compared wih similar illustrations in ch bogged within the confines of the galler conclusions about the meaning of the r leaves no doubt about the great impo understanding of Borobudur, he rightly In this connexion he calls attention dhyani-buddhas cannot be adequately e. It is well-known, but not always sufficie unusual system of six Dhyani-buddhas Buddha is represented by numerous E niches on the outside of the highest galle Jinas have been variously identified as a represented in dharmacakramudra in al as the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (who in all the illustrations of the main wallo is convincing. This is, in fact one of the, future solution.
At about the same time R. Hik Barabudur Edifice'*'' emphasized the es at a Tantric explanation of Borobudur a nearly half a century earlier (but appare he expressed the view that "the sign probability, lies in a cubic karma. Vairocana-tathagata's mahakaruna and in Vairocana occupied a foremost place in
36

ch gives Borobudur the character of a huge ing to the idea that Borobudur is basically a ika-stupa, a monument essentially built to sm (p. 10). Sivaramamurti thus emphasized
added that some part of the glory would ggs by whose patronage and enthusiasm t.
ein devoted a most detailed analysis of the ur based on the Gandavyuha, which he nese and Japanese art. In order “not to stay ies' this analysis led him to some important nonument as a whole. Although is analysis rtance of the Gandavyuha for the correct warns against any 'one-text explanations'. to the fact that "the peculiar system of xplained with the aid of the Gandavyuha. ntly realized, that Borobudur presents the (Jinas) instead of the usual five. This sixth Buddha statues in vitarkamudra seated in ry on all four sides of the monument. These notherform of Vairocana, who is, however, l the small stupas on the round terraces, or incidentally is represented as abodhisattva f the fourth gallery)* Neither explanation not so few, remaining riddles waiting for a
ata's article "On the Significance of the pteric aspects of the monument and arrived a mandala, as Stutterheim had attempted ntly unknown to the author). In conclusion ficance of the Barabudur edifice, in all mandala representing the activity of ahaprajna." Although there is no doubt that Buddhism as manifested in Borobudur (as

Page 44
expressed in the Vairocana statues in all also be argued that none of the 'square' te Vairocana. In addition, the view that B convincing, as I have already briefly indic Stutterheim's interpretation.
Continuing the list of works concern should mention the richly illustrated work entitled Barabudur (1978). A consider reliefs, especially of the Avadana and Jata may confirm and elaborate some of the vi
The great restoration of Borobudu Indonesia with generous help of the UNES and institutions, has supplied a wealt interpretations and newtheories. The enti panel, every statue, every ornament, indee in number) was numbered and cleaned b hill (around which Borobudur had been l strengthened and provided with new facil the preliminary activities, the restoratior All these activities have been fully accoul under the title PELITA”
Some of the results of this restoratic is concerned, will be discussed in the last useful to discuss a few works published di no fewer than three conferences, tw. Borobudur.
The first conference, held at Heid theme The Stupa. Its Religious, Historic papers of this conference on differnt aspe interpretation of Borobudur; two pa Borobudur in particular. J. E. van Lohuiz the Stupa in Indonesia, in which she

he stupas of the round terraces)“ , it can races testifies to any particular activity of orobudur is essentially a mandala is not ated in connexion with the discussion of
ed with the interpretation of Borobudur I by Ryo and Banri Namikawa and others, able number of fresh interpretations of kapanels, are proposed: if accepted, they ews expressed by Fontein.
ur by the government of the Republic of SCO, as well as of many other governments n of new material giving rise to fresh re monument was dismantled, every relief 'd every single stone (more than 1,600,000 efore being placed back after the original built as a huge mantle of stone) had been ities for adequate drainage. Not counting l itself took about ten years (1973-1983). hted for in a large number of publications
n, as far as the meaning of the monument part of this paper, but at present it may be uring the restoration period and including ) of which exclusively concerned with
:lberg in 1978,' was concerned with the ul and Cultural Significance. Many of the cts of the stupa are of greatinterest for the ers are more directly concerned with en-de Leeuw contributed a shortpaperon gave special attention to the numerous
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representations of stupas in Borobuduu unexpected, that among all the stupa for is not one that shows the slightest resem with palaces, ships, plants, animals, et although their shapes can be divided into are almost encyclopaedic in chracter, a Sivaramamurti’s book on Borobudur. Tl is no less striking than the presence of remindsus of Borobudur, maybean indi aSa Stupa tout court.
As to the second paper concern discussion than is possible in this pap Borobudur: a new interpretation.** As o interesting and learned paper, which re had suggested nearly fifteen years earlier a Vajradhatu-mandala, descriptions of w already argued earlier, although early fri in Indonesia at about the time of the (probably the beginning of the nineth cer among the sanctuaries of the Vajradharas in the Borobudur reliefs, and no unamb other form of Tantrism. This may not evidence of the worship of apparently contemporary temple of Mendut (no do yet one would have expected unambig played an important part, if Borobudurre not exclude the possibility - even the lik Vajrayanists at a later stage when this fo Java a few centuries later. This would ac vicinity of Borobudur and of the well-kno that a set of copper plates with a Buddh vicinity of Borobudur. All this implies th Moens and Pott at an earlier stage of Bo they had specified that their interpretati i.e., from the early East-Javanese pe:
38

reliefs. It is curious, though not entirely is represented in twenty eight reliefs, there blance with Borobudur itself. As is the case , all these stupas are different in detail, two great categories. Such representations ointmentioned already in connexion with e absence of certain common stupa forms others. The fact that none of these stupas cation that Borobudur cannot be regarded
ing Borobudur, it would require a longer er. This is a paper by Lokesh Chandra: he may expect of this scholar, it is a very mains however, unconvincing. As Hikada , Lokesh Chandra interprets Borobudur as hich are found in Tibetan texts. As I have oms of Vajrayana could have been known inal phase of the building of Borobudur ntury) and, in addition, Budur is mentioned sect, one discerns no evidence of Vajrayana iguous evidence in its statuary, nor of any appear a strong argument since there is Tantric gods and goddesses at the near ubt closely connected with Borobudur)o Lous evidence of cults in which the vajra presented a Vajradhatumandala.This does elihood -- of Borobudur being adopted by sm of Buddhism had become prevalent in :ount for the vajra found in the immediate win Nagarakertagama reference. I may add st-Tantric text has been discovered in the at Hikada and Lokesh Chandra (as well as obudur studies) were right, provided that on concerned Borobudur at a later stage, iod. It should never be forgotten that

Page 46
Borobudur was undoubtedly a “living” mo1 reason it would, in the course of time, be Buddhist sects, as long as this did not invo
Such Tantric interpretations of Bc recent times, e.g., by Alex Waymeno Johr are all interesting and learned contribut understanding of Borobudur and have, Borobudur studies. I am,however, convir Borobudur in the Golden Age of Buddhi 760 to 860 A.D.
The two other conferences were only conference of 1974 showed a broad spect are especially concerned with the dat significance as a commemorative monum interpretations which are not necessar Gandavyuha in the design of Borobudur its interpretation (Lewis R. Lancaster) re
The present author also contribut monument of the size of Borobudur ha probably carries political implications as monuments were not only built for purely foundations naturally devolved upon thc monuments. Although it is likely that larg voluntarily, contributed by supplying labo must have taken the major part in these e As in most similar cases such impressiv power and Buddhist piety of the rulers acquired both pious merit and political appears from an analysis of the few extal the monuments. In this connexion I calle inscription of Ratuboko in which homag (samvuddha-sumeru) undoubtedly an all early stages. As the Sumeru symbolizes til the centre of the sailendra empire unde

ument until the advent of Islam. For that dapted to the beliefs of the predominant lve any major changes. robudur have been brought forward till Huntington.* and Kandah.Jaya”. These ons, which have contributed to a better so to say, added a new dimension to ced that they do not help us understand sm in Java: the Sailendra period from c.
concerned with Borobudur. The Michigan rum of Borobudur studies. Two of these e of the monumento others with its lent, as a Tantric mandala, or as a stupa: tly mutually exclusive. The role of the (Luis O. Gomez) and literary sources for ceived due attention'
ed a paper, in which he argued that a is not only a religious significance but well. It is obvious that most of such great religious motives, since the glory of such se who supplied the means to build the e sections of the population, more or less urand materials, the pious sailendra kings fforts and not only out of religious favour. monuments were a visible proof of the . By having such monuments built they prestige. Borobudur was no exception, as ut Sailendra inscriptions with reference to lattention to the first verse of the Sanskrit e is paid to the 'Sumeru of the Buddhas' usion to Borobudur, at least to one of its e centre of the universe its location within lines the presumed power of the kings of
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this dynasty. In this same paper I also e the inscription of A.D. 842 with refe strongly suggests that Borobudur was Sailendras, at least of their original cent 'not only showed their Buddhist piety bu fathers of the empire.
The third conference was an inter Kyoto, Japan, in 1980." At this time the had been started in 1973, was already wi to light. It is therefore understandable th on different aspects of the restoration. Y to the meaning of Borobudur and one tc
A short, but excellent, article by t historical and social background of Boro relations between the Sailendra rulers directly concerned with the meaning o discussed here. On the other hand, b concentrated their attention on the mea
In a remarkably lucid paper--an meaning of Borobudur-Soekmono make and the symbolical meaning of the mc meaning of the candi associated with tl symbolically a representation of the C Borobudur is neither a candi nor a temp statue as the object of worship. It has no roof over the edifice, so that sacred depos at other places than usually found in the as a temple, in spite of the traditionald rejects its definition as a stupa, because stupa is the actual monument while 't constituting practically the whole constr builders, is of secondary order only.
In another stimulating paper Daigo
40

mphasized that the term kamulan, used in ence to Bhumisambhara, i.e., Borobudur, built at the spot of the "cradle' of the e of authority. By building Borobudur they also glorified the memory of the founding
national symposium on Borobudur held in great restoration of the monument, which :ll advanced and many new data had come at many of the papers had a direct bearing et, there was also an entire session devoted its. historical background.
he late Satyawati Soeleiman examined the pudur, while Yutaka Iwamoto analyzed the and Borobudur. Neither contribution is
f Borobudur and need not, therefore, be
oth R. Soekmono and Daigoro Chihara
O 41
ning of Borobudur.
deal rarely attained in discussions on the sa clear distinction between the functional nument. After a concise analysis of the he cult of defunct and deified rulers, but Osmic Mountain, Soekmono argued that le. It has no interior and consequently no shaft in the center of the base, and also no its--if there were any -- should be expected handis. Consequently it cannot be defined :nomination "chandi".Soekmono equally it is difficult to believe that the crowning he impressive mass of mounting stages, |ction, while testifying to the ability of the
to Chihara tries to reconcile a number of

Page 48
different interpretations of the meani “Borobudur could be a stupa’, but “it coul embody Buddhist cosmology', while "the cannot be unqualifiedly denied. In addi thruth in the theory that Borobudur wa dynasty for the purpose of ancestor worshi to be an embodiment of paramita, a flourished in the Central Javanese perio notes in his conclusion that Hinduism appearence of Borobudur.”
There is of course a good deal of means different things to different people different interpretations can sometimes especially if he also includes Hinduism. In had absorbed many elements from Hind Asia. The representation of Siva Mahade imply any form of worship of Siva, rather to the Buddhist saints. For sudhana, in his Hindu god as one of the numerous kalyan the Great Bodhisattvas, culminating in th
As may have been expected, the rec in 1983, has yielded many new data. Then of the view, heldon more general grounds as a result of numerous changes and construction of a stone wall covering the long been recognized; others have come Borobudur down to the original hill wł revealed that Borobudur was built in sev in the process. These stages have been a important part in the restoration.' One that the original foundation may have be Nothing of this building remains,' Soth Saivite or Buddhist. The present author been the kamulan of the inscription of 84

ng of Borobudur. Thus, he states that | also be said that Borobudur is meant to hypothesis that Borobudur is a mandala ion, "there is an undeniable element of ; erected by the rulers of the Sailendra p’ and “Borobudur might have been meant 'oncept of Mahayana Buddhism which l. As though this is not enough, chihara xerted a incontestable influence on the
Truth in what Chihara wrote. Borobudur ; and many things to some. It is likely that be reconciled, but Chihara goes too far, fact, as appears from the paper, Buddhism uism long before it spread to Sourtheast vain reliefs of the second gallery does not the subordination of this great Hindu god quest for the Supreme Turth, consults the a-mitras before listening to the wisdom of e meetings with Samantabhadra.
ent restoration of Borobudur, completed nostimportant of these is the confirmation , that Borobudur attained its present shape additions. Some of these, such as the reliefs of the foot of the monument, have olight during the complete dismantling of ich constitutes its basis. These activities :ral stages and underwent transformations alyzed by J. Dumarcay, who had taken an of the most striking discoveries is the fact in a structure erected on a triple platform. ut it is impossible to decide whether it was is inclined to presume that this may have 2. Another important conclusion concerns
41

Page 49
the round terraces, which were app reconstructions carry important, but still the monument. Most of the existing thi monument, butit now seems as though B may well reflect changes in the meaning
In this connexion Imay quote an im a result of his analysis of the architecture
As has been shown, there was no present state of the monumentis a So visitors are usually struck by t contrasts with the wealth of decC can see the desire of the superviso with what had originally been e outline as rich as the base. Thes hypothesis of which are given ir presented as a sort of cosmogol advance. On the contrary, it would conceived with a different symbo
Even if one does not agree that eac symbolism (some stages may be purely t the monument), it is quite likely that at le: in conception. If there was “no unity of cor at a unitary conception of the monument define the meaning of each successive st its meaning, reflecting, no doubt, differe also implies that several interpretations in they are applied to particular stages of called attention to the first verses of the F then interpreted as a ʻblueprintʼ for Bo however, suggested that the reference in building already in existence. In fact, ho (sambuddha-sumeru), but it is difficult conception existing merely in a planning
42

arently added at a later stage. These uncertain, implications for the meaning of ories are based on the final shape of the robudurunderwent changes inform which of the monument.
portant conclusion drawn by Dumarcay as of Borobudur. Thus he concluded:“
unity of conception to Borobudur and the nadaptation ofan oldidea to a new design. he starkness of the circular terraces which ration of the quadrangular galleries. One 's of the third stage of construction to break nvisaged at the second stage, namely an ymbolism of the monument, the different 1 the following chapter, can thus not be ly where every detail was considered in appear that each stage of construction was lism.
stage of construction implies a different 2chnical or inspired by a desire to enlarge est some changes also involved differences ception' it would be useless trying to arrive . On the contrary, one ought to attempt to ge of construction to arrive at a history of nt ideas about Mahayana Buddhism. This ay be 'correct' as long as one is aware that ts construction. Thus, the present author atuboko inscription of A.D. 792, which he robudur.“ During the conference it was, the inscription gave the impression of a lage is paid to a 'Sumeru of the Buddhas' to conceive of homage being paid to a stage.

Page 50
Dumarcay's analysis provides a mol likelihood of the existence in C.A.D. 79, however, already included a number of qua depicting aspects of Buddhist tradition (s texts such as the Lalitavistara, Gandavyuha galleries Dumarcay supposes the presenc stood a structure about which little is k. however, give us an idea of a structure buil of this 'Sumeru of the Buddhas' one finds owing to its relic: the Good words.' ' interpretation of a corporeal sariraka relic of Lord Buddha, i.e., a sacred text writter This sacred text may have been the hetuprabhava etc.) but I have often thou possibility in writing) that the long text o engraved on a number of heavy gold plat Borobudur.“ As the provenance of th mysteriously in the National Museum at J. to prove that they originate from Borobu eleven heavy gold platesina type of script can be little doubt that they once belo) probably the eighth century A.D. Only t Sewu* and Borobudur. Although one caI express alight preference infavour of Bor reliefs depicting sacred texts (the sadvaky
It is a curious co-incidence that Dun the construction of Borobudur, the per sculptures reliefs of the galleries were col an Old Malay inscription found at Candi S inscription of Ratuboko mentioning the
In spite of these data and conclus results of the activities connected with the still been some recent attempts at one-te

e satisfactory solution by suggesting the , of an early form of Borobudur which, drangular terraces decorated with reliefs mrti, presumably as embodied in sacred , and Jatakas. On top of the quadrangular of a round terrace, on which there once 1own* The Ratuboko inscription may, t on this terrace, for among the attributes sadvakyadhatuivalo, 'whose brilliance is This compound seems to exclude the but suggests its replacement by the word down on pure material, especially gold. so-called Buddhist Credo (ye dharma ight (but never ventured to express this npratiyasamutpada (paticcasamuppada) es may have been the original deposit of ese plates is unknown (they emerged akarta after World War II) it is impossible dur. As, however, the text is inscribed on datable to between c. 650 and 800, there nged to a great Buddhist foundation of wo sites come into consideration: Candi not arrive at a definitive choice, one may )budur, mainly on account of its numerous a of the inscription).
harcay dated the second and third stage of iod during which probably most of the mpleted, back to about 792 on the basis of ewu. This is exactly the year of the Sanskrit brilliance of Lord Buddha's good words.
ons emerging form or confirmed by the great restoration of Borobudur there have xt interpretations of the monument. One
43

Page 51
of the most important of these is that
Borobudur with the Saddharmapundari the text somehow breathes the same spi suggested half a century ago; in addition. the shape of the numerous small stupaso that this famous Sanskrit text was known one of their sources. Yet, there are a nur the “Lotus' such as the system of six Jinas the very shape of Borobudur with its qu with a terminal stupa. The Gandavyuhar a “guide”, as Fontein suggested thirty year unanswered.Yet it has the great advanta know for certain that the text was well-kno Finally, as the present author suggested fo the Abhisamayalamkara would provide u the monument as a whole, but it shoul features of Borobudur, such as the sig quadrangular and circular terraces (Maitreya-Manjusri-Samantabhadra), fin
After all this research it seems quite u was a true and only guide to the creators that the monument grew, as it were, in generations of patrons, presumably S contributed to its final form, probably be were faithful to the main ideal of creat highest ideals of Mahayana Buddhism a the faith of the Sailendra dynasty, whose i magnificent edifice.
These conclusions may seem pos many questions unanswered. A further which together fill an entire library shelf, arrive at further precision. It is, however can be made without the discovery offre contemporary inscriptions. Although I
44

by J. J. Boeles, who proposed to explain a as his guide.” It cannot be denied that it as Borobudur, as Paul Mus had already it would suggest a plausible explanation of the circular terraces. I therefore believe o the creators of Borobudur and provided ber of features that find no explanation in Dhyanibuddhas) or, even more important, adrangular and circular terraces, crowned hay, on the whole, stand a better chance as ago, but it also leaves important questions ge over the Saddharmapundarika that we wn and used the creators of Borobudur. rty years ago' the Dasabhumikasutra and s with apartial explanation of the shape of at once be added that some important nificance of the difference between the and the ranking of Bodhisattvas d no explanation in these texts.
nlikely that there ever existed a text which of Borobudur. It seems much more likely the minds and under the hands of several ailendra kings, and artisans, who each - tween about 780 and 833 A.D.' They all ng a monument that would embody the ld, at the same time would pay tribute to original seat of power was glorified by this
tive in some respects, but they still leave letailed study of the restoration reports, and of some inscriptions may enable us to unlikely that important further progress sh evidence, in particular of more or less feel that Borobudur can no longer be

Page 52
considered a "mysterious happening inst( means revealed all its secrets. There is st
NOTES
1. The official Indonesian spelling of the name of the monu publications, however, spell the name Borobudur. The vowel of as in English hall. The foruth consonant is actually a linguald,
spelling, omitting diacritics in names, is follwed here. The old
2. Cf. Soekmono, R., Candi, Fungsi dan Pengertiannya, Ph.D.
edition of this important work is in preparation.
3. Cf the definition of Pali thupa in Rhys Davids and Stede, erected over the ashes of an Arahant (otherwise called shat. Such monuments are of aparticularbell-shaped form. Ishould and literature. The only epigraphic example known to me is in however, spelt asthupa and astupa. See De. Casparis, J.G. 195
less familiar to ancient Javanese Buddhists than to Western a
4. Stutterheim 1929:31; Stutterheim 1956:35.
5. Sivaramamurti: 1961, passim, as already indicated in the tit
6.This is the English equivalent of the Dutch subtitle of Bern for us in more than one respect. I doubt, however, that it was effects aims to explain all aspects of this world (hetum tesam also for many ancient Javanese, but these were due to their avi
that Borobudur was, in fact, regarded as one of the means to
7. De Casparis 1981: 47-83.
8. see Nagarakertagama: 76, 1-4 and 77, 1-3 in Pigeaud, Th.
Poerbatjaraka, R.Ng. 1919, passim. The main problem is the explanation as derived from sanskrit vihara, though accepte

ne', yet the splendid monument has by no Il plenty of scope for fresh research.
ment, used in this contribution, is Borobudur. Most Western the first and second syllable is actuallyan openo, approximaterly
transcribed as dh in modern Javanese. The mormal Indonesian
r Dutch transcription is Baraboedoer.
thesis, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta 1978: passim. An English
Pali-English Dictionary, London 1925, s.v.: "esp. a monument gabba = dagaba), or on spots consectated as scenes of his acts. add that stupais very rarely met within old Javafiese inscriptions some of the short inscriptions of C. Plaosan, where the term is, 8: 36.36. These curious spellings clearly show that the term was
rchaeologists.
le of the work.
t kempers, A.J. 1970. It is true that Borobudur is still a “mystery” meant to be a mystery, for Buddhism with its laws of causes and Fathagato hy=avadat). Of course, there may have been mystries lya and would disappear as they advanced in knowledge. I believe
achieve this aim.
G.Th., Java in the Fourteenth Century, 1-V. 1960-63. See also etymology of the first half of the modern name. Poerbatjaraka's by most subsequent scholars (e.g. by Stutterheim in the work

Page 53
mentioned in note 5 above), seems doubtful since vihara cluster by (vy) is reduced to a single consonant we usual
wyasa orbyasa. In addition, was Borobudur ever conside
9. Cantoes 76 and 77 actually mention two kinds of Buddhi of Buddhists (living) according to the Vinaya' and kasugi clear what exactly is meant by vinaya in this case. Certair unknown in ancient Java. By vinaya is probably meant B the Vajradhara monks had their own rules of conduct. B
appears to have been strongly influenced by Vajradhara
10. See the bibliography under Van Erp for further detai
11. As to the name, Stutterheim mainly followed Poerva emerging, since the Javanese word budur, "palmwine tap
miles from Borobudur!
12. Kats, J., Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, The Hague 1910
13. Fontein 1966 provided a comparative analysis of Gan
14. Stutterheim, W.F., Is Tjandi Baraboedoer een Mand.
15. Vihara is a difficult term; it may simply mean an "abod In some Sanskrit texts from Java it seems to be used to d
and land attached to such establishments (e.g. in the Kal
16. See note 8 above.
17. See Pelita Borobudur, Seri ANo.2 (1983):22(PL.14
18. Mus used a considerable number of Buddhist texts, bu
agree with Mus that this famous Sanskrit text, which em
reflect the spirit of Borobudur, although it is curious that ti
46

urvives as biara in modern Indonesian. In cases where the consonant findy, e.g. in modern Javanese and Indonesianyasa from Sanskrit
ed a vihara?
testablishments, viz. dharma kasogatan kawinayan, “Establishements tan kabajradharan: "of Buddhists of the Vajradhara school'. It is not y not the Vinaya of the Pali Tipitaka, for Theravada was apparently Iddhist monks living according to the rules of celibacy etc., whereas uddhism as expressed in literature and art of the fourteenth century
or other Tantric forms of worship.
jaraka 1919, but budur was compared to Minangkabau budua, “just
per” made no sense in this context. but Minangkabau is at least 1000
;Wulff, Sang Hyang kamahayanikan Mantranaya, Copenhagen 1935.
davyuha reliefs on Borobudur and in Central and Eastern Asia.
la?”, Djawa 13 (1933): 233-7.
e', but is usually confined to a sangharama, "(Buddhist) monastery.' cnote a whole complex of buildings including a temple, a monastery
san inscription of A.D. 778)
t gave particular importance to the Saddharmapundarika. One may phasizes the importance of devotion and mystical vision, seems to
e "Lotus', unlike some other Mahayana texts, is nowhere represented

Page 54
nor alluded to in Borobudur. This point will again be discusse
19. D. Friedmann, Encylopaedie winker prins (1935) s.v. Maha
20. Fontein 1966: 1.
21. De Casparis, J.G. 1950: 73-95.
22. Cf. Zoetmulder's old Javanese Dictionary, who translates'
23. The name Bumisegoro, derived from the Sanskrit words
would mean "Land-0cean', which makes no sense. This raises
ancient name of Borobudur, viz. Bhumisambhara, which would
sembara would have been replace by the common word sega
misguided attempt in De Casparis 1950: 165-9 to derive the na
24. This is an important aspect of Borobudur, which is often ov size would not have been erected by the sailendra kings with ti times (and all over the world!) the building of such splendid m
who ordered (and financed) their construction (of course, w extent of such contributions was direct evidence of the powerc
also contributed to the maintenance of their authority.
25. Fontein 1966: 173.
26. Again, the best discussion of the problem concerning the
27. Hikata, "On the significance of Barabudur edifice', Journ.
28. Namikawa, Ryo, Borobudur, with many photographs fi
photographs by Banri Namikawa, Tokyo 1978.
29. Progress Reports by the Badan Pemugaran Candi Borobu title Pelita borobudur (literally: “Five-year Planning for Bol
there are four series of reports (A,B,C and CC), each with ara

towards the end of this paper.
yana.
temple (shrine) of origin.'
phumi, "earth' and sagara, 'ocean', but both used in Javanese, he likelihood that the name is actually a transformation of the normally have developed into Bumisembara; the unintellegible ra, 'ocean'. This now seems much more likely to me than the
Ime Borobudur form Bhumisambhara (bhudhara).
terlooked. It should never be forgotten that a monument of this he sole aim of acquiring religious merit. As also in more recent onuments was evidence of the power and the piety of the rulers ith generous contributions by many of their subjects-- but the
of these rulers). In this manner the building of great monuments
sixth Jina is by Fontein: 166f.
Orient. Inst. Baroda 15 (1965/6): 8-33.
om the Monograph, but also a considerable number of new
dur (Body for the Restoration of Candi Borobudur) under the obudur, but the word Pelita also means "lamp' in indonesian).
picnumbers from a no. 1 (1976) to CC no.ii (1982). these reports
47

Page 55
are of basic value for the understanding of the monument.
30. Dallapicola, Anna Libera, in collaboration zingel-ave La
Singnificance, Wiesbaden 1980.
31. Ibid.: 301-19 Incidentally, Lokesh Chandra tried to revive to the effect that the first part of the name of Borobudur is der a synonym vahara, which would survive in the name of the city in Balkh and other areas to the west of India it is unlikely that
32. Moens, J.L., “De Tjandi Mendut”, Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. 59 (
33. Wayman, Alex, “Reflections on the theory of Borobudura 1981: 139-72.
34. Huntingdon, John,
35. Kandahjaya, Hudaya, Rekonstruksi, Makna dan Misi
Borobudur, Bogor 1988.
36. Van Lohuizen-den Leeuw, “The Dvarapala of Barabudur: N in Luis O. Gomez and Hiram WWoodward, Jr. 1981: 15-23 a
other Central Javanese Monuments, ibid.: 25-45.
37. bid.: 173-205.
38. De Casparis, J.G., The Dual Nature of Barabudur, ibid.:
39. Pras. Indon. I (1950): 73-95.
40. Published as Proceedings of the International symposium
41 bid.: 129-148.
42. Dumarcay, J., Elements pour une histoire architecturale d
48

emant, The Stupa. Its Religious, Historical and Architectural
the old etymology proposed by Poervatjaraka and Stutterheim ved from vihara (bihara) by pointing out that there once existed of bokhara (Uzbekistan). As this form is, however, attested only it would have been the basis of the first part of Borobudur.
919-21): 529-600.
sa Mandala', in Luis o. Gomez and Hiram W. Woodward, Jr.
yang diemban
few Evidence for the Date of the Foundation of the Monument',
nd Williams, Johanna, The Date of Barabudur in Relation to
7-83.
on Chandi Borobudur, September 25-27, 1980, Tokyo 1981.
: Borobudur’’, B.E.F.E.O. 60 (1973): 105-15; and Dumarcay, J.

Page 56
1978:21-37.
43. Dumarcay, J., 1978; 29.
44. De Casparis 1981: 69-74.
45. Dumarcay, J. 1978; 23.
46. De Casparis 1956: 471ள (No. 111).
47. Ibid.: 48-52.
48. For C. Sewu, see Dumarcay, J.,
49. Boeles, Jan J., 1958.
50. Boekes, Jan J. 1958: 23.
51. De Casparis 1950: 135-43,
S2, Dumarcay, J. 1978; 4.
6 SPC 90.683

49

Page 57
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Limited to works mentioned in the text)
Bernet Kempers, A.J., Borobudur. Mysteriegebeuren in 8 Borobudur, Wassenaar 1976.
Boeles, Jan J., The Secret of Borobudur, Bangkok 1958.
Bosch, F.D.K., Review of J. G. de Casparis, Prasasti Indone
Casparis, J.G. de, Prasasti Indonesia 1: Inscripties uit de
Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century A.D., Bandur Ceylon in ancient Times', Art. As. 24 (1961:241-8. 'Barabud 2, Fasc. 4 Colombo 1968. “The Dual Nature of Barabud History and Significance of a Buddhist Monument, Berkele
Dumarcay, Jacques, Borobudur. Edited and translated by
Van Erp, Th. and Krom, N.J. Beschrijving van Barabudur, 3 of the Archaeological Description by Krom, The Hague 192
Fontein, J., The Pilgrimage of sudhana. A study of Ganda
Friedmann, D.L., "Barabudur, in Encyclopaedie winklar
Gomez, Luis and Woodward Jr., Hiram W., Barabudur. His
Hofinger, Erica J. „Untersuchungen zu den Pflanzen-l
Barabudur, Munchen 1984.
Krom, N.J. Baraboedoer. Het heiligdom van het Boeddhism
Levie, S.H. Borobudur, Kunst en Religie in het Oude Java, C

teen, Wassenaar 1970. English edition under the title Ageless
ia 11 (1956) in Bijdr. Kon. Inst. 114 (1958): 306-19.
Sailendratijd, Bandung 1950. Prasasti Indonesia 11: Selected g 1956. "New Evidence on Ciltural Relations between Java and ur' in G.P Malalasekera (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol.
ir in Luis Gomez and Hiram W. Woodward (eds.), arabudur.
1981.
Michael Smithies, O.U.P., Kuala Lumpur 1978.
Vols, and 3 Portefolios, The Hague 1920-31. English translation
7.
yuha illustrations in China, Japan and Java, The Hague 1966.
’rins, s.v. Mahayana.
tory and significance of a Buddhist Monument, Berkeley 1981.
nd Tier-Darstellungen auf den Purgatorienreliefs des Candi
e op Java, The Hague 1930. See also s.v. van Erp, Th.
talogue of an Exhibition in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 1977.

Page 58
Mus, Paul, Barabudur, Esauisse d'une Histoire du Bouddhisme f
Namikawa, B.Ch., Borobudur, the Buddhist monument of Java,
Pelita Borobudur. Laporan kegiatan Proyek Pemugaran Cand Culture of the Republic of Indonesia: a large number of progr
Indonesian, concerning the restoration of Borobudur, 1972-83.
Pott, P.H., Yoga and Yantra, translated by Rodney Needham, T
on chandi Borobudur, Tokyo 1980.
Sivaramamurti, C., Le stupa du Barabudur, Paris 1961.
Soediman, “Borobudur, Indonesian cultural Heritage” in stud
Soekmono, R., chandi Borobudur. a Monument of Manking, .
Soekmono R. and Chihara Daigoro, The Meaning of Chandi E
Chandi Borobudur, Tokyo 1980. ''
Stutterheim, W.F., Tjandi Baraboedoer. Naam Vorm en Betel
in Studies in Indonesian archaeology, The Hague 1956: 1-62.
Suleiman, S., Monuments of Ancient Indonesia, Jakarta 1976.
International symposium on Chandi Borobudur, Tokyo 1980.
Wayman, Alex, "Reflections on the theory of Barabudur as
Barabudur, Berkeley 1981.

pndee sur la Critique archeologique des Textes, Hanoi 1935.
Tokyo 1971.
Borobudur, published by the Department of Education and
ss reports and other publications, partly in English, partly in
he Hague 1966. Proceedings of the International Symposium
ies in Conservati ion 18 (1973): 102-112.
Amsterdam-Paris 1976.
Borobudur’’, Proceedi ngs of the International symposium in
kenis, “Weltevreden” (Jakarta-Pusat)1929. English translation
“Historical view of Central Java, Focusing on Borobudur’’ in
a Mandala” in Lui Gomez and Hiram W. Woodward Jr.,
51

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Page 60
THE GIANT BUDDHIST TI By M. M. Ek
Among Buddhist thupas of Sri Lanka fou height. They are the Maricavatti thupa ( m.'), the Mahathupa (modern height with (modern height is neary 116 m.), and t times was nearly 122 m., modern height
The Maricavatti thupa and the Mah (161 - 137 B.C.), the Abhayagiri thupa by B.C.), the Jetavana thupa - by king Mahas
The question arises: what was the Buddhist thupas ? On answeringitone will and social significance of these monumen
An attempt to do this was made by
"Soon after his campaigns, I Anuradhapura. The major task u construction of three Buddhist shi the Maha-thupa begun by him and time the largest stupa in the Bud making a deliberate attempt to
pilgrimage for the Buddhists in th
From these words one can conclud is that it was an extraordinary height that center which determined the pilgrimage
But the Mahathupa was not the first it the Maricavattithupa was erected. So i attracted the worshipers to the thupa anc

HUPAS OF SRI LANKA
anidze
thupas stand out for their extraordinary he height in ancient times was nearly 61 out spire is 54.6 m.), the Abhayagirithupa he Jetavana thupa (the height in ancient is nearly 70.5 mo ).
athupa were built by king Dutthagamani king Vattagamani Abhaya (103, 89-77 sena (274-301 A.D.)“.
reason for this megalo-mania in building |be able to describe the historical, cultural its in the moment of their building.
R. A. L. H. Gunawardana. He wrote:
Dutthagamani shifted his capital to ndertaken by him after this event was the ines at his new political center. Of these, completed by his successor was for a long ihist world. Here we find Dutthagamani turn his political center into a place of e island".
that R. A. L. H. Gunawardana's opinion made the Mahathupa a kind of totemistic to it.
iant thupa built in Anuradhapura. Before it was really the extraordinary height that made the place of its location a center of
53

Page 61
pilgrimage for the people from all par Mahathupa in Anuradhapura was an i nothing to the cultural significance oft Besides that, following the hypothesis ac height of the first thupa was to give so Anuradhapura one cannot explain ther thupas (the Mahathupa, the Abhayagirio place later on.
So the idea that the purpose of co1 built in Anuradhapura in the time of Dut cultural significance to the city finds no up. The pragmatic context of their bui viewpoint.
It is evident that the first two giant capital of the state. During the expansio were built, but they were not solarge, e.g. in the kingdom of Seru 8.
The first giant thupas were built in : was the period when individuals bega necessity to extend its paradigm. In the ( phenomenon was selected, and the Supre
With the turn to the new old relig became formal and was subordinated to religious texts created by them. This tur cosmological model. One of charact contraposition of some archaic sacred c supreme role of the former. The "center an object which had to be possessed.
It gave birth to the idea of the cap political and cultural forces from the ou center of the civilization of the Island (
54

of the country, then the building of the formatically surplus action which added e place, which had already been created. 'ording to which the purpose of increase of he special central cultural significance to ason for erection of other analogous giant hupa and the Jetavana thupa) in the same
siderable increase in height of the thupas hagamani was to give some special central theoretical background, and can be given ding must be reconsidered from another
thupas were built in Anuradhapura as the n of the Mahagamakingdom other thupas the thupa erected by king Kakavannatissa
a specific period of the history of lanka. It to feel alienated from Buddhism and ultural consciousness an archaic religious me religious significance was given to it.
ous cult the Buddhist religious paradigm it in individuals' behaviour, and in new 1 went along with actualisation of archaic eristic features of this model was the ultural "center" to a "periphery" with the was perceived in an alienated manner as
tal of the state and caused the moving of lying districts (Rohana) to the historical North-Central Region) with its political

Page 62
center Anuradhapura.
The religious perception of Anuradha its expression in the activity on creating th was in the context of this activity that th Maricavatti thupa, the Mahathupa and th
So strictly speaking it was not the Anuradhapura the capital of the state, bu began to be perceived as the capital c IInOnumentS.
The actualisation of the archaic cos brought the crystallization of Buddhisi authoritative ancient source (center) fro created the background for Buddhist r beholding the tradition became actual foi cult of the relics and the thupa came in th
Two other giant thupas, the Abhay built in the viharas the communities of whi of the doctrinal controversies. Extending 1 above, futher one can conclude an extrao thupas was the formal expression of th community of the respective vihara as a E

pura as the capital of the state also found e corresponding image of the city. Andit e giant Buddhist religious complex (the : Lohapasada) was built there.
building of the giant thupas that made it vice versa, the fact that Anuradhapura aused the building in it large religious
mological model in the Buddhist society n in a form of a tradition, with some m which it allegedly was descending. It eligious conservatism. The problem of the Buddhist self-consciousness. So the eforeground.
ragiri thupa and the Jetavana thupa were ich seceded from the Mahavihara because the gnoseological paradigm reconstructed rdinary increase in height of each of these e ruler's attitude to the teaching of the Buddhist tradition.
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REFERENCES
1 Tulayev S.I., Bongard-Levin G. M. Iskusstvo Sri Lanka (
2 ыa.
3 Sri Lanka. 198-, p.9.
4 Sri Lanka, p.7.
5 Tulayev S.I., Bongard-Levin G. M. Iskusstvo Sri Lanka, p.
6The dates are given according to De Silva K. M. A History
7Gunawardana R. A. L. H. Social Function and Political Pow Study of the State. The Hague, 1981, p.140.
8 University of Ceylon History of Ceylon. Colombo, 1959, vol
56

he art of Sri Lanka (in Russian). Moscow, 1974, p.29.
of Sri Lanka. London, 1981, pp. 565-566.
er. A Case Study of State Formation in Irrigation Society. The
. I, pt. 1, p.150.

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LOVE UNANSWERED: Si s By J.G. de (
Neighbours. Everybody loves good ne Australian TV serial, and no-one would d but nonetheless true, statementis: "Every celebrated the beginning of the Third Ce (twice the length of the Centenary that revolution inaugurated a new age in Weste democracy, but also of colonialism and it prosperity and world-wide power of Weste causes of the success of the revolution w "Marseillaise' and, above all, the triple it Every-one who is familiar with France kn possible occasion - so much so that som achieved or almost so. Yet, a closer look a hollow phrase. As to Liberty most of u although much depends on what precisely and Fraternity are concerned, much re. however, a most convenient myth.
Other nations, too, have their my Indonesia's Pancasilaaresimilarnational they allow of different interpretations as poured. One excellent Indonesian pc created the myth of ‘5000 Years Sang Mer Indonesian flag). All Dutchmen learn at by a little boysticking his finger in the hol is that of the indelible bond between the although 'Stadthouder' William V onlyj end of the eighteenth century.
It is therefore no cause for surprise has its national myths. I shall not deal w. all) but will try to analyze an ancient my

I LANKA AND KALINGA
asparis
ghbours' is the title of a long-running sagree. A somewhat more controversial, state loves good myths. Lastyear France ntenary of the great Revolution of 1789 we are at present celebrating). This rn Europe: that of liberalism, of so-called mperialism, which led to unprecedented rn Europe. It seems as though one of the as its catching slogans as implied in the leal of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. ows that this phrase is repeated on every 2 actually believe that this ideal is really it French society reveals that it is a rather s will agree that it has been achieved - one means by this term. As far as Equality mains to be done. The triple ideal is,
chs. India's slogan Satyam evajayate and myths; they have the great advantage that vessels into which various liquids can be litician-historian (Muhammad Yamin) th-Putih" (the red and white colours of the school that serious floods were prevented 2 of a dyke. A more serious national myth Netherlands and the House of Orange - ust managed to escape to England at the
that also this beautiful island of Sri Lanka th modern myths (I am an historian after l, one of those that are closely connected
57

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with this Island's identity as an indeper serve to emphasize the firm bond betwe
Geographically, Sri Lanka is an o subcontinent, from which it is separate connected') by a narrow strait (which, a bridged by a dyke). Every visitor is struc dry east cost of South India (at least du island dangerously hanging, as it were Subcontinent - like a mango, thus giving
It is therefore not surprising th: Tamilnadu, looked at Sri Lanka with en attempts at invading and occupying parts made in a very early period and have c periods of peace and friendly relations b often an atmosphere of confrontation bet terms of hostility. This atmosphere of pronounced in this island than it is on the kings were even more clearly focused tov
This slightly ambivalent nature of th Tamilnadu had important consequences cultivate the relations with other Indians kings of Tamilnadu, such as that of the subcontinent and those of the east coastn Secondly it strengthened the resolution of which distinguished them from the Tam promote the use of their language not o co-incidence that the oldest inscriptio Sanskrit or Prakrit are those in Sinhales available from as early as the third centu the language can be followed all through only Indo-Aryan language for which this in many others) is of course Tamil with more important than language was reli
58

lent state. Most of such myths, if not all, in this Island and (Theravada) Buddhism.
f-shore island of the great Indo-Pakistani (one could almost say: “with which it is cording to an Indian myth, had once been by the contrast between the yellowish and ing most of the year) and this ever-green
on the southeastern flank of the huge he island one of its many ancient names."
ut South Indians, especially those from ly, if not with greed, and made numerous of Sri Lanka. Such attempts were already ontinued till recent times. Despite long etween Sri Lanka and Tamilnadu there is ween the two, even if it is not expressed in confrontation is, however, much more subcontinent, where the eyes of the Tamil vards their continental neighbours.
Le relationship between Sri Lanka and the Firstly it led the rulers of this island to tates which felt equally threatened by the Pandyas in the southern most part of the orth of Tamilnadu, in particular “Kalinga'. the Sinhalese to emphasize those features ils. Thus, it stimulated the Sinhalese to ly in speech but also in writing. It is no ns in Indo-Aryan languages other than :. Inscriptions in (ancient) Sinhalese are y B.C. and the official and literary use of he centuries till the present age. It is the the case. Its only rival in this respect (as in even longer continuous history. Even ion. It is likely that the vicinity of the

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predominantly Sivaite Tamils led the adherence to Buddhism. It is told in t population was converted to Buiddhism ( nobody doubts that the conversion of the There is also little doubt that the preser strong impetus to the adoption by the Si
The manner in which the texts, such conversion to Buddhism has all the feat the status of the 'chosen’ faith and the Sin to strengthen the bonds between the Sin myth, that of the three visits of Lord Bu as those of Prince Vijaya, landing here ( and the 'kinsmen of the Buddha."The na bonds between Buddhism and the Si R.A.L.H. Gunawardana' and there is no for the function or functions that these n I may focus your attention on a related to ofall the Buddha’s relics: the Tooth Reli passages relaing to this relic in the Cula sense) and a number of inscriptionsthirt Relic, both in Pali and in Sinhalese.
It is well-known that the Tooth Re were enshrined in dagabas, was safeguar palace. The Culavamsa describes (37-9 was brought from "the Kalinga country' womanin the ninth regnal year ofking Si with great pomp and subsequently ensh immediate vicinity of the royal residenc
No details about the manner in wil given, but the text refers us to the spec Vamsa) for further details. This vag celebrated relic of the Island is somewl author did not consider it necessary to

inhalese to emphasize their unwavering le Mahavamsa that the entire Simhalese nlistening to the sermons of Mahinda, but Sinhalese was process of several centuries. ce or vicinity of the Sivaite Tamils gave a halese of Theravada Buddhism.
as especially the Mahavamsa, describe the res of a pious myth, which lent Buddhism halese that of the "chosen'people. In order halese and Buddhism even further another idha to this Island, was developed, as well in the very day of Lord Buddha's Nirvana, ture of some of these myths relating to the hhalese have been studied by Professor need for me to repeat his strong arguments hyths fulfilled in Sinhalese society. Instead pic, that of the function of the most glorious c. In addition to the numerous and lengthy amsa (not in the Mahavamsa in its narrow are even entire texts devoted to the Tooth
lic, unlike nearly all the other relics, which ded in aspeical building adjoining the royal 2 to 99) how the Tooth Relic (Dathadhatu) (Kalinghmha) by a certain (kacii) brahmin ri-Meghavanna. It was received by the king rined in the Dhammacakka building in the e (rajavatthu).
ich the Relicarrived in Anuradhapuraare ial Tooth Relic Chronicle (Dathadhatussa leness regarding the origin of the most at surprising. It may simply mean that the give any details, since the special chronicle
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was available to all those interested in t the Island. Yet, this attitude is clearly di the supposed chronicle of Rohana“, wh. source for two episodes, the second of wh the later king Vijayabahu II. In those cas by the author of the Culavamsa. Why v Relic? One would have thought that the important as that of worldly rulers. Bu country of origin and the fact that it was whose name is not even mentioned
It is therefore clear that a different
Thus, the Culavamsa (37.97) statest be brought every year to the Abhayuttara of the Tooth Relic would take place. We as the Abhayagiri-vihara, was often a Vetullakas and perhaps Mahayanists, who by the oldes vihara: the Mahavihara: the “ the patronage of most of the kings. King Siri-Meghavanna, gave strong patronage Meghavanna's successor Buddhadasa. In have suggested that the Tooth Relic was and its 'unorthodox’ doctrines. The auth source may therefore have preferred not to as, for instance, the older Mahavamsa had
This argument may not be as strong that the Tooth Relic received homage f period after Meghavana. On the other ha Tooth Relic becomes much more importa especially after the re-unification of the S
I therefore believe that the silence o the great Relic should be accounted for t students of Christian theology know that t
60

e history of the Relic before it arrived in erent from what we see in the case of e.g., h is apparently used by the author as his chdealing with the descent of Prince Kitti, s the original accounts were summarized as this not done in the case of the Tooth Origin of this great symbol was at least as the only information that is given is the aken to this Island by a brahmin woman,
xplanation is called for.
hat the king decreed that the Relic'should rihara', where a great ceremony in honour know that this monastery, better known ssociated with Buddhist sects, such as )se doctrines deviated from the norms set established' institution which had enjoyed ; Mahasena, however, the predecessor of to the Abhayagiri and so did, it appears the eyes of many Theravadins this may specially associated with the Abhayagiri or of (this part of) the Culavamsa or his give as much attention to the Tooth Relic done with reference to the Mahabodhi
as it may seem, for the Chronicle shows "om several kings in the Anuradhapura ld, it is quite clear that the worship of the ut during and after the Polonnaru period, ngha by Parakramabahu I.
the Chronicle in respect of the origin of quite a different line of argument. All e origin or even authenticity of the relics

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of Christ has often been amatter of doub the Holy Shroud of Turin, the cloth in w after the Crucifixion, have led to all kind methods, but without realconsensus oft faith, not of historical proof. The same Buddha, and many monks and layme genuineness of the Tooth Relic, the mor the Tooth Relic Chronicle did not ins therefore be devoted to these traditions,
According to the Dathavamsa, afte of his corporeal remains, the Tooth Reli pyre by a certain Khema, who took it Brahmadatta of that country. Three gen king Guhasiva (as Brahmadatta unknow. conflincts around the Tooth Relic in Ka have been involved. As the relic was ing Lanka was the safest place for the Relic. the latter sent his daughter and son-in-l. Relic finally arrived after Mahasen Kitti-Siri-Megha (i.e. Siri-Meghavanna
It is obvious that the chronology of the Chronicle, is quite impossible. The would take us to the fifth or fourth centul is about eight centuries later. On the ot Kusinagara (Kasia in northeastern UF would not have taken nine years. The na the most common ones in Pali texts: abo In Malalasekera's Dictionary. The auth an erudite scholar, was no doubt aware ( Tooth Relic Chronicle, at least as far as Sri Lanka is concerned. That is no d Dathavamsa without summarizing the s
About Kalinga itself all the olden

and discussion. The controversies around hich Jesus Christ would have been buried of tests, even with the most sophisticated le faithful, simply because it is a matter of probably the case with the relics of Lord 1 may not have been convinced of the so because the traditions, as laid down in ire much confidence. A few words may
the Buddha's Nirvana and the cremation c would have been taken from the funeral
to Kalinga where he handed it to king erations later, during the reign of a certain h from other sources)', there arose serious linga, in which especially the Jainas would reat danger king Guhasiva realized that Sri Since Mahasena was a friend of Guhasiva, aw with the Relic to Sri Lanka. There the a's death in the ninth regnal year of of the Mahavamsa).
the history of the Tooth Relic, as set out in three or four generations after the Nirvana y B.C. not to the fourth century A.D., which her hand, even if communications between .) and Kalinga were difficult, the journey mes of Khema and Brahmadatta are among ut twenty five Brahmadattas are mentioned or of (this part of) the Culavamsa, who was f the unlikely course of events as told in the the history of the Relic before its arrival in pubt why he just refers the reader to the ory as told in that Chronicle.”
chronicles are quite vague. The only town
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which is mentioned is Dantapura. As m. of Kalinga were issued from Dantapurat site is, however, still controversialo, altho on the Vamsadhara river, presumably in
A similar vagueness about Kalinga country. Thus, the first two kings of the As far as the Mahavamsa account of Vij attempted a consistent synthesis of more one tradition, which includes the name of (Sopara) and the part played by a lion, p includes the country of Vanga and Kaling this tradition, or rather its version used in a minor part as the country of origin o. 'apparently is exphasized, not only on relations in the Sinhalese royal dynasti attaches particular importance to Vijay hailing from "Silhapura in the country ( connexion mentions "king Vijaya, d. Cakravartins, who had the power of tr Inscription, see Wickramesinghe 1928)."
For Nissankamalla, who did not b Island, it was essential to prove' his legit the same origin as the first king of Sri Lan he naturally emphasized the "Kalinga' ori promoted to Cakravartins!).
Not only the first, but also the second from Kalinga. The Mahavamsa is, howev city of Sihapura, where members of Vij Panduvasundeva would have been a ne connected with Kalinga.
As to the reason why the origin with Kalinga Basham (1952 : 166) sugge
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ny Sanskrit inscriptions of different kings his is a clearly historical name. Its precise ugh there is little doubt that it was situated the area of the famous Mukhalingamo
is noticeable in earlier references to the Island are said to originate from Kalinga. ya is concerned, its "author has evidently than one tradition' (Basham 1952: 165): the well-known ancient port at Supparaka bints to western India; another one, which a, to the east coast of the subcontinent. In the Mahavamsa, Kalinga appearently play f Vijaya's great-grandmother. The word account of the importance of matrilineal es, but especially because later tradition a's Kalinga origin. Thus, Nissankamala, pf Kalinga in noble Dambadiwa', in this ascended from the family of Kalinga avelling through the air (Galpota Slab
elong to one of the ruling families in the timacy as a king by mentioning that he had ka. As he himself originated from Kalinga, gin of Vijaya (whose ancestors were even
king of Sri Lanka is said to have originated ar, very vague again and mentions only the aya’s family were ruling. The new king, phew of Vijaya and was therefore again
of the two first kings was associated sted that this tradition arose because the

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Tooth Relic had been brought from the written. There is, however, a serious
Mahavamsain its narrow sense (i.e. till vers the Tooth Relic Chronicle, nor even the first found in (the first part of) Culavams end of the reign of Parakramabahu I at the in which the arrival of the Tooth Relic is n striking. Just after the mention of some f suddenly read (XXXVII -92) that "in th woman brought hither (to Anuradhapura) of the great Sage (Buddha)', immedi Dathadhatussa Vamsa, the Tooth Relic C the previous rule (Mahasena) had already that the Relic should be brought to the completely silent about this embassy sent some doubt about the historical correctne
This analysis may show the tenuity o between Sri Lanka and Kalinga before thef if conditions in this part of the subcontine comes briefly into an historical focus afte third century B.C., but after the two S Bhubanesvar) andJaugada (Ganjam distir the time of king Kharavela (probably in t boasts to have conquered vast parts of the some extent based on historical facts, they see. In addition, neither in the longinscript nor in any of the inscriptions in the adjoi discerned.
After Kharavela’s time we have to wai inscriptions in what is at present the State Andhra Pradesh. It is only from the considerable number of inscriptions, espe That is, however, more thana century after

e not long before the Mahavamsa was objection against this theory, for the e50 of Canto XXXVII) does not mention Tooth Relic itself. These references are a, which was probably completed by the end of the twelfth century. The manner hentioned in the Culavamsa is also quite oundations in the Abhayagiri-vihara we e ninth year of this (King) a Brahaman from the Kalinga country the Tooth Relic ately followed by a reference to the hronicle. From the latter it appears that sent envoys to Kalinga with the request e Island. The Mahavamsa is, however, by Mahasena. There may therefore be ss of the version as related in these texts.
if the traditions concerning the relations ifth century A.D.This is hardly surprising nt are taken into consideration. Kalinga r Asoka's conquests in the middle of the Separate Rock Edicts at Dhauli (near ct) we have to wait two centuries more to he middle of the first century B.C), who subcontinent. If these conquests are to carried no consequences as far as one can ionin the Elephant Cave (Hathigumpha) ning caves can any trace of Buddhism be
t several centuries again till we find other of Orissa and the northern most part of 2nd of the fifth century that we get a :ially of kings of the Early Ganga dynasty. the time of the arrival of the Tooth Relic
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There is, however, one important exce Mukhalingam in Andhra Pradesh, whe discovered." Most of the statuary disco Tantric in character (e.g. a well-known M ancientbrahmiinscriptions proves thafiti reads dhamarano Asokasirino, "of king As Maurya emperor, although his name is n also the script appears somewhat later tha at Salihundam shows the typical cakra b however, been discovered there that can b Relic was kept until it was brought to t seems to be the northernmost extension the Krishna river.
The site of the old capital city of D, certainty, but it is generally thought Dantavaktrakota near Srikakulam (Ch Paloura?).' A considerable number of in but none of these gives any reference to whether the name Dantapura is indeed d be derived from danta, ivory', for Kalinga the very name of Dantapura may have g relic came to Sri Lankavia this important
I already mentioned the striking sile Mahasena's delegation to Kalinga. Also few references to Kalinga in the Culavam. in XLII-44 in connexion with the arrival. disturbed when he saw the death of livil exphasized that Kalinga in this verse is (which present a five-syllable hiatus at Geiger. Geiger's translation again me XLII-46, but the text reads only his reconstitution Kalingamha mahipati may is concerned, it should, however, not b mentioned in the text; there are other pc
64

ption, viz., the site of Salihundam near re important Buddhist antiquities were ered there points to a late period as it is (arici statue).", but the presence of a few san old site. One shortinscription actually oka'. This may be a reference to the great ever given in this from in his inscription; in the Asokan brahmi." One of the Stupas asis of the Andhra stupas. Nothing has, e associated with the site where the Tooth his Island. Archaeologically Salihundam of the great Buddhist sites of the delta of
antapura has not yet been identified with that it corresponds either to modern icacole) or to Dantakura (= Ptolemy’s scriptions were issued from Dantapura 15, Buddhism. It therefore seems doubtful 2rived from the Danta(dhatu); it mayjust was famous for its elephants. In that case iven rise to the tradition that the famous : centre.
ince of the Mahavamsa with reference to in the centuries that follow there are only sa.There is a possible mention of Kalinga in Sri Lanka of a prince 'whose mind was ng beings in war. It should, however, be found in none of the extant manuscripts his point), but has been conjectured by htions the Kalinga prince's minister in minister' (tassamacco). Although the seem satisfactory also as far as the metre e forgotten that Kalinga is not actually ssibilities."

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The next reference to Kalinga occurs states that the Yuvaraja Mahinda (i.e. Mai Sinhalas' after fetching 'a princess of the 'although there was also in Lanka a race o the meaning of the verse it would imply so a queen from Kalinga to one of the Sinh Chronicle has nothing but praise for Mahi verses is, however, by no means clear." Θ.
What strikes us most in all these ref both of the last mentioned passages one Chronicle is silent about the name of the thousand years earlier, was so shocked by joined the Buddhist Order. No informati Kalinga (2) he would have come or to wha The Chronicle is just as vague about the c a princess from Kalinga, why is there no dynasty to which she belonged or the cap such details are rarely omitted, if only to : of equal rank. Actually, this vagueness a chronicle before c.A.D. 1000. On the on this part of the Chronicle would have bee or geographical details other than the na may wonder whether this vagueness is n verified and may be found incorrect, when go wrong (current weather forecasts areg mean much more than "overseas'. I am i because the Culavamsa is generally quite
After the turn of the millennium th connexion with Vijayabahu I the author d two queens and their offspring. The (Jagatipala, 'a Sovereign's son who had -13). Of the second, Tilokasundari by nan lineage of the kings of the land of Kalinga, of Kalinga and consecrated as a mahesi (
S.P.C. 90.683

very much later, in 956. The Culavamsa hinda IV) “founded the royal house of the line of the ruler of Kalinga'. He did so, fnobles' (Cv. LIV, 9-10). If this is indeed me criticism, as though the king preferred ala maidens. This is surprising since the hda IV. The precise meaning of these two Kcept for the reference to Kalinga.
erences to Kalinga is their vagueness. In is struck by the absence of names. The prince from Kalinga (?) who, as Asoka a the killing of living beings in war that he on is given about the place from where in at royal family he belonged (Cv.XLII-44). onsort of Mahinda IV. If she was indeed mention of her own name, of that of the ital where she came from? In other cases show that the queen belonged to a family pplies to all references to Kalinga in the e hand, one may argue that the author of n indifferent about such details as names me kalinga itself; on the other hand, one ot intentional: precise indications can be "eas with vague statements one can hardly ood examples). Perhaps "Kalinga' did not inclined to accept the second alternative, precise in such matters.
e indications are more detailed. Thus, in evotes eleven verses (LIX-23 to 33) to his first was a daughter of an earlier king come from the town of Ayoijha,Cv. LVI le, it is stated that she descended from the that he had her fetched from the kingdom v. LIX-30). A few verses later (LIX-46)
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we read about three princess, kinsme) come from Sihapura’, one of the capit Eastern Gangas.' It was probably situa references are not as precise as one ma details, such as the name of the princes ‘was fetched’ (anapetva).
During the turbulentyears at the e. of Parakramabahu I we again get a nun the inscriptions of Nissankamalla. These which givens only a very brief account numerous inscriptions which this ruler
Thus, in one of his inscriptions he to the Mahasammata of Buddhist tradi about his more direct antecedents. Thu: mentions the name of his father king Sri in the city of Sinhapura in Kalinga. Ofh to the Gangavamsa, the well-known dyn fifth century A.D. Even his capital Pulastipura namati Kalingaka-purayehi) famous instruction to the effect that "th dynasty' since the time of prince Vijaya.
There can be no doubt that Nissan to emphasize the strength of the relatio the centuries.His position must have be of the Buddhist Sangha. As to his own ( doubt, although his original status as a exaggerated. As to the site of Sinhapu the present village of Singupuram, situat in the Srikakulam District of Andhra F Hultzsch in Ep. Ind, IV, 1896-7 : 143, w possibility). This Simhapura seems, how city soon after the middle of the sixth c of the Mathara dynasty of Kalinga. Int
66

h of the Mahesi (Tilokasundari), who had als in the period preceding the rise of the ted in Srikakulam Distirct. Although these y have wished, they mention at least a few is and the town in Kalinga from where she
nd of the twelfth century following the death hber of references to Kalinga, especially in references are not found in the Culavamsa,
of the reign of Nissankamalla, but in the nas left.
traces his ancestry back to Vijaya and even tion", but sometimes he also gives details s, in the long Galpota Slab Inscriptiono he Jayagopa and his mother Paravati, reigning lis two consorts the second is said to belong asty reigning in Kalinga since the end of the Polonnaru is called a “Kalinga city” (B-7: Near the end of the inscription we find the 2 Island of Lanka.... belongs to the Kalinga
kamalla must have had very strong reasons ns between Sri Lanka and Kalinga through en weak despite his remarkable patronage origin from Kalinga there can hardly be any son of the king of that country is no doubt 'a (Simhaputa) it is usually identified with ed between Srikakulam and Narasannapeta radesh (Rajaguru 1958: 63 on the basis of ho proposed this identification merely as a ever, to have lost its importance as a capital 2ntury (Rajaguru 1958: 72 f.) after the fall he twelfth century it is briefly mentioned in

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two inscriptions at Mukhalingam dated
officials of Kalinga. Thus, it is found th Kalinga upto 1200 A.D., although it was r 73) Nissankamalla no doubt belonged to part of Kalingaunder the authority of the C was apparently related.'
In the confused period following the d fetched from Kalinga, actually the latter's principal fame rests on the fact that he “w the first definitely fixed date in Ceylo 1961:242). The confused period ended wit Magha, 'an avenger who came from Kalir been supplanted by queen Lilavati and kir (Nicholas and Paranavitana 1961:246). TI the once glorious Polonnaruperiod. It als relations between Sri Lanka and Kalinga.
From the preceding account it can b Sri Lanka and Kalinga can roughly be divi roughly corresponding to the Anuradhap the Chronicle and in inscriptions, but the is their vagueness. Precise details are lack of Vijaya and Pandu Vasudeva, which ap convincingly pointed out that the accou contained in the Jatakas. It seems rather, stories while rejecting others. There is th significance to the references to Kalinga some oral traditions which were, however, This may well be true also for the accounts before its arrival in this Island. None of th admit of verification. Basham thought th based on the fact that the Tooth Relic arri (Basham 1952:166), but doubt has alread tradition. Thus, as we have seen, the delegation sent to Kalinga by Mahaser

1175 and 1179 as the residence of two at Simhapura retained its importance in to longer a capital city.' (Rajaguru 1958: a family of petty rajas 'ruling in a small Gangas, with whom one of his two mahesis
eath of Nissankamalla another prince was step-brother, called Sahasamalla, whose as consecrated king on August, 23,1200, n history' (Nicholas and Paranavitana h the relatively long reign of the ill-famed ga to restore the Kalinga line which had ig Parakkamapandu for nearly four years' he reign of Magha marks the sad end of o seems to mark the end of close dynastic
e seen that the long relationship between ded into two periods. In the first of these, ura period, Kalinga is often mentioned in most striking feature of these references ting in the accounts concerning the origin pear to be largely mythical. It has been ints are based on stories such as those arbitrary to accept some features of these erefore no reason to attach any historical in these stories. They may be based on , selected and adapted for special reasons. concerning the history of the Tooth Relic e details in the account of the Dathavamsa at the earliest references to Kalinga were ved in the Island from or through Kalinga y been expressed as to the veracity of this Mahavamsa omits any reference to the a, and its continuation, the Culavamsa
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confines the account of its origin to the lanka from an unnamed place in Kalinga
A similar vagueness prevails in t Anuradhapura period. There, too, one n of names of capitals or of kings in Kaling from Kalinga, who became a monk in Sr.
In the Polonnaru period, however, with reference to the second cons Nissankamalla's family. Yet, even then with the help of the numerous inscript district of Orissa and the Srikakulam dist now easily accessible thanks to the volu include those of Srikakulam distirct, and one may have thought, relations with Sril very important - at least not as importan It is striking that hitherto none of th Tamraparna, Amradvipa etc.) is ever m large numbers of inscriptions available, S capitals were situated in the very region allude. We therefore have to conclude th were, at least predominantly, unilateral.
When we speak of relations in t distinction. There certainly were nume not inform us, such as ordinary comme accounts, including those included in in those relations that are relevant in the co selected. The inscriptions, usually copp institutions, give only those details that ha of the grant. These include e.g. the date, of the grantee(s): the kind of details whic with the royal order one would, at least o to other countries with which the kings ( instance, quite a few references to Sri La
68

statement that the Relic was taken to Sri by an unnamed Brahmin lady.
he few later references to Kalinga in the otices the absence of any precise indication a. Even the name of the mysterious prince
Lanka is not mentioned.
much more precise details are given, e.g., ort of Vijayabahu and especially to none of the details given can be checked ions of ancient Kalinga, viz, the Ganjam rict of Andhra Pradesh. These sources are mes of the Inscriptions of Orissa 21, which have excellent indexes. Contrary to what anka do not seem to have been considered t as these relations were for the Sinhalese. le names of this Island (Lanka, Sihala, entioned in Kalingan sources despite the uch as those of the Eastern Gangas whose to which the Sri Lankan sources refer or at the relations between the two countries
his context we must make an important "ous relations about which the sources do rcial relations. In addition, all historical scriptions, are necessarily selective. Only bntext of the main purpose of the texts are er-plate grants of land to Brahmins or to lve a direct bearing on the primary purpose the names and titles of the king as well as hauthenticate the grant. Yet, in connexion ccasionally, have expected some reference intertained close relations. There are, for nka in the Chola inscriptions. The absence

Page 76
of any reference to this Island in the C therefore the more surprising.
This silence can partly be explained b in Kalinga. A passage in Hsuan-chwang monasteries in Kalinga in the middle of is often quoted; the absance of references of the area is even more significant. It ist made for the three great Buddhist foun Ratnagiri, Udayagiri and Lalitagiri,° b Mahayana- not the kind of institutions wit close relations. In addition, these Bud Kalinga in its narrow sense,' but in Utk should be located.
It is, of course, always dangerous to b: notorious argumentum e silentio), for discovery of new inscriptions. Yet, we disposal. The historian has always to b evidence, since something is bound to ge let alone centuries. But even if, in future Lanka in an inscription this would hardly nature of the relations between Sri Lank
The present author is convinced th Sources of references to this Island w Paranavitana at identifying the Kalinga o Southeast Asia (usually called “Malaysia' distorted imterpretations of passages ir shored up by the reading of interlinear S distinguished, has been convincingl A.L.R.H.Gunavardana, K. Indrapala, W. no reason for me to "flog a dead horse'' us to face the question why the inscript Pradesh are silent about relations with kings of Kalinga, in particular the Easte

anga and other inscriptions of Orissa is
the relatively weak position of Buddhism 's account about the pauctity of Buddhist he seventh century (Watters 1905: II 198) to Buddhism in the numerous inscriptions rue that an important exception should be dations north of the Mahanadi river, viz. ut these belonged to advanced forms of h which the Sinhalese would have fostered hist foundations were situated far from ala, where also Hsuan-Chang's Puspagiri
ase conclusions on the absence of data(the such conclusions could be upset by the
have to work with the evidence at our be aware that he never has the complete tlost or hidden in the course of the years, 2, we find a reference to relations with Sri change our conclusion about the one-sided a and Kalinga.
lat the complete absence in the Kalingan as the basis of the famous attempt by the Sri Lankan sources with (a country in) in his publications). This theory, based on texts and inscriptions and subsequently anskrit inscriptions which no one else has y rejected by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, M. Sirisena and others; there is therefore On the other hand, this rejection compels ions of Orissa and northernmost Andhra Sri Lanka. In principle, it seems that the rn Gangas, who controlled Kalinga in its
69

Page 77
narrow sense' after the end of the fifth c than the latter in Kalinga, and this forma back to the beginning of this paper, I e. regard to the vast Indo-Pakistani subcont from the opposite coast. Owing to its si: resist for any length of time, at least wh such as that of the Colas from the tenth were numerous invasions from the subco. of raids. From the tenth century, howeve as we all know, to the Cola occupation du when the island was annexed as a manda
As the Island did not have the phy resist the Colas, they concentrated on th Buddhism and the civilization inspired by the liberation of the Island in 1070, ther the ceremony of admission to the Order giving new life to the Sangha and applies The Chronicle also stresses the prese becoming the main concrete symbol ofth Relic (and other relics) which pious mor
At the same time Vijayabahu di isolation of Sri Lanka which had led to subcontinent. He did this especially by f which, as Sri Lanka, were facing the da Pandyakingdom and that of Kalinga. The is the precise opposite of the first sente natural enemy. As often in such cases, ma the threat of Cola expansion were consid with such kingdoms in the hope of being threat of invasion. In accordance with t married to a Pandyaprince, while Vijayab Tilokasundari. Vijayabahu's foreign p existing ties and creating new bonds of potential, of the Colas' (Nicholas and Pa
70

entury A.D., took less interestin Sri Lanka inly political considerations. If I may come mphasized the position of this island with inent and its continuous threat of invasions ze Sri Lanka did not have the resources to n it faced a mighty and expansionist state century A.D. Even before that time there htinent, but these were mainly in the nature r, they became much more serious andled, ring the major part of the eleventh century, la of the South Indian empire.
sical force, in particular the manpower, to e spiritual force, in particular the spirit of Buddhism. Even when, as happened after e were not sufficient theras left to conduct , king Vijayabahu realized the necessity of i for the help of king Aniruddha of Pagan. hce in the Island of what was gradually e Buddhistidentity of Sri Lanka: the Tooth lks had hidden in the jungles of Ruhuna.
d everything possible to end the relative ) a certain degree of dependence on the Ostering his relations with other kingdoms nger of Cola expansion, in particular the : classical doctrine of Kautilya's Arthasastra nce of this paper : a neighbour state is a trimonial links with other kingdomsfacing ered the best means to promote friendship , able to form a common front against the hese tactics Vijayabahu's sister Mitta was ahu himself married the Kalingan princess olicy was thus directed to strengthening friendship with the enemies, actual and ranavitana 1961: 194)*

Page 78
In this lightwe shouldsee the numer Kalinga during the Polonnaru period. " complicated nature, as the Pandya kingd until the latter half of the twelfth centur neighbour of the Colas and their feudatc Cola expansion and had to take measures
If we consider the relations between understand the difference in attitude of th turn of the millennium. We have alread relations are of such a vague nature that doubt is, however, out of place for these get names and further details. As the Sin relationship with Kalinga during the Polo the roots of this relationship back to a n been popular traditions about Vijaya and brief mention of Kalinga as the countr consortofalion, the latter country is note And,although Mahasena is said to have se the Tooth Relic to the Island, the Maha event, at least does not mention a word al The arrival of the Relic from Kalinga (bu in the first continuation of the Great Chr of Parakramabahu I.
When considering these facts one g on relations with Kalinga, both dynastic period when it was considered politically country which occupied a similar positio) As in such cases it is always important ti inspired by a recent development but ever-leasting link between Sri Lanka and during the Polonnaruperiod when them Yet, the Sinhalese never seem to have t to rely on Sri Lankan sources on the hist almost nothing on this important and cu

us references to relations with especially hoes with the Pandyas were of a more . m had become a feudatory of the Colas . Kalinga, however, being the northern lies, the Eastern Calukyas, faced further to be able to resist.
Sri Lanka and Kalinga in this light we can e Sri Lankan sources before and after the y seen that the older references to these one any doubt of their authenticity. Such relations after about A.D.1000, when we halese attached great importance to their nnaru period, they naturally tried to trace luch remoter past. There may well have labout the Tooth Relic but, apart from a y of origin of Vijaya's grandmother, the ven mentioned in the original Mahavamsa. :nt a delegation to Kalinga in order to take vamsa seems to ignore such an important bout it in the account of Mahasena's reign. t without any further details) is mentioned onicle completed, probably, after the reign
ets the clear impression that the emphasis and religious, belongs to the Polonnaru expedient to promote the relations with a vis-a-vis the Colas as they did themselves. point out that the relation was not solely was rooted in the past, the myth of the Kalinga served a useful purpose, especially mory of the Cola occupation was still fresh. ken any real interest in Kalinga; if we had bry and culture of Kalinga, we would know
urally rich part of the subcontinent, which
7

Page 79
contributed very much to the developm almost written "to Hindu art and archite represented in the still extant monument course, for the imposing triad of Ratnagir seem to have been well beyond the K. historical sources of this Island.
One cannot, of course, exclude monuments will be discovered in what is I Pradesh (Visakhapatnam district), but th long as this is not the case, it seems prope: Sri Lanka and Kalinga as a myth used as a Sri Lanka - on the same level as that oft convincingly argued by R.A.L.H. Gunawa
ገ2 ̇

nt of Indian art and architecture. I had ture', for Buddhist culture is not strongly , iconography, and epigraphy - except, of Udayagiri and Lalitagiri, which curiously linga mentioned time and again in the
the possibility that truly great Buddhist ow southern Orissa and northern Andhra 2 chance of this happening is remote. As to regard the close relationship between political charter' inancient and medieval he "Kinsmen of the Buddha', as has been rdana.

Page 80
NOTES
/ 1. viz. Amaradipa. It has been stated that "owing to the geograp
to the south of the Asian Mainland, the island has been identifi
Religious Archi in Earty and Medieval Sri Lanka. Propos
2. RALH Gunawardana, The Kinsmen of the Buddha. Myth
Lanka', The Sri Lankan Journal of the Humanitics, I. No 1. Pe
3. Herath, "History of the Tooth Relic, Unpublished Ph.D. The
4. Cy XLV:38-82 and LVII:4-76.
i
5. Mv.XVIII: 1-85.
|
6. See the references in Malalasekara, G.P., Dictionary of Pali Pro
7. Thus, the Bodhi Tree is discussed in an entire chapter (My
devoted to the Alms-Bowl and the right Collar-bone, and the m
8. See Ann. Rep. Arch. Dept., Southern Circle, Madras 1919-2
Other Buddhist Remains in Salihundam', Ep. IndXXVIII, 194
Andhra Pradesh’, Andhra Pradesh Govt. Arch. Ser. No. 7. Hy
1971: 221-2.
9. Masthanaiah, B.TheTemples of Mukhalingam, New Delhi 19
:See Rajaguru, SriSatyanarayan, Inscriptions of Orissa Vol.II, E A, "Le site de la Dhanyakataka de Hiuan Tsang 9 Arts Asiatiqu
10. Basham, A.L. "Prince Vijaya and the Aryanization of Ceylc
Martino de Zilva, “Polonnaruva: "Galpota Slab-Inscription",
| aranavitana Felicitation Volume: 263-92.
11. See note 8 above. There are a few other interesting sites it
which have still been insufficiently studid. Sankaram, in Partic

hical and economic importance of Sri Lanka as an extension
ed by more than 70 names during its history.' (Roland Silva,
ition No.4).
as Political Charter in Early and Medieval Kingdoms of Sri
adeniya 1976: 53-62.
sis, University of London.
perNames-II, London1937-38s.v. Khema and Brahmadatta.
XV111: 1-68), while the preceding chapter (XVI) is entirely
iracles performed by these relics.
0:34-8, fig. 1-4; Ramachandran, TN, "An Inscribed Pot and
9:133-7, Subrahmanian, R., 'Salihundam', a Buddhist Site in
jerabad 1964; Mitra, Dabala Buddhist Monuments, Calcutta
8:3;othesr, however, preferasitenear Srikakulam (Chicacole) hubaneswar 1960:339 f. (following R. Subbarao) and Bareau,
es XII, 1965: 21-52.
n", Cey. Histoun, 1952: 163-71; Wickremasinghe, Don
Ep. Zay II, 1928: 123; Mendis G.C., The Vijaya Legend',
the neighbourhood, especially Sankaram and Ramatirtham,
lar, has yielded materials dating from the Satavahana period
73

Page 81
and also much later (upto the ninth century). From the r
Plates 135 f.) there is nothing suggesting a relation with D.
12. Ramachandran 1949:37 and fig. 3 (A).
13 The script of the inscription seems contemporary w
(Ramachandran: 135: early part of the second century All
14. Levi, Sylvain, "Pour 1'histoire du Ramayana', Journ.-A.
15. See e.g. Rajaguru 11 : Nos. 2, 12, 39, 41. Dantapura is Saivites till the 12th century, when Vaisnavism became the
16. There are actually five syllables missing in all the man
metre and yields good sense, it remains conjectural. The ki
17. The ‘double” use of vamse of pada di seems ungrammati
18. Thus, Simhapura was one of the capitals of the Mathari precise site is unknown, but all the inscriptions issued from the Srikakulam area. After the sixth century, however, it v
residence of tributary chiefs (Rajaguru 1960:228).
19. This is the same Galpota Slab-Inscription mentioned in
20. Cf. again the inscription mentioned in note 10.
21. Rajaguru, S.N., and Tripathy, Srimati Snigdha, Inscript
22. There is still no detailed study about these great Buddhi descriptions in the official reports and in works such as Det
of the monuments is older than about the 8th century A.D.
23. The name of "Kalinga' can be used in its precise menaing
14,

aterials at present available (see Debala Mitra 1971 : 218-22 and
ntapura.
th that of the inscribed pot, which mentions a Kattaharama い)
a XI Serie : 1-160.
especially associated with the Eastern Gangas, whose kings were stablished religion of the dynasty.
uscripts. Although Geiger's reconstitution is in keeping with the
ng could have come from Kamboja or from elsewhere.
cal.
as (5th-6th century); see Rajaguru 1958Vol. 1, Partii:59-62. Its Simhapura seem to belong to the Vamsadharavalley, in particular
was no longer a royal residence although the Gangas kept it as a
note 10 above.
ons of Orissa. Vols. I-VI, 1958-74.
st monuments available. We have to rely on the photographs and ala Mitra's Buddhist Monuments. It is, however, clear that none
ind most are considerably later.
of approximately the present districts of Srikakulam and Ganjam

Page 82
or in a wider meaning, including also the present state of Ol the Asokan inscriptions extended northwardstoat least thear
I am using Kalinga in its narrow meaning
24. This excellent idea is, however, followed by a misguided peninsula, based on Paranavitana's idea of the location of history of Sri Lanka. Curiously, the Index of the Concise Hi Kalinga (Malayasia) with many more references.

sa up to the Mahanadi delta. It is well-known that Kalinga in of modern Bhubaneswar(Dhauli). To avoid misunderstanding
reference to the empire of Srivijaya in Sumatra and the Malay alinga as mentioned in (some of) the historical sources of the tory of Ceylon first gives Kalinga (India) with four, followed by
75

Page 83


Page 84
SOME DEOLOGICAL AS
BRAHMI INSCRIPT
B
M. M. E.
"The early Brahmi rock inscriptions" is a of the beginning of spread of Buddhism marked out for the present study.
1. Inscriptions in which only the
2. Inscriptions in which the rig claimed.
3. Inscriptions telling about dona Buddhist sangha.
The aim of the study is to describe inscriptions. The inscriptions are conside religious.
The inscriptions appeared in the hi disproportion between "ecology" and alienation between individual and soc property and social status of an individu
Rock cave served as a house for the In the situation of relative overpopulat living became actualised. The house individual's body to the category of ano The writing of individual's name on a marking his property right on it. A mo belonged to a certain person developed
The alienation from the society b

ECTS OF THE EARLY ONS OF LANKA
lkanidze
important historical source on the period in Lanka. Some groups of them have been
name of a person is mentioned.
ht of ownership of a person on a cave is
tion of a cave belonging to a person to the
the pragmatic nature of each group of the red from two aspects: socio-economic and
storical period of the Lankan society when demography' caused social tension, and iety. The problem of preserving wealth, al came in the foreground.
people of the Island from he earliest times. on in the society the problem of place for
turned from the category of a part of bject of property which could be alienated. rock-cave could be a primitive manner of re complete formula telling that the cave later.
rought individual to the extreme forms of

Page 85
religious behaviour. In the situation sacrification the category of sacrifice w objects which traditionally could not be of individual's body. Sacrification turn religious paradigm became formal. Wi through the texts which were especia objectification of sacrificial objects in th texts had purely nominative character meaning in the cosmoligical model oft Island'. In this context the writing of in of his self-objectification as a sacrific mountain, an act of worshipping it.
The donation of a cave to the E self-sacrifice, because the house was no property: e.g., in the "Samyuktaratnapita sacrifices which a person with no wealth
Donations of rock-caves to the Budc traditional religious cult, its individuali members of different social strata), t (Buddhism) in the society, and subordin OC.
78

f relative lack of wealth for traditional is shifted from objects of property to the lienated because were considered as parts d into self sacrification. The traditional h it, self-sacrification began to be made lly created for this purpose. The mere e texts acquired religious meaning. Some The mountain, the rock had religious he early indo-european population of the lividual's name on a rock could be a form e to the traditional religious cult of the
uddhist sangha was also an act of man's t considered in buddhism as an object of kasutra" the house is mentioned as one of can make.
ihist sangha indicated the formalisation of sation (the votive inscriptions belong to he appearance of a new religious cult ation of the old religious cult to the new

Page 86
REFERENCES
1 Obeyesekere G. Land Tenure in Village Ceylon. Cambridge
2 See eg, Gamkrelidze Th.V., IvanovVyach. Vs. Indo-europe I, pp. 665-669.
3 Ucheniye Buddhy (The Doctrine of Buddha (in Russian)]. Ti

1967, p:59.
n and the Indo-europeans (in Russian). Tbilisi, 1984, wol.
kyo, 1985, p.170.
79

Page 87


Page 88
THE CRAFTSMAN AS ARTISTAND I
SRI ]
Two Lamps with Hydrostaticall
B
R.A.L.H. Gu
"The important part which craftsmen, mo played in world's history... is not generally the craftsman's intellectual influence, bei was at least as great as that of the priestar
E.B. Havell in Indian Sculpture and Pain
It is not often that historians of chronological contexts for the study of tec respect, the archaeological excavations car at the Kotavehera, the stupa with an unfir noteworthy. These excavations brought to are remarkable for the light they shed onc Lanka. In the early 1930s H.W. Codringto that this stupa should be identified with Parakramabahu I (A.D. 1153-1186) to -m Punkhagama where he had been born published together with Codrington's no from this stupa were very similar to tho Polonnaruva erected by Parakramabahu I have demonstrated that the term Punkhaga name Datigama, a variant form of Dad palaeographic characteristics of an inscrip the stupa also supports Codrington's ident assume that the objects recovered from thi to the time of Parakramabahu I, if not to
When the first inner chamber of ti lamps of exquisite workmanship were am
8 S.P.C. 90683

N NOVATOR IN EARLYMEDIEVAL LANKA y Controlled Oil Reservoirs
у
nawardana
ire particularly Oriental craftsmen, have realized by bookmen. In medieval times ng creative and not merely assimilative, ld the bookman."
ting
Sri Lanka find material from reliable hnology in precolonial times, and, in this ried out between the years 1951 and 1955 lished appearance at Dadigama are most light several objects and structures which rafts and technology in early medieval Sri hhad suggested with characteristic insight
the Sutigharacetiya which was built by ark the site of the "maternity home") at 2) In his "Archaeological Summaries" te, A.M. Hocart pointed out that bricks se from the Lankatilaka image-house at 3) Valivitiye Sorata and S. Paranavitana ama is a translation into Pali of the Sinhala igama') Evidence from coins and the tion found within the inner chambers of ification) Hence it seems reasonable to e inner chambers of the stupa are datable an earlier chronological context.
he stupa was opened on 2 July 1951, two ong the objects found within it. Lamp I
81

Page 89
(Pls.1,2 and 3) was in a better state of
before long, the late A. Devapura had c devices workedo) By 8 August 1951 th "with temporary substitutions here and it worked. A description of the findwa the Archaeoloigcal Survey.") A polemi questioned the claim made in the press the only paper exclusively devoted to th does not add to the description presente of the Archaeological Survey for the passing reference to the lamps and state would be given later in a separate put research in Sri Lanka, published in the A for the period 1948-53, Paranavitana pr reiterated his view that they did represe However, in Godakumbura's Memoir o probably the "separate publication" he received surprisingly limited attentio paragraph.")
Ever since the archaeological mus two lamps have formed part of the coll restored to working order, it received scholars. The second lamp has not recei Shanmuganathan appears to have assum two lamps, Lamp II reveals the ravages of exhibited in the state it was found till v Archaeological Laboratory in Colombo certain respects Lamp II is more useful to The damage inflicted by time has laid b used in its production.
In their dimensions as well as the are almost identical, and it is in minor ( from each other. It seems most likely th craftsman. Each lamp has two basic part
82

reservation. It was carefully cleaned and, scoveret the manner in which its hydraulic lamp had been brought to Colombo and, here," it was possible to demonstrate how first presented in a press release issued by al essay by S. Shanmuganathan in which he release that the lamp was a unique find is subject of the lamp published so far, but it in the press release.) In the annual report ear 1951 C.E. Godakumbura made only l that a complete description of these finds lication‘) In a review of archaeological nnual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology esented more details about the lamps and nt a "unique" archaeological discovery.") in the excavations at Dadigama, which was ralded in the Annual Report, the lamps h and are in fact dismissed in a single
eum at Dadigama was opened in 1954, the :ction exhibited there. Since Lamp I was the attention of both the public and the ved the attention it deserves, and, in fact, d that there was only one lamp.') Of the time to a much greater extent. It has been ery recently when it was removed to the or cleaning. As will be evident later on, in the student of early medieval technology. ure valuable information on the methods
technology they represent the two lamps stails like ornamentation that they differ t both lamps were produced by the same i.the figure of an elephant which forms a

Page 90
LE
"I
 
 
 

Page 91
reservoir for oil and ii.the base of the la which could be used to hang the lamp. T of the tusked variety (See Pls.2 and 3). 1 in his trunk. There are two turns of chai the abdomen while yet another rope, th side. Lamp I has two riders on the eleph long hair is gathered in a knot at the bac the ear ornaments and the necklaces. ornaments and two necklaces - one which necklace which extends up to about the ab physical proportions, carries an ankusa ( controlling elephants, in his left hand. T with the rider, it measures about 16 cm. has only one rider who is represented pricking it on the forehead with the sh slightly backwards reflecting the physica differs from that in Lamp I with regar decorative band on its forehead and its tal while the elephant figure in Lamp I ha represented as Swinging to the right
deliberately introduced to give an elemei in all other respects they are quite simi Lamp II can be easily mounted on the ba
The base of Lamp II is in too ad measurements, but it seems likely that th The base of Lamp I (Fig.1, i&ii) measure It has a circular receptacle for oil, 17.5 cm flat border, about 2 cm. in width and sc beading which was probably meant fort In the centre of the receptacle is a circu the figure of the elephant is mounted. T fastened with two strips of metal onto ap) i&iii). There are two slots on this plate. of the plate and is meant to receive the inside the body of the esephant. There ís
84

mp with its makara-torana, and the chain he elephants are well-executed specimens Each elephant carries a stick of sugar-cane n around the neck. A rope is tied around own over the back, carries a bell on each ant. Both riders wear loincloths, and their . Their upper bodies are bare, except for
Each rider wears large ring-type ear is worn close around the neck and alonger domen. The rider infront, who is of larger Sinhalahenduva), the instrument used for he elephant figure is 14 cm. in length and, in height. The elephant figure in Lamp II is attempting to restrain the elephant by arp point of the ankusa. His body leans strain of his effort. This elephant figure d to two other details as well. It has a lis represented as swinging to the left side is no such forehead band and its tail is side. Clearly these features had been nt of individuality to each lamp. However, lar and, in fact, the elephant figure from se of Lamp I.
vanced a state of decay to yield accurate e two bases were identical in appearance, 9.5 cm. in height and 22.5 cm. in diameter. h. in diameter. Around the receptacle is a parated from the receptacle by a raised le lighted ends of the wicks to rest upon. ar platform, 9 cm. in diameter, on which his platform is formed of a bronze plate otrusion rising from the receptacle (Fig.1, The larger of these is located in the centre oil when it is released from the reservoir hollow tube which protrudes downward

Page 92


Page 93
for about 0.5 cm. from the sole of the rig slot on the platform is meant to receive above the level of oil in the receptacle w the elephant extends downward through the receptacle is filled to capacity.
The makara-torana is fixed on h On either side of the torana is a figure ( and the arch of the torana which is deco as emerging from the mouths of the twc torana is slightly less than 19 cm. The slides into a notch cut into the rider's ( This arrangement keeps the movable pa can be swung back to permit the remova on the base of the lamp (See Pl.2).
Extending from the top of the mak It is 106 cm. long and is relieved at 20 danseuse, a cymbal-player anda drumme torana. At the end of the chain is a hook plain hook just above the figure of the cy shorter length of chain was required to ha chain is that of the danseuse and it is ab large knot of hair tied at the back, on th with full and prominent breasts is bare wound around the neck and then downwa where the end meet aband stretching dow that the danseuse is wearing ring-type ea Pl. 4). The lower part of her body is co knees but well above the ankles, and its her legs as she dances. Her left annis SWII. while her right hand adopts the katakam The heel of her left foot is slightly raised touch of movement and rhythm to the co
The figure of the male cymbal-pla
86

tforeleg of each elephant, and the smaller this tube. The surface of the platform is hile the hollow tube in the right foreleg of this slot and reaches the level of oil when
inges to the sides of the central platform. f a rearing lion which supports a makara, ated with the "flame" motif is represented makara figures. The total height of the op of its arch, when swung into position, he rider in front in Lamp I) knot of hair. rts of the ensemble in place; and the arch of the elephant figure from the platform
ara-torana is a chain for hanging the lamp. cm. intervals by three human figures: a 2r, in that order, starting from the makara in the shape of a cobra. There is another "mbal-player, evidently to be used when a ang the lamp. The lowermost figure in the out 7.5 cm. in height. She has a strikingly 2 right side of her head. Her upper body xcept for a "string ornament" which was rd between the breasts and across the back nward form the neck. One can also detect ornaments, arm-bands and bangles (See ered by a dress which extends below the elaborately arranged folds hang between gacross herbody in the gajahasta mudra idra. Both her legs are bent at the knees.
above the ground, and this adds a further
mposition.
ver, which is next, measures slightly less

Page 94

87

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than 7.5 cm. in height. Like the elephant ear ornaments and two necklaces, and hi in a knot at the back, but more on to the which is 7 cm. in height, is of a male who cord thrown over his left shoulder. As in 1 cover his upper body. He wears ashort lo craftsman has executed this figure in a m The drummer's hair-knot has been placec one necklace which is worn close around he also wears bangles. The figures of botl portrayed with their legs bent at the knee as in the case of the danseuse. Thus the exuberantly keeping time with their feeti
The craftsman has made a deli ornamentation, to endow each of his t execution of the figures of the elephants a a remarkable aesthetic sense. He appear monotonous repetition of details while in ( certain details to convey a specific messa been deftly executed and infused with vi above, with a sense of rhythmic moveme will be seen later, the amusing manner in lamp was made to operate reveals that th accomplished artist, also a man with an in
Godakumbura remarked that it w between the lamps from Dadigama and a been variously identified as a lamp, a cens the discovery of this object was in the Pa people, in the upper reaches of the ri monasteries which reveal the influence ( have been discovered in this area. A g Gunungtua, the major urban centre i representation of the Bodhisattva Lok inscription on the pedestal dates the manu
88

ders, he wears ashort loincloth, ring-type upper body is left bare. His hair is tied right side of the head. The third figure, plays a damaru-type drum, hung from a he case of the other figures, no vestments incloth and ring-type ear ornaments. The anner which emphasizes its individuality. more to the left of his head. He has only the neck and, unlike the cymbal-player, the cymbal-player and the drummer are s and the left heels raised off the ground y appear to be either dancing or at least nunison with the danseuse.
berate attempt, through clever use of wo lamps with an individuality. In the nd the attendant figurines, he has evinced s to have been generally careful to avoid certain instances he deliberately repeated ge. His figurines of the musicians have gour, grace, joie de vivre and, as noted nt through the repetition of a detail. As which the controlling mechanism of the e craftsman was, in addition to being an npish sense of humour.
as possible to detect certain similarities object discovered in Sumatra which has ær and a dish for offerings.”) The site of lang Lawas area, the home of the Batak yer Aek Barumun. Ruins of Buddhist f the teachings of the Vajrayana school roup of Buddhist figurines, found near in the area, has been identified as a anatha attended by his consorts. An facture of these figurines in the eleventh

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century A.D.') Attached to the unidentil above was a chain decorated with figuri decorations on the chain found at Dadiga the chain of the Sumatran object as follo
"Very interesting are the fine bro chain. All three are in a dancing latter bear amoustache and a bro; covering the hips, bracelets aroul curings, joined together by mean hand drum (damaru), which han shoulder-belt.The lowermostfi
high headdress is remarkable.")
Thus it appears that the object fol Dadigama shared the same "idiom" of ( object also bears a certain similarity to t drummer, the cymbal-player and the dan However, as far as the present writer is a from Dadigama and Padang Lawas h contemporary South or Southeast Asian found in Rajasthan which has six decora has dated it in the seventeenth century." Dadigama share certain common featur important elements of the Dadigama makara-torana, are not found in the obj was indeed a lamp, it certainly did not ha which, as will be seen, forms an impor Dadigama.
It is clear that a good deal of production of the two lamps from Dadiga manufacture is another aspect which ( operations in the production process (soldering or welding), are noteworthy figure in Lamp I reveals that certain par

ied objectfrom Padang Lawasmentioned les in a manner quite reminiscent of the ma. Van Erp has described the figures on WS :
nze figurines which are introduced in the attitude, the upper two being male. The ad, round beard and wear a short garment ld the wrists and a pair of cymbals called s of a cord. The second figure strikes a gs from the left shoulder by means of a ure represents a female dancer; her broad,
Ind in Padang Lawas and the lamp from ornamentation. In profile, the Sumatran he base of the lamp from Dadigama. The cer are common motifs in South Asian art. ware, an object coriparable with the finds as not been reported from any other context. D.G. Kelkar has reported a lamp tive figures of musicians on its chain. He ) While the finds from Padang Lawas and es, it is also noteworthy that some of the lamps, like the elephant-figure and the ect from Padang Lawas. And, if the latter fe a hydrostatically controlled oil reservoir tant element of each of the lamps from
forethought and planning went into the ma. The complex process adopted in their eserves close attention. Of the various two in particular, casting and joining
A careful examination of the elephant 's had been fashioned separately and then
89

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Fig
90,
 

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joined together. Below the figures of th detect traces of the alloy used for soldering through which oil was released from the also been fashioned separately. On clos before this part was soldered on, a strip ( size of the tapering passage inside the gen over the outflow of oil from the reservoir cleaned, one of the riders and the part rep become detached and had to be welded t elephant houses a tapering tube and, as c 50 mm. downward from the sole of the f hollow when the elephant figure was cast foot, together with its tube, was joined to heating the two parts and welding them t assumed that the other legs of the elephal necessary to resort to radiographic exam seems justifiable to suggest on the basis. were hollow when the elephant figures subsequently covered with the plates whic the feet of the elephant in Lamp I beari such a method of production had been use in Lamp II, the sole of the right rear foot lost. Since it is perfectly clear that both t hollow, it seems most likely that our assur are correct (See Pl.5).
The art of soldering was known to times and it is possible to form an ide description given by Ananda Coomaraswa in his Medieval Sinhalese Art:
"...the work to be soldered is plac and heated through, instead of dire solders are used, melting more or disturbed are also covered with chinapaste) before the object is

2 riders on the elephant, it is possible to gthem. The genital organ of the elephant, reservoir onto the receptacle below, had e examination, it becomes evident that, of metal had been inserted to reduce the itals and to ensure thereby better control (Fig.2iv). In fact, when Lamp I was being resenting the genitals of the elephant had back in place.' ) The right foreleg of the lescribed earlier, this tube extends about Oot. It is clear that the right foreleg was and that the plate forming the sole of the it either by soldering it with an alloy or by ogether. Godakumbura appears to have nt figure were solid.") Though it may be ination to ascertain the exact position, it of visible characteristics that all the legs were cast and that the openings were h form the soles of the feet. The soles of hdications pointing to the possibility that 'd while, in the case of the elephant figure had become detached. This plate is now he right foreleg and the right rear leg are mptions about the methods of production
craftsmen of Sri Lanka in late medieval :a about this technique from the short my in the section on Kandyan metalwork
ed on the fire and covered with charcoal :cting aflame to one part alone. Different less rapidly; and parts which must not be a resistant preparation (powdered aid in the fire. The loose pieces to be
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soldered are kept in place by a sticky p: τουgh stone.")
Spectroscopic or chemical analysis nature of the alloy used in soldering as composition of the metal used in the pro
The use of moulds for the production in Sri Lanka to about the second centul Laksmi plaques dated in this period were Similarly, certain parts of the lamp such figures were probably produced by the cil elephant figures presented a rather comp inner chambers which were meant to ser castinghollow (susira) objects was previo very commonly used. The earliest knowr Buddha image found in the Badulla Distr height is now in the collection at Coomaraswany dated it in the sixth cen eighth century. 2) In a more recent stud should be dated in the seventh or the e. Buddha figure from the National Muse group and assigns it to the eighth-ninth Kandyan craftsmen were casting hollov description of their technique Coomara moulds made of fireproof clay obtained f
Some of the details noted in the pre to attempt to reconstruct the methods use in the lamps from Dadigama. It has all hollow. Evidently, there was another ci where the part representing the genital Hence, in all, there were five openings elephant. The first of the several distinct craftsman probably started with a core of the abdomen or the oil reservoir and ther
92

ste of olinda”) seed rubbed down on a
should prove useful for ascertaining the well as to extract information about the duction of the lamps from Dadigama.
1 of solid metal objects can be traced back y A.D. and it is likely that the so-called : produced by the cire perdue method.') as the base, the torana and the human reperdue method. The production of the blicated technical problem since they had ve as reservoirs for oil. The technique of usly known in Sri Lanka though it was not example of the use of this technique is a ict. This image which measures 53 cm. in the National Museum in Colombo. tury while Barrett has assigned it to the ly P.S.P. Gunaratna has suggested that it ighth century.’ ) She identified another lm collection as belonging to the susira centuries.) Several centuries later, the v objects as a routine practice. In his Swamy refers to their use of wax and of rOm ant hillso)
:ceding paragraphs are useful if one were din the production of the elephant figures eady been suggested that the legs were cular aperture, about 1 cm. in diameter, organ was later inserted to be soldered. into the cavity within the figure of the tages was the production of the core. The fireproof clay in the shape of the cavity of ladded to it five protrusions representing

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the cavities inside the four legs and the op five protrusions would have helped to kee inside the mould, but it is possible that, as were fixed on the sides of the core. The wax to cover the core and to model the
application offireproof clay to cover the v represented the third stage (See Fig.2, iii the wax had been drained, the mould v openings into the cavity would have fac casting had set. It is not possible to prov figures of the riders were cast separately riders would have been somewhat more
It will have been evident from pre lamps from Dadigama were products of skill of the sculptor but also that thei complicated techniques of casting and S which the lamps were designed to opera most. The reservoir inside the elephant are both filled with oil before the lamp receptacle recedes below a certain poin through the genitals of the elephant to 1 onlookers with the spectacle of a mictur the number ofwicks, itis possible to regu of the elephant. Evidently, the tube hous serves several purposes. It is through thi Since it extends to the top of the abdo prevents the oil inside the chamber from fig. 2,iv). Further, it controls the outfl elephant figure. As long as the orifice at through the slot in the base of the lamp, receptacle, no oil is released from the re. end of the tube is exposed, thereby allow the elephant, oil is released from this ( receptacle rises again to cover the orific that the craftsman had a thorough grasp

eningin the abdomen (See Fig.2i). These 'p the core of the abdominal cavity in place an additional precaution, a few metal pins second stage involved the application of figure of the elephant (See Fig.2,ii). The vax and to form the outer wall of the mould ). After it had been fired in a furnace and was ready for casting. The five different ilitated the removal of the core after the ide a clear answer to the question why the v. Casting the elephant together with the difficult but not impossible.
ceding observations not only that the two artistic merit reflecting the sensibility and r production involved the mastering of oldering. Perhaps it is in the manner in te that the craftsman reveals his ingenuity and the receptacle on the base of the lamp is lit. When the level of oil in the lower t, oil is released from the upper reservoir efill the lower receptacle, presenting the ating elephant. By adjusting the size and late the frequency of these "excretory acts" sed inside the right foreleg of the elephant stube that oil is poured into the chamber. minal cavity, it also acts as a trap which flowing out through the right foreleg (See ow of oil through the genital organ of the the outer end of the tube, which protrudes remains immersed in the oil in the lower servoir. As soon as the orifice at the lower ing ingress of air into the chamber inside chamber till the level of oil in the lower e at the lower end of the tube. It is clear of a basic principle of hydrostatics and, in
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producing this device, he has blended this of rustic humour. The lamps from Dadig widely in the medieval world-"cunning de of the court and the nobility. It is remarkab elapsed since they were manufactured, ti provoke the response intended by the cra 1951. "The lamp was successfully tested," the amusement of all witnesses.")
Lamps with hydrostatically contr certain other parts of South Asia. In his La which had " a siphonic arrangement." description of these lamps, it is evident fi lamps had a reservoir mounted above the The outflow of oil from the reservoir controlled. A close scrutiny of the illustr examples of this type of lamp.) Of these of birds: three figures of peacocks and ol Infact, one lamp has a reservoir in the sha are from two particular regions in the we from Rajasthan and the other three are fr dated in the seventeenth century while t eighteenth century. There is yet another reservoir to be found at the Madras Muse are in the British Museum collection. Th receptacle for wicks mounted on a threethe form of a peacock°) It bears a cert Gujarat which Kelkar has assigned to th added that the lamp from Madras is of 1 lamps in the British Museum collection a have been dated in the eighteenth centur a peacock with widespread wings 34) and shape of a hamsa,35) Two of the lamps h of them is said to be from the Deccan and, century has been suggested for it by the The locality of the origin of the other la
94

knowledge with artistic skill and a touch ama belong to a genre of product found vices"and"toys"made for the amusement ble that, despite the gap of many centuries he lamps from Dadigama did not fail to ftsman when they were demonstrated in states a report on this demonstration, "to
olled oil reservoirs were also known in amps of India, Kelkar refers to two lamps ) Though he does not give a detailed com the illustrations in his book that the receptacle where the wicks were placed. appears to have been hydrostatically ations suggests that there were five other ven lamps, six have reservoirs in the shape he each of parrotပူg:0း and hamsa. 9) pe of an elephant.) All the seven lamps astern part of the subcontinent: four are om Gujarat. Two of the lampshave been he other five have been assigned to the lamp with a hydrostatically controlled oil um while five more examples of this type e lamp from the Madras Museum has the legged stand, and its upper reservoir is in :ain similarity to the çacock lamp from e eighteenth century, 2) but it has to be more elegant workmanship. Two of the are said to be of South Indian origin and y) One has a reservoir in the shape of in the other lamp the reservoir is in the have reservoirs shaped like parrots. One a date in the eighteenth or the nineteenth compilers of the list of this collection') s mp is not known, and no date has been

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suggested for it.") Stylistically, the fifthl collection is very much different from th of a figure of Ganesa. Evidently, it is on lamp made by the British Museum and is dated.) Apart from the last example fr subcontinent reveal a pattern of confor of detail. In all these lamps, the control tube housed within the right foreleg of th placed centrally in the lower part of the outlet for oil is located in front of the sometimes rather rigidly adhered to, anc the diminution of aesthetic appeal. In th instance, the legs of the parrot have bee of realistic representation, in order to : Similarly, the appearance of the elephar the fact that the outlet for oil from th forelegs of the elephant while the co reservoir into the lower receptacle is loc
It will have been evident from hydrostatically controlledlamp was certa known at least in four other cultural r Gujarat, Rajasthan and Nepal. In his another type of lamp called the Kandyal "the lamp which does not need te] Shanmuganathan admitted, the manneri and it deserves to be studied separately." in this paper are from the northern parts of their datings, it seems unlikely tha southward expansion of the technolog noteworthy that the two lamps from Dad five to six centuries earlier than the othi reasonable to suppose that progress in been more likely to be associated with t particular, Sri Lanka where irrigation te development in precolonial South Asia.

amp in this category in the British Museum e other four. Its oil reservoir is in the form e of the earliest acquisitions of this type of said to be of Nepali origin. It has not been om Nepal, allother lamps from the Indian nity with a certain scheme of arrangement ling ingingdevice or the equivalent of the he elephant in the lamps from Dadigama is 2 figure of the bird or the beast while the figure. This scheme of arrangement was this resulted in the loss of naturalism and e case of the parrot-lamp from Gujarat, for in shifted to the rear, contrary to demands make room for the tube in the centre”) ht-lamp from the same region suffers from e reservoir has been placed between the ntrolling device which extends from the cated in the middle of the abdomen“)
the material presented above that the inly not limited to Sri Lanka and that it was egions in South Asia, namely, Tamilnad, essay Shanmuganathan drew attention to n lamp in Sri Lanka and the tundavilakku, inding," in South India. However, as in which this type of lamp works is different, 1) A good number of the lamps mentioned of South Asia. However, on consideration t this pattern of distribution points to a y necessary for their manufacture. It is igama appear to have been produced about r examples cited above. Further, it seems the knowledge of hydrostatics would have he southern regions like Tamilnad and, in 2chnology reached the highest levels of its
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The craftsman who manufactured
to the scheme of arranging the details w the men responsible for the production appears to have displayed a remarkable he located the controlling devices in hi naturalistic and aesthetically pleasing a his lamps. While all other lamps cited at device for hydrostatic control, the la understanding the craftsman possessedo area of the lower receptacle would deter form the upper reservoir and the duratio the surface, the greater would be the am longer the intervals between releases. It make as large a lower receptacle as was considerations. Had he not done so, th would have been quite different and less earliest examples of hydrostatically cont South Asia, on consideration of the ima they represent, the two lamps from Dadi type found in South Asia.
The two lamps from Dadigama rep is possible only under certain conditions They also represent the remarkable com restrictions and the division of labou accomplishments and skills as a remarka techniques of metallurgy and a sophistic hydrostatics. He has utilized his knowle humour, to produce objects which pla lamp-smiths but also some craftsmen of after him. This unknown craftsman deser
Lamps from Sri Lanka or Ilavilak South Indian inscriptions from the C Tiruvanamallur, dated in the twenty-eig 934), mentions the donation of a Sri Lanl
96

he lamps from Dadigama did not conform ich was ratherrigidly followed by some of of the other lamps cited above. In fact, he ingenuity and imagination in the manner lamps. He also succeeded in producing imal figures for use as reservoirs for oil in ove evidently incorporated the same basic mps from Dadigama further reflect the the fact that the proportions of the surface nine the amount offluid released at a time of intervals between such releases. Larger unt of fluid released on each occasion and was this understanding which led him to convenient and permissible on aesthetic 2 visual effect of the working of the lamp impressive. Thus, in addition to being the rolled lamps known at present, at least in ginative conception and skillful execution gama are noteworthy among lamps of this
resent that union of art and labour which and in certain periods of human history. bination within the craftsman, despite the r imposed by caste, of such disparate »leaestheticsense, amasterlygrasp of the ited awareness of some basic principles of dge and skills, adding to them a touch of e him ahead of not only contemporary this category who came several centuries restobe describedas a manofrare genius.
ku as they were called are mentioned in la period. An epigraphic record from nth regnal year of Parantaka I (ca. A. D. an lamp to a Hindu temple.') In another

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inscription, dated in the ninth regnal year a shrine in Tirukovalur records the dona purchased for two kasu.*) The kasu was equivalent to half a kalanju in value and t would have been about 4.7 to 5.2 grams." yet another record dated in the twenty-f 1008), found at the Uttarakailasa shrin mentioned together with two other ki (Malaiyan-ceyal-vilakkg) and lamp (Coliyacciyal-vilakku)." ) It is not clearw Kerala or a Southeast Asian region. Ho that a certain type of lamp was being .m. early as in the tenth century. This v Parakramabahu I, the period to which assigned. Evidently, this practice of impo least up to the reign of Rajaraja I. Unl inscriptions is too meagre to enable one t appeal or the technological characteristi Lankan lamps in South India.
The principle of hydrostatic control i is comparable with that of "constantPneumatica. Sarton has assigned Philon's century B.C.) The only known Latin ve the Arabic translation which has to be ut Philon's views.") The Pneumatica pri designed to maintain the fluid in an ope) being replaced by the inflow from a bigg from the bigger container is regulated by fluid in the open container rises to the re Philon states in explanation,
"that the flow stops when the cont is in the wine and nothing can flow
(the siphon) does not let in air in a and the siphonuncovered, thenth
9 S.P.C. 90683

of Rajaraja I (ca. A. D.993), a patron of tion of a Sri Lankan lamp which he had a standard gold coin in the Cola kingdom hus the amount of gold paid for the lamp ) It was a fairly high price for a lamp. In Durth regnal year of Rajaraja I (ca. A.D. 2 at Tiruvaiyaru, Sri Lankan lamps are inds of lamps: lamps made in Malaya produced in the Cola land hether Malaya in this inscription denotes wever, these inscriptions clearly indicate ported from Sri Lanka to South India as was two centuries before the time of
the lamps from Dadigama have been orting lamps from Sri Lanka continued at fortunately, the information in the Cola o ascertain whether it was their aesthetic ics which had created a demand for Sri
lcorporated in the lamps from Dadigama level containers" outlined in Philon's work to the second decade of the second ‘rsion of the text is fragmentary, and it is ilized by students seeking to understand esents a description of an experiment n container at a "constant level," any loss ar, sealed container. The release of fluid an air-inlet pipe which is closed when the quired level. "And we must understand,"
ainer is full because the end of the siphon from it (the bigger container) because it
ny place. But if some of the wine is taken * flow takes place to the extent of the wine
ርእማ

Page 105
taken because the air gets into the sipl have described belong to the sort with ( a bath or a lavatory or a lamp; the metl
Heron of Alexandria, who ha Christian era *) also speaks of devices lamps at a "constant level." Heron's lam one outlined by Philon. It was fed wit poured into the storage container placec in, it will replace the oil from below, so t the other pipe.') Heron was thinking and he seems to have believed that wat the bottom of the container, thereby di the other pipe. Heron was not describi he did not examine the practical proble the pipes in such a manner as to prevent regard, Philon's description appears to b application.
It was not always that invention Philon, Ktesibios and Heron developed; on paper. As A. G. Drachmann observes broadcast; but unless the invention founc of the lamps from Classical times found discovered near the Baths of Julian at skillo) However, no hydrostatically r Heron have been reported among the 1 the Mediterranean region. The golden l of Athena on the Acropolis at Ather literature. Tradition held that it was the century B.C. Plutarch states that it v Pausanias, once filled with oil it burne capacity of the lamp and the slow-burnin special devices in it, which attracted the probably the forerunner of the medie mounted on a buoy.
98

on ... And the three experiments which we instant water level; use them as you will for od is the same.")
been assigned to the first century of the capable of maintaining fluids in bowls and was based on a concept different from the oil in proportion to the amount of water above the lampproper: "If water is poured hat the lamp is filled with oil rising through )f a sealed container with two pipes on top, er poured through one pipe would sink to placing the oil and making it flow through ng a lamp that had in fact been made, and ns involved in producing the container and the outflow of oil from both pipes. In this e more instructive and capable of practical
is of such fertile Mediterranean minds as further than the stage of a mere suggestion l, these inventors"strewed their inventions lafertile soil, it could not thrive." 1) Some in Europe, like the bronze hanging lamp Paris, are products of exceptional artistic 2gulated lamps of the type suggested by ich and numerous archaeological finds in mp which burned day and night at the altar s received special attention in classical work of Callimachus who lived in the fifth as tended by widows*) According to
for one whole year.) It was the large characteristics of its wick, rather than any ttention of those who saw the lamp. It was al European lamp with its floating wick

Page 106
In his Naturalis Historia Pliny Lanka at the court of the Roman emperor century, several emporia which attracted in this island, and Cosmas Indicopleustes "the greatest in those parts.') Comme provided adequate opportunities for t evidently among the items of trade brough Asia. Literary evidence points to the use at an early time. The Sangam work conditions in the times of the early Pandy, craftsmanship being in use within the pal
...there burns A lamp with a statue of artistic work Whose hands support a vessel full of oil By Yavanas made. The thick wick brightl With high red-coloured flame. From tim It's trimmed to rid the hall of widespread
Though the text does not clearly refe to mind the type of lamp known as the La denote people of western origin including It seems very likely that men of technic demand and found employment in anci Cudamani-nikantu, probably points to s synonym for kannalar which means "smi
Early Sri Lankan literary sources co a most interesting object relevant to the during the excavations conducted at Anuradhapura under the auspices of th pottery vessel of foreign workmanship amphorae, but it has only one handle anc An unusual and noteworthy feature abou on its handle. Liquid in the vessel can

mentions the arrival of envoys from Sri Claudius (10B.C.-A.D.9)**) By the sixth merchants from many lands were located who lived at this time speaks of them as cial and diplomatic relations would have he transmission of ideas. Lamps were it from the Mediterranean region to South of lamps of Roman make in South India Nedunalvadai, which probably reflects as, makes a reference to a lamp of Yavana
aCC
y burns e to time
gloomio)
rto a female figure, the description recalls ksmidvipa. The term Yavana was used to ; Greeks, Romans, Persians and Arabs.) al ability from the western lands were in ent South India. The old Tamil lexicon, uch a situation when it citesyavanar as a th" or "artificero)
ntain no references to the lamp trade, but discussion was discovered some years ago the site of the Jetavana monastery at e Cultural Triangle Project (Pl. 6). It is a the shape of which is reminiscent of the lis perhaps best described as an oinochoe. t this vessel is that there is a small aperture be poured out when this aperture is kept
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OO
 

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uncovered, but if one were to place one' outflow ceases“) The potter who manu same principle of hydrostatics on whichth was based. The Jetavana vessel is decoral relief on the shoulder and a swastika on left-pointing as well as the right-pointin motifs used on amphorae in the Medi periodo") The vessel belongs to a period monastery in the latter part of the third c. the third and sixth centuries has been su found at the same site.*) The vessel we h from the Mediterranean region or a p) incorporating concepts and styles which region. It is certainly one of the earliest principles of hydrostatics that Philon trie trade in ingenious objects helped the spri Mediterranean world to South Asian lan and Byzantine peoples who maintained Lanka, Persians and Arabs played an imp between Sri Lanka and the west. It is like another factor which helped the trans. Hellenistic writings in South Asia. From arrival of the Portuguese in the sixtee important and, at times, the dominant e Lanka. And, by the time these lamps fro as Philon's Pneumatica had been translat
A certain fascination for automata in South Asian writings of medie Siddhantasiromani of Bhaskara (ca. A.I. work probably written several centuri construction of perpetua mobilia.“) The devices can be traced back to the time of is also important to note that the sophist was at the peak of its development at th Technologists of those times could draw
10 S.P.C. 90683

S thumb on it and close the aperture, the factured this vessel had incorporated the efunctioning of the lamps from Dadigama ed with a vine-like plant depicted in bold the side. As Folsom has pointed out, the g swastikas were well-known among the terranean area for a considerably long later than the foundation of the Jetavana entury A.D. A date in the period between iggested for another jar of foreign origin ave cited may have been either an object roduct turned out in Southwestern Asia had their origin in the Mediterranean examples showing the application of the d to describe. Thus it would seem that the ead of important scientific ideas from the ds like Sri Lanka. Apart from the Roman trade and diplomatic contacts with Sri portant part as intermediaries in the trade ly that the role of such intermediaries was mission of the influence of Greek and about the eighth century till at least the nth century, the Arabs represented an lement among the foreign traders in Sri m Dadigama were produced, such works ed into their language.
and devices for remote control is evident val as well as ancient times. The ). 1150) as well as the Suryasiddhanta, a es earlier, contain instructions for the bent for speculation onsuch "ingenious" the stories in the Jataka collection.) t icated hydraulic civilization of Sri Lanka le time these two lamps were produced. upon the knowledge of the nature and
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behaviour of fluids, accumulated over irrigation works. Under such conditions, i "seed" from the Mediterranean world fou
As Havell observed in the statemen contribution made by the craftsman to 1 civilization did not receive due recognitic vision and approach were perhaps vitiate in these early societies were such that it religious leaders and men of letters whic were recorded for posterity. While t craftsmanship would have brought matel as a group which belonged to the lower ri failed to gain due recognition for th development of technology and in mouldi assessment of this role of craftsmen in so the historians of South Asia. While the stu category would be most useful inaccompli perhaps to a greater extent on the work order to make a proper assessment of th from Dadigamaforcefully direct our atten! group which preserved and drew upon respective civilizations, enriched it withw produced objects oftechnical excellence a of the civilization they represented°)
102

many centuries in the construction of tappears to be a distinct possibility that a nd fertile soil in distant Sri Lanka.
cited at the beginning of this paper, the he development of ancient South Asian n in the writings of the chroniclers whose by caste prejudice. The values dominant was usually the achievements of rulers, 1 received a high degree of attention and le production of objects of ingenious ial rewards for the individual craftsman, ings of the caste hierarchy, the craftsmen e intellectual role they played in the ng the dominant trends in aesthetics. The :iety is an important task which confronts dy of technicaltreatises of the silpasastra shing this task, the historian has to depend of the archaeologists and antiquarians in eachievements of craftsmen. The lamps tion to the crucial role played by this social the technological inheritance of their hat they learned from other cultures, and nd artistic merit which were the hallmarks

Page 110
NOTES
1sutighara. Culavamsa, ed. VV.Geiger, London, 1925, ch. ?
P aw Codrington, Two Dagabas of Parakramabahu I"Ce
3.A.M. Hocart, "Archaeological Summaries," Ceylon Journal
4.Paranavitana has acknowledged his debt to Sorata for di communication. See Annual Report of the Archaeologicals,
5.Coinsidentified as those issued by Vijayabahu I (A.D. 1070.
the lowermost chambers of the stupa. The Sinhalese charact
chamber have been dated in the twelfth century. See Annual
1955, p. 13; C.E. Godakumbura, The Kotavehera at Dediga
Colombo, 1969, pp. 30,33,4042.
6Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon 195
7.Press release, dated 8 August 1951, issued by the Archaeolc
8.S. Shanmuganathan, "The Elephant Motif Lamp," المسعد
9Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon 195
10Annual Bibliography of the Institute of Archaeology for 1
11.The Kotavehera at Dedigama, p. 30.
12.Shanmuganathan, op. cit, p. 75.
13 Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, 19
14.Th. van Erp, “Archaeological Finds in Padang Lawas (T.
Institute of Archaeology for 1939, Vol. XIV, 1941, pp. 12-20.

v.61.
on Journal of Science, Section G, Vol. II, 1926-33, pp. 135-6.
of Science, Section G, Vol. II, 1926-33, pp. 84-5.
irecting his attention to this information through a personal
rvey of Ceylon, 1951, p. 33.
1110) and Parakramabahu Iwere found in the first, second and
ers in an inscription found on the slab covering the lowermost
Report of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, 1951, Pp. 33.35;
ma. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey Ceylon. Vol. VII,
1, p. 33.
gical Survey of Ceylon.
ka, Vol. III, No. 1, October 1951, pp. 72-6.
1, p. 34.
948-53, Vol. XVI, Kern Institute, Leyden, 1958, p. lviii.
51, p.34.
anapuli Residentship), Sumatra," Annual Bibliography of the
03

Page 111
15.Ibid., p. 17. See also Pl. I.
16.D.G. Kelkar, Lamps of India. Delhi, 1961, No. 94.
17.This information was conveyed to the author by Mr. A.
18See the illustration in The Kotavehera at Dedigama. Pl
19-Abrus precatorius
20.Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Medieval Sinhalese Art N
21.See M.H. Sirisoma, note on coins in "The Citadel of Anu Vol. II, 1972, p.150.
22Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Bronzes from Ceylon. Chi Series A, No. 1, Colombo, 1914, p. 6 and Pl. XVII, fig. 46; D
Arts and Letters, London, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, 1954, p. 44
23.P.S.P. Gunaratna, Lankave Bauddha Lohamurti, Ph.D.
89.
24.Ibid., pp. 95-6.
25.Medieval Sinhalese Art, p. 203.
26.Press release, dated 8 August 1951, issued by the Archa
27.Kelkar, op, cit. See illustrations Nos. 45 and 94 and
28.Ibid., Nos. 24,85,87,112,115.
29.Ibid., Nos. 2445,858794, 112.
30.I[bid, No. 115.
104

Devapura.
LXVIII.
ew York, 1956, p. 208.
radhapura 1969: Excavations in the Ġedige Area," Ancient Ceylon
fly in the Colombo Museum, Memoirs of the Colombo Museum,
ouglas Barrett, "The Later School of Amaravati and its Influence,"
Dissertation, University of Sri Lanka, Peradeniya, 1977, Vol. I, p.
eological Survey of Ceylon.
'omments thereon.

Page 112
31.A drawing of this lamp appears in A. Irakavan, Tamilnattuti another lamp of this type as being part of the Indian collection at
Dedigama, p.30, n. 1.
32. Kelkar, op.cit. No. 45.
33.British Museum Collection, Lamps bearing numbers 1919,11 on the notes taken by the author when he examined this collect
Assistant Keeper of Oriental Antiquities at the British Museum,
34.British Museum Collection, Lamp bearing number 1919,11-4,
35.British Museum Collection, Lamp bearing number 1952,7-19,
36. British Museum Collection, Lamp bearing number 1953.5-14,
37British Museum Collection, Lamp bearing number 1953,7-13,
38 British Museum Collection, Lamp bearing number 1893,3-17,
39.Kelkar, op, cit, No. 85.
40.bid, No.115.
41.Shanmuganthan, Qp. Cit, p. 75.
42. Tiruvanamallurinscription A, Epigraphiandica Vol. VII, p
43.TirukovalurinscriptionJ, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. VII, pp.14
44.For a discussion on kasu and some information on its buying
Vol. II, Pt. 1, pp. 444-5.
45.The suffixgiya in this record is probably avariant or mistake

Vilakkuka, Madras, 1964, Pl. 14. Godakumbura refers to the Victoria and Albert Museum. See. The Kotavehea at
449 and 1952,7-191. The following descriptions are based on in April 1981. The author is grateful to Mr. W. Zwalf, who most kindly permitted him to examine this collection.
.134-5.
power, see K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Coas, Madras, 1937,
rendering of-cCya. Malaiyancyavilakkunny have deathed
105

Page 113
lamps produced in Malabar or the Southeast Asian regions kn Krishna Sastri, Madras, 1925, Vol. V, No.521, p. 213, line 8.
46.G.Sarton, A History of SciencC. London, 1959, p.343.
47See A.G. Drachmann, KtesibioS.Philom. and Heron. A Studi op.cit., p. 343.
48.This passage is quoted in Drachmann, op. cit, pp. 55-6.
49See AG. Drachmann, The Mechanical Technology of Greel
5. This passage is quoted in Drachmann, Ktesibios. Philon and
51. Drachmann, The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Ro
52. A photograph of this lamp appears in The New Encyclop the photographs of Roman lamps from the Rijkmuseum van C
Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology. Vol. VI, Leyden, 1958, fi Agora, Princeton, 1963.
53.Plutarch, Lives, trs. A. Steward and G. Long, London, 1903,
54. Pausanias, Description of Greece, trs. J.G. Frazer, London,
55. Pliny, Naturalis Historia, ed. and trsil. H. Rackham, Vol. II, IL
S6.Cosmas Indicopleustes, The Christian Topography, trsi. F.O.
57Pattupattu, ed. J.V. Chelliah, Madras, 1962, p.179.
58. See Tami Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, M
59.Cudamani-nikantu, ed. Arumukanavalar, Madras, 1966, Pt.
106

wn by the name Malaya. South Indian inscriptions Cd. A.
in Ancient Pneumatics. Copenhagen, 1948, pp.50ff; Sarton,
and Roman Antiquity, Copenhagen, 1963, p. 203.
man Antiquity, p.206.
aedia Britannica. Micropaedia, Vol. VI, 1975, p. 12. See also
budheden, Leyden, and the British Museum, London, in R.J. s. 27 and 35, and Judith Pertzweig, Lamps from the Athenian
Vol. I, p. 109. See also Vol. II, 1904, p. 343.
1913, Vol. I, p. 39.
ondon, 1942, pp. 400-1.
Winstedt, Oxford, 1909, p. 322.
adras, 1936, Vol. II, p.3395.
, p. 43. The author is indebted to Professor S. Thillainathan

Page 114
who helped to trace this reference.
60.The author is indebted to Dr Hema Ratnayake (Director Jetavana Project for permission to photograph the object and
61.R.S.Folsom, Handbook on GreekPottery, London, 1967, pp. of Southampton for directing my attention to this work.
62.See Hema Ratnayake, Jetavanaramaya Proiect.-Anuradha (January-June 1982), Colombo, 1984, p.128; W.Wijayapala and 1986, P1.1Ꭵ.
63Siddhantasiromani, trsl., L. Wilkinson, Calcutta, 1861, pp. 2. 90. For a discussion on the date of the Siddhantasiromani see 523. The Suryasiddhanta has been cited by Varahamihira in h, consideration of astronomical details in the Suryasiddhanta, it Orienta Congress, Poona, 1919, Vol. II, pp. 457 ff.. and Keith, 4
64."In all there were eighty great doors and sixty-four small doo peg (ani) were closed, and, similarly, on the application of pres hundreds of lamp-lighted cells, also fitted with machiney, so th all were shut." See"The Maha-ummagga Jataka,"The Jataka, c E.B. Cowell and W.H.D. Rouse, Vol. VI, Cambridge, 1907, No
65.Research work for this paper was supported by grants from J.G. Mahawatta who printed the photographs and Mr M.A. acknowledged.

and Mr. H.D.F.A. Sarath Wattala (Chief Supervisor) of the
or information on the significance of the aperture.
7-31,56-9. Iamindebted to Dr David Williams ofthe University
ra: First Archaeologica avation and
M.E.Prickett,
SriLanka and the International Trade. Colombo,
7-8; Suryasiddhanta trs. Bapu Deva Sastri, Calcutta, 1861, p. A.B. Keith, AHistory of Sanskrit Literature, Oxford, 1928, P. s Pancasiddhantika which has been dated in ca. A.D. 550. On has been assigned to ca. A.D. 290. See Proceedings of the First op.cit., p. 517.
rs, which all by the application of pressure (akkantaya) on one sure on another peg were opened. On either side there were at when one was opened, all opened, and, when one was shut, d. V. Fausboll, Vol. VI, London, 1964, p.432;Theataka trs. . 546, p. 223.
he University of Peradeniya. The assistance received from Mr
Nawaratne who prepared the figure illustrations is gratefully
107

Page 115
LEGENDS
Plate 1. Lamp from Dadigama showing the makara-orana
Plate 2. Lamp I from Dadigama: Sideview with the makarats elephant figure from the stand.
Plate 3. Elephant figures from Lamp I (left) and Lamp II (rig
Plate 4. Danseuse from the chain of Lamp I.
Plate 5. Bottom view of elephant figures from Lamp I (left) a on the left that the genitals through which oil is released from
rear right leg of the figure on the right is hollow. Note the end elephant figures.
Plate 6. Pottery vessel found at the Jetavanarama, Anuradhap
which controls the outflow of liquid from the vessel is located 1
Fig.1. Base of Lamp I: i.elevation i.plan iii.details of platform
Fig.2. Probable stages in the production of the elephant figure;
made of fireproof clay iv.completion of assembly
108

d the chain.
naswung backward on its hinges enabling the removal of the
ld Lamp II (right). It is evident from the picture of the figure he reservoir were fashioned separately. It is also clear that the
of the tubes which protrude from the front right feet of both
ura. Note the upward protrusion on the handle. The aperture
Cre.
i.clay core iiwax figure incorporating the clay core iii.mould

Page 116
EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPM
MEMORAL ARCHITE
B
Ahmad N
Creating great and grand sepultures ( personages ofIslamis rathera latepheno obligatory for every affluent Muslim to b it was not altogether necessary that the gr. resourceful he might have been, should h In the South Asian Subcontinent it was no from Central Asia during the 11th and edifices began to have been erected mai Indeed, it has not until the inauguration graves of the Emperors and their elit treatment, though the practice of havings of the Sultans and Amirs of the earlierper
The study of these Islamic funerary m of its own. It covers a period of well architectural historians and archaeologist James Burgess, Alexander Cunningham,l Henry Cousens, E.W.Smith, Percy Brown Khan, Zafar Hasan, Ghulam Yazdanianc by analysing and synthesizing its variousf memoirs and monographs of the old A important monuments or groups of such treatment of Islamic Architecture in Inc History of India was, for instance, the fi later on developed and elaborated by
(Islamic period).
Pioneering and epoch-making though comprehension in their treatment, espec the north-western regions which offered and adolescence. While they had no know

MENT OF ISLAMIC FUNERARY
TURE IN PAKSTAN
7
Nabi Khan
ver the graves of religious or political mena in Islamic architecture. While it was uild a mosque in the areas of his influence, ave of a Muslim, howsoever important and ave a formal building to immortalize him. tuntil the influx of the military enthusiasts 12th centuries of Christian era that such nly over the graves of saintly personages. of the Moghul period in Pakistan that the e started receiving such a distinguished uch monumental buildings over the graves iods initiated much earlier in today's India.
emorials in the Subcontinent has a history over seven or eight hundred years and 's of the earlier days like James Fergusson, E. B.Havell, John Marshall, Henry H.Cole, , G. Sanderson, V.A.Smith, Sayyid Ahmad many others contributed to it a great deal acets. Their works, particularly some of the rchaeological Survey of India, dealt with buildings admirably. Sir John Marshall's lia in the third volume of the Cambridge st ever analysis of the subject, which was
Percy Brown in his Indian Architecture
these attempts were, they generally lacked ially in studying the material available in . basic details for the study of its inception wledge or access to the material relating to
109

Page 117
its formative period especially of the day areas of to-day's Pakistan during the 8th whiled away specimens of the buildingss them merely a "provincial style", never ap in fact extended to the vast north-wes Pakistan, and that it remained popular century. Indeed, it was the only style in funerary buildings which embraced such well over seven hundred years.
After the creation of Pakistan, how reconnaissances of the present writer, bro unrecorded tombs and mausoleums locat at Bela (Baluchistan), Adam Wahan ( Muzaffargarh, Aror, Daira Din Panah, Ja Khan), Jalalpur Pirwala, Kabirwally (Mulli These discoveries were of tremendous imp story of the inception, development ar. understood and inadequately interpreted
The nature and content of these f having two distinct styles. The first phase the "naked brick architecture" the specin baked bricks and faced with cut-brick f geometrical as well as epigraphical patte inspiration came undoubtedly from C art-traditions especially of the Buddhist St elsewhere has been considerable. The firs is found in a rather insignificant and forlo general and governor, Muhammad ibn Ha ruled the areas of Makran during the late still active at the time of the Arabs in Muhammad ibn al-Qasim in 711. Howev possibly belong to that early date, thoug traditionally that the governor died at B. structure might have been erected at a lat
110

, when Arab influences penetrated in the nd 9th centuries of the Christian era, they )ecially centred around Multan by calling preciating its extent and importance which ern regions, now virtually the whole of even until the beginning of the present South Asia mainly represented by these a vast area and lasted for a long period of
ver, archaeological surveys especially the ught to light several hitherto unknown and 'd invarious parts of Pakistan, particularly Bahawalpur), Multan, Uchchh, Sitpur, Lalpur (Jhelum), Lal Muhra (Dera Ismalil .an) and Kot Mithan (Dera Ghazi Khan). portance as they helped to build a coherent ld dissemination of the hitherto poorly phases of Islamic architecture of Pakistan.
unerary buildings is mainly baked brick, may conveniently be taken representing hens of which have constructed of finely or surface ornamentation where endless rns and motifs have been created. The intral Asia, but the influence of local pas in Sind and Jaina and Hindutemples known mainfestation of such adaptation in small cnstruction, the tomb of an Arab run at Bela in Baluchistan. The governor decades of the seventh century and was asion of Sind under the command of r, the tomb in its present shape may not it is certain both historically as well as la and buried there. It appears that the r date, possibly at the time of the second

Page 118
burial when the influx of the Ghaznavid an in the Subcontinent. The tomb has three square having slightly perpendicular wall by means of rudimentary type of corner-sq the ground. The Mehrab has been provid shape of a well-marked deeply recessed a dome which has lime terracing externally. significance which has been ornamented v of cut-bricks having circles-in-contac intervened by a solid thick line.
The second example which provided the style is the mausoleum of Khalid Wal in the village of Khatti Chor in the Kabir outstanding funerary memorial is a m epigraphical evidence on the body of the governor of the areas of Multan under beginning decades of the thirteenth centu who is said to have come here in the wake Ghazna and stayed behind to preach Isla
The fortress-like mausoleum has containig the remains of a formidable strengthened with perpendicular retaini irregular intervals on the four corners an and north. On the east is a projected solic and on the north-eastern corner, in betwe which leads to the tomb chamber on the
The main square chamber of the to are two rectangular halls, augmented w. continuously on its four sides. The squi converted into an octagon by means of c of transition is created through a series of the round base of the dome. The interior ring of chevrons. The exterior of the do

di Seljuqiart traditions had started coming
ancient graves inside, which is a simple ... The zone of transition has been created uinches which are devised and raised from ed in the centre of the western wall in the rch. The structure is conserved with a low The exterior of the four walls is of special ith a series of long and continuous friezes t, lozenges, diamond-shaped designs,
invisible evidence of the development of id locally called Khaliq Wali. It is located wala district of Khanewal in Punjab. This onumental building. According to the monument, it was built by 'Ali Karmakh, Shahab u'd-Din Ghuri sometimes in the ry over the graves of the saintly personage of the Ghaznavid military campaigns from m among the local people.
been erected on a high cultural mound city of Yore. A rectangle on plan, it is ng walls having semi-circular bastions at d in the centre of the walls on east, south lframe indicating the back of the Mehrab 'en the two bastions is provided a staircase top of the mound.
nb is placed in the centre and, flanking it, th barrel shaped vaulted gallery running ure of the main tomb chamber has been orner squinches. Above, the second zone arched panels in recess, and on it is placed shells of the dome is distinguished with a
me and the drum has lime terracing. The
11

Page 119
dome is crowned with a three patelled fi the curvature of the dome.
The most important part of the an elaborate arched recess in the centre ol Mehrab is sunk deep into the thickness of been faced with cutbrick panels of differ frame, which is slightly recessed, are supporting the main arch, the shafts of wh as historic details of the personage respo1 bricks in exquisite floriated and foliate Mehrabniche has been treated with plain which possess abold trefoil arch in high re with a series of circles-in-contact, again cı
The elaborate plan and fortress-like the later master-craftsmen and architect tombs located at Alor or ar-Ror of the A another small tomb in Muzaffargarh in examples asfaras the treatmentoftheir su served as a provincial metropolis of the Muhammad ibn al-Qasim in 711.
The two domed brick-domes at Shakarganj and Khatal u’d-Din Shah. Ex and that he was the contemporary of the Sehwan, noting of historic interest about known though for longan annualursused activities have, however abandoned now a desolate. Nor does any epigraph is availa pertinent details, or for that matter the pr stylistic ground as well as on the scanty his achronological bracket of the late twelfth era. Both the specimens seem to have be after the other within a short span of time
12

tial. Later repairs have, however, spoiled
mausoleum is its Mehrab created as the outer wall of the western gallery. The the walland the fronton and interior have ent sizes and shapes. Within this double square shaped pillarettes flanking and ich are faced with Quranic verses as well isible for the erection, all executed in cut d Kufic characters. The interior of the cut and rubbed bricks, except the centre lief. The inner face of the trefoil is reveted eated in high relief in cut-brick.
elevation was, however, never adapted by ts. However, two comparatively smaller \rabs in the Sakkhar district in Sind and the Punjab can be cited as the parallel rface is concerned. The historic Alor once Rai dynasty which was subdued by the
Sakkhar in Sind are attributed to Saikh :ept that Shaikh Shakarganj was a Sayyid famous saint La'l Shahbaz Qalandar of him or, for that matter, of the other is to be held regularly in their honour. Such nd the ruined tombs stand neglected and ble on the body of the tombs to record ecise date of their erection. However, on oric reference, we may place them within und earlythirteenthcenturiesofChristian 2n created simultaneously, or at best one

Page 120
The two tombs are square on plan with high neck or drums and pronou wooden finials. Except the exterior of th the entire surface is unplastered deper which consist of a series of oblongpanels surface on each side of the edifice has separated by means of flat brick pillar openings have been pierced into the cen entrance, including the western wall w space on its either side is treated with possess composite friezes of pseudo Ku circles-in-contact. The flat parapet has designed friezes.
The third intricately ornamented b) in Muzaffargarh is the eternal resting pla name the village in now known. History and achievements, while the folktalestel Tamim Ansari, who came alongwith the early days of the 8th century and settled i Chanab, and busied himself in preachin generations followed the practices of th and when he died, abrick tomb was erect tothese traditions which alsogovery wel this was the time when the Turkish Sult: Balban and his eldest son, Sultan Sultan-i-Shahid, acted as governor of M
A study of this tomb, now in a mu also collapsed, reveals some very inter development of Islamic funerary memo society had by then gained a cosmop elements played their role happilyands and artists of both the segments of the masterpieces of this kind. The tomb is, th art traditions Jaina/Hindu and Islamic.

built in the traditional three storeyed style ced hemispherical domes crowned with : shell of the dome which is lime plastered, ding entirely on cut-brick ornamentation and horizontal friezes. In effect, the entire been divided into oblong recessed panels atts in high relief. Narrow oblong arched tral compartments on all the four sides for nich has no customary Mehrab, while the two broad oblong recessed panels which fic lettering and, below it, a thin frieze of , likewise, been treated with elaborately
sick tomb located in a village named Sadan ce of a Saint named Sadan Shah, after whose does not, however record details of his life l that he was a descendentofa certain Arab, e army of Muhammad ibn-al-Qasim in the in the areas on the western bank of the river g Islam among the local people. His later leir proginators including our Sadan Shah, edover his grave by his devotees. According to the stylistic characteristics of the edifice, unate was under the sway of Gyiyasu'd-Din Muhammad, later known to history as ultan.
Ich dilapidated condition, whose dome has esting characteristics of the evolution and rials in Pakistan. It is evident that the local olitan character where local and foreign uccessfully, and that the talent of architects ociety was utilized unbiasingly for creating erefore a rare synthesis of the two divergent
113

Page 121
Created entirely in bricks laid ornamental friezes and panels, it is squar four sides of the platform are also decora relief, and finished in cut brick scro circles-in-contacts separates the platfor delicate carving on the bricks is unique a has ever been achieved during such an e as ten thin frieze of scrolls, dentils an mouldings is interrupted only by narrow center of each side for entrance. TI accommodated three oblong panels divid flanking the openings are identically arra motifs. The other three sides of the monu that the broad frieze on the main entranc Bismillah. It has been placed within two
Internally the square plan has been c defined and bold corner-squinches to rec The upper part of the squinches has colla to determine the shape and arrangeme examples, no Mehrab arch has been pro sides have low arched openings. It mayb the south, the other three had terracotta with other such funerary memorials. Ho" now. Secondly, the tomb has a well defin true arch resting on bold double project that the architect mason had full confid proportion of true arch, not depending m the latter instances.
The last of the series of the naked state of knowledge, is the tomb of Shah Ga near Bahawalpur in the Punjab. The squa its outer and inner face faced with burnt b the entrance in the shape ofanarrow rect has yet another smaller door-open
14

in mud mortar and finished in cut brick 2 on plan raised on a high solid plinth. The ted with rectangular panels created in high lls, while a double base moulding of n from the main body of the tomb. The nowhere else such a superb "lattice work' arly period. Above, are arranged as many l diapers. The continuous line of these trefoiled arched openings created in the he surface above the mouldings has ed by flat borders. The rectangular frames nged with a flat border havingpsedu-Kufic ment have been treated identically except e has the Surat al-Fath of the Qur’an with other friezes of scrolls.
onverted into an octagon by means of well :eive the round base of the dome or drum. psed and fallen. It is not therefore possible nt of the dome. Like the two preceding vided in the western wall, and all the four e argued that except the main entrance on screens, as has been a common practice wever, no trace of such screen is available ed zone of transition created by means of ed frame. The treatment evidently shows ence in the mathematical calculation and erely on the wooden base, as is noticed in
brick structures according to our present rdez located in the village of Adam Wahan re tomb has been built in mud-bricks with ricks. On the east in the centre is provided angular opening. The southeastern corner ing for the staircase leading to the

Page 122
circumambulatry gallery atop the first sto
Internally, the top of the square first" which corner-squinches are erected to co of the masonry is carried on wooden appearance of the technique. The octag wood course and, above it, runs a doub octagon has further been converted into receive the round base of the high dome which has lime-terracing externally. Foul of the dome at cardinal paints for lightar
INTRODUCTION OF FAIENCE AND
The first phase of the naked brick archite monuments described above, was repla sometime in the late 13th century A.D., ag Asia and brought over here by the Cent known instance on which such a treatmen Baha u'd-Din Zakariya'Suhrawardi and t known fact that Bahau’d-Din Zakariya, t had been travelling extensively in art and early life for education and training wl funerary memorials of the earlier period. the rendezvous of Central Asian imm observation and the technical skill of th which was constructed at Multan duringh in this tomb.
Built entirely of burnt brick, laid inn having tapering walls and designed in thr grand hemispherical dome. Bigarchways east and north, while the west has the Me main entrance is provided through the sc the lower storey are crowned with cylind been created by means of corner squinch

rey.
storey is sealed with a wood courses upon nvert the square into octagonal. The core beams. Incidentally, this is the earliest on of the lower 'storey is crowned with a le brick course arranged obliquely. The sixteen sided through the same device to which is created entirely in burnt bricks arched openings are provided at the base ld air to the interior.
FAIENCE MOSAICREVETMENT
:cture represented mainly by the funerary ced with the colourful faience revetment ain inspired by the art traditions of Central ral Asian immigrant architects. The first it has been meted out is the Mausoleum of he patron saint of Multan. It is a very well he progenitor of the Suhrawardiya Silsila, cultural centres of Central Asia during his nere he must have seen masterpieces of Later on, his khanqah at Multan became ligrants. The saint used his own keen e immigrants to crease his eteranl abode is lifetime. He died in 1262 and was buried
nud mortar, the structure is square on plan ee storeys, the upper most crowned with a with wooden screens, are provided on the hrab in the shape of an archedrecess. The )uthern archway, while the four corners of rical turrets. The zones of transition have 2s which have beenplaced on woodcourse,
15

Page 123
while eastern archway has a panel of faie the form of apsedu-Kufic meander.
As a result of the bombardment by tomb had collapsed, but was repaired original plan. It has underwentyet anoth years to restore its original features inclu as well as interior, and the cut brick orna
The next specimen of the series is the locally as Shah Dana, the Saint was a fav He was killed during an encounter withth was constructed by some prince from K precepter. Square on plan, the small bric is crowned with a pronounced hemispher drum. The walls are raised slightly perper has been created by means of corners brackets. A rectangular opening has beer which is added an enclosed verandah. In from top to bottom but was lime-plastere Likewise, the next funerary memor also an outstanding specimen of the serie architecture. Faced neatly and exquisite designed intraditional three storeys crow mausoleum is of prime importance as the : Shams Sabzwari, agreat Ismailida'i, spel of the doctrines of his faith among the Pakistan specially in Multan and Kashmi 1276 and was buried there. The tomb was, about half a century later in 1329.
The tomb built on a square pla hemispherical dome, placedon a high dru tiles of light-green colour, and is crowned the drum has been filled with oblong p brick-tiles worked out in relief. The who
116

ce running on either side and atop, taking
he British army in 1848 nearly half of the mmediately thereafter according to the rphase of comprehensive repair in recent ling the naked brick surface, both exterior mentation.
tomb of Shahid Shahid in Multan.Known purite disciple of Bahau'd-Din Zakariya. 2 Mongols at Multan in 1270, and his tomb harasan in imitation of the tomb of his k structure is built on a low platform and cal dome which has been placed on a high idicularly. As usual, the Zone of transition quiches resting on bell-shaped wooden provided in the southern wall, in front of essence, it was a naked brick construction d later on by some ill-advised enthusiast.
ial, the mausoleum of Shams Sabzwari is 's of the so-called Multan style of Islamic ly with panels and friezes of faience and led with majestichemispherical dome, the precursor of the renowned Rukn-i-Alam it much of his life-time in the propagation masses in the northern areas of ancient . He settled in Multan where he died in however, erected over the mortal remains
l, has three storeys with a well-defined l. The dome is reveted with square glazed with a finial. The rectangular surface of nels, separated through flat borders of e of the exterior is covered with big and

Page 124
small arched panels of faience revetment.
The tomb is builton a high platform wi wall with an entrance archway on the west the arch openings are remarkable for thei
The mausoleum of Rukn-i-Alam at M splendid memorials ever erected in honou was buried initially in the mausoleum sometimes, however, his coffin was transf
Standing in the north-western cor historic citadel, within a large rectangular plan with pronounced perpendicular walls which taper sharply towards the top and c pinnacles, the mausoleum is constructed and supported by timber framing. The ma shape of an elaborate rectangular vestibul on the exterior is a series of horizontal moulded plain or glazed bricks.
The octagonal first storey rises up to the second storey of similar octagonal pla a narrow circumambulation all round the atalloctagonaldrum, has muchmore elab On topofthe second storeyisplaced the hu The base is decorated with an intricate br
The interior of the mausoleum, enamelled as well as cut-and-dressed, an is filled with bricks and brick tiles. The m elaborately decorative mehrab sunk dee arched recess with slightly projected ty possessing geometrical as well as epigrap consists of intricate floral scrolls and Ot carved in well proportioned Suls with tal
11 S.P.C. 90683

hin an open area enclosed by a perimetre . The terracotta and wood screens filling r variety of geometric and floral pattern.
Multan has been called as one of the most r of the dead. The saint died in 1325 and of his grandfather temporarily. After arred to the present mausoleum.,
ner of the high mound representing the enclosure, the mausoleum is octagon on , and supported by buttresses at the angles arried up and crowned with small domed of finely burnt bricks of excellent quality in entrance is located on the south in the e. A special feature of surface decoration bands of wood along with the bands of
a height of 41 ft. 4 in. on which is placed n, but comparatively smaller, thus leaving top of the first storey. The second storey, orate treatment of surface ornamentation. ge base of the grand hemispherical dome. oad band.
likewise, is decorated with bricks, both il the wood panelling. The wood framing ost significant feature of the interior is the ply in the octagon on the west. It is an mpanum reveted with wooden framing hical decoration. The decorative scheme Iranic inscriptions. The Ayat ul-Kursi is , upright letters on beautifully decorated
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ground of scrolls, double-stemmed vine foliation and palmettes. Within this pau decorated with a series of scrolls, while circle and a star in outline.
The Mausoleum of Shaikh ”Alla lu’d- Silsila, is situated in the north east corn Punjab. Square on plan, the edifice hastl north, while the west has the Mehrab. T. with a slightly projected rectangular fram into three decorative bands offine cut-bric band possesses Quranic verses in Suls flanking it have interlaced diaper work. T panels, slightly recessed, and separated by
The significant feature of the interic wooden courses put at intervals. The e: inscription, a unique feature of its kind k Mehrab is sunk deeply in the western wall, a slightly projected tympanum made of geometrical as well as epigraphical patter an octagonby means of corner-squinches, of the dome. The corner squinches are c sunk deeply into the thickness of structure set in the masonry obliquely. The exposed of hanging bells. A wooden ring having d base of the squinch, supports its brick wo
Among the tombs erected at Uchchh the eternal abode of Bibi Jawindistands daughter of Sayyed Jalal, a great-great-gra saint of Suhrawardiya Silsila. She died in 8 fringe of the mound representing an anc built by a certain prince of Khurasan M during heavy floods, half of the tomb coll
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carrying symmetrical and asymmetrical elled frame of wood is created the arch he central space of the sprandrels has a
Din grandson of the great saint Chishtiya r of the Faridi Khangah at Pakpatan in tree arched portals on the south, east and he main entrance is on the south marked e, the surface of which has been divided ks running upright and attop. The central and Naskh characters, while the bands he exterior has been provided with broad
means of friezes.
r of the mausoleum is the series of three (posed side of these courses has carved nown so far. The elaborately decorated . It is an arched rectangle augmented with cut-bricks and ornamented with floral, ls. The square chamber is converted into for the purpose of placing the round base reated in the shape of arched rectangles , They are placed on three woodenbeams ends of the beams are carved in the shape 2ntil decoration put in the masonry at the k.
in the Bahawalpur district of the Punjab,
but prominently. The pious lady was the
ndson of Jahaniyan Jahangasht, a famous
05/1402 and was buried at the north-west
ent fort. Her tomb is said to have been hammad Dilshad in 900/1493. In 1817
psed and fell down.

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Built offinely baked brick-tiles laid in on plan with pronounced perpendicular v which taper sharply towards the top, and c) entirely upon faience revetement, broad of the edifice.
Likewise, the interior is faced with en octagon of the first storey is converted i receding rectangular panels, the corner C on wooden brackets strengthened by a wo octagon of the lower storey has a staircas access to the second storey.
The Mausoleum of Sultan 'Ali Akba has been called “the little Rukn-i-’Alam bé to epigraphical evidence recorded on th Akbar was a Isma'ili saint, and a great gra the mausoleum is octagonal on plan wi corner turrets, well-balanced and harmo colourful tillery, and fenestration in glaze the edifice is exceptionally rich in faience or oblong panels, designed according to shape of a well-marked perpendicular v which taper sharply towards the top, and with inverted lotus which has been used flanking the main entrance are octagonal mosaic revetment, arranged in as many as buttresses is less ornamental, having only surface of each octagon has been divided the other.
The first octagonal storey rises up placed the second storey of similar octago measuring 12 ft. 7 in from outside, thus second storey has also been treated withf oblongpanels. The angles of each octagon

well-levigated mud-mortar, it is octagonal falls supported by buttresses at the angles owned with pinnacles. The tomb depends friezes of which cover the entire exterior
amelled tiles and glazed lime plaster. The into sixteen sided by means of a series of nes taking the shape of squinches placed odenbeam placed below. The southeast se created in the thickness of the wall for
r located in the suburbs of the ancient city 2cause of its marked similarity. According le facade of the mausoleum, Sultan 'Ali andson of Shams Sabzwari. Built in 1585, th perpendicular walls strenghened with nious three storeys, all embellished with 2d terracotta and carved wood. However, revetment consisting of square, octagonal available space. Each octagon takes the vall strengthened with corner-buttresses is crowned with a low cupola, augmented as the base of the finial. The buttresses on plan, and are embellished with faience thirty one friezes. The surface of the other five friezes of glazed tiles. Likewise, the into two oblong panels placed one upon
to a height of 37 ft. and 6 in on which is halplan, but comparatively smaller in size, having a narrow circumambulation. The aience revetment. Each octagon has three are strengthened with turrets rising higher
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than the overall height of the octago battlemented parapet is distinguished t above the parapet are finished in white storey is placed the base of the drum. At marked by a pronounced caveto and a exterior of the drum and the dome ha interior of the mausoleum is decorated sizes. The top of the lower storey is well-planned and finely executed squinc placed on a row of brick brackets.
Here in this mausoleum, the use altogether discarded, and a fully dev corner-squinches, and fresco has been medium. The mausoleum therefore, is a of development in style, and assimilates popularized by the Moghul architect else
An almost identical example is not district of the Punjab. The Mausoleum around whom several mysterious stories : out that he was born in 1548 and lived ap and was buried at Din Panah. A mauso. imitation of the Rukn-i-Alam. The m perpendicular walls, supported by circu sharply towards the top, and are carrie domelets augmented with pinnacles. Lik the two buttresses flanking the southernn the structures of the style, it is divided int. crowned with cupolas and pinnacles. The east and north have projected rectangula panellings, while on the west is a Mehra within the thickness of the wall. The exte
The interior of the mausoleum is ( glass-mosaics, all executed during the l evidence at site, the interior renovatio)
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l, and are crowned with cupolas. The y means of a moulding, while the turrets glazed plaster. On the top of the second ove it, rises the grand hemispherical dome frieze of battlemented decoration. The e been treated with lime terracing. The with fresco panels of various shapes and turned into sixteen-sided by means of les, resting on moulding which, in turn, is
of wood as bonding or framing has been eloped and pronounced arch used for ised to decorate the interior as exclusive significant attempt at opening new vistas in it some new techniques adopted and where.
iced at Da’ira Din Panah in Muzaffargarh is the eternal abode of a Bukhari Sayyid are woven. Sober history, however, points ious life to preach Islam. He died in 1602, eum was erected over his grave, again in usoleum is octagonal on plan with high lar buttresses at the angles which taper i up and crowned with ribbed or fluted the tomb of Sultan Ali Akbar at Multan, lain entrance are octagonal. As usual with ) three storeys. The sloping buttresses are octagons of the lower storey falling on the frames, accommodating decorative wood created in the shape of a recessed arch ior has decorative bands of glazed tiles. :corated with fresco or sico painting and ter days. According to the epigraphical was carried out in 1909. The modern

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innovation has concealed original decoratic the work has been executed by Multani art in situ. The style of modern decoration b the period, specially the elongated arches c. practices. Several Persian and Urdu verses horizontal panels. The base of the dome painted in fresco. Similarly, the interior sh and other floral patterns, and a shamsa at 1
A wealth of Arabic and Persian insc interior of the mausoleum. They are Qui providing not only historic information, designer who selected the Verses, and othe However, more interesting are the scribbli in ordinary Naskh on the tiles before they w of these scribblings in both religious as wel with dates and place names have been r scribblings, however, reveals that the artisal or at best they did not have proficiency in
Yet another group of Islamic funerary in the D.I. Khan district of the N.W.F.P. spirit of Multani Style, but have their own their architecture as well as architectural c know exactly the name of the saintly pe However, they are significantly important specially that it developed under the local are designed on square plan having slightly have elaborate turrets which are also perpe are decorated with panels and friezes of fa diapers of various shapes. The square st domes. The square shaped lower storey h beams. The zone of transition has been corner-squinches. Unfortunately, they are date of the founding of these structur architectural historians. However, we m.

on. It is, however, interesting to note that isans as recorded in various inscriptions etrays the impasse of local influences of reated in fresco remind the Sikh period's have been painted to fill up some of the possesses last four Surahs of the Quran, ells of the dome is treated with palmettes he apex.
criptions decorate pertinent parts of the "anic as well as non-Quranic scribblings but also revealing the fine taste of the r Arabic quotations and Persian couplets. ngs is Arabic as well as in Persian carved rere fired for glazing. The subject-matter l as historical, where names of the artists ecorded. A study of the style of these ns who executed them were semi-literate, the art of carving the letters on the tiles.
memorials is located at Lal Mohra Sharif province. The tombs are created in the characteristics and personality both for lecoration - faience mosaics. We do not arsonages lying buried in these tombs. for the study of the evolution of the style, circumstances. All the four monuments y perpendicular walls, while two of them indicular. The exterior of these structures ience and faience mosaic-in the shape of ructures are crowned with pronounced as been sealed with a course of wooden , created with the help of pronounced in an advanced stage of decay now. The es has been a dispute among various ay with some precision place them in a
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chronological bracket of 16th and 17th c. after the other.
CONCLUSION
This is indeed a brief summation of architecture evolved and developed for located in various places of Pakistan. It i example at Sitpur in Muzaffargarh dis commemorate saintly personages who propagating and preaching Islam among t success in spreading the religion. Signific almost exclusively and remained popular It therefore can truly be called the Pakist harmonious assimilation and synthesis characteristics of the art of building. Tho Multan and its environs throughout, whi other centres like Uchchh, Muzaffarg examples, but having their own distinct fea followed indentical arrangement of th strengthened with bastion and turrets, hemispherical dome. The use of wood int stability has also been almost universal.
Of the series of the tombs and mau examples are of outstanding merit : th mausoleum of Rukn-i-Alam. They repre the cut-brick facing and faience and faien
The mausoleum is of sterling impo development of the funerary architecture Asian Subcontinent, both from the poi architectural decoration. First, it is th imposing mausoleum which has an e deeply-recessed grand arched-niche. Sec a half dome and ornamented with cut-b.
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2ntury A.D., when they were erected one
the popular and all pervading style of building the Islamic funerary memorials s significant to note that except one lone trict of the Punjab, all of them are to pent the best part of their life time in he local masses and met with tremendous antly, the style confined within these areas until the beginning of the present century, ani style representing a rich, pleasant and of the local and foreign traditions and ugh the main centre of the style remained ere are still located its finest specimens, arh, D. I. Khan, etc., possess identical atures and personality. Almost all of them ree storeys, perpendicular walls often
prounced and tall drum and majestic he core of the brickmasonry for structural
solea discussed and described above, two e mausoleum of Khalid Walid and the sent the climax of the two distinct styles: ce mosaic revetment.
rtance for the study of the evolution and in Pakistan, nay in the whole of the South nt of view of its architecture, as well as e earliest known dated example of the laborated Musallah in the shape of a ondly, the Mehrab-niche is crowned with ick panels of different shapes and sizes,

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again the earliest known manifestation o created is the true vossoired-arch attem with the discovery of this example, the Brown and others regarding the first appe are to be modified. Fourthly, most of the herefor the first time to fillup the blankin from the earlier local examples. This asp only the clear and unambiguous ada art-traditions, but also the effective part the project. Lastly, the fortress like form perpendicular walls strengthened at intel particular interest as it appears here foi became the hallmark of the later so-calle
The mausoleum of Shaikh Rukn-i most magnificent tomb ever erected ir architecture as well as architectural emb{ majestic strength and solidity and is equ surface decoration. Indeed, it was for architecture of Pakistan that the care, inti luminary were combined with the profici architect and a host of masons and artis combined efforts have been responsible practised in the art of building in the Sub the edifice was introduced here for the ever tried the difficult plan due to its ge was to use the more simpler square form Indeed, throughout Central Asia the ea form. The elaborate and sophisticated woodwork and the tile and tile-mosaicw exercised in such profusion.

its kind in Pakistan. Thirdly, the arch so oted for the first time in this edifice, and earlier theories of John Marshall, Percy arance of the true arch in the Subcontinent decorative motifs are arabesques created terliner space, while some are also derived ect is of particular interest as it shows not ptation of the earlier Jaina-Buddhist cipation of the local master craftsmen in idable character of the grand edifice with vals with semi-circular bastions, is also of the first time. Incidentally, this feature dTughluq style of architecture.
-'Alam which has been rightly called "the honour of the dead', is unique for its clishment. It is a remarkable specimen of ally noteworthy for its most sophisticated
the first time in the history of Islamic erest and monetary resources of a spiritual ency, experience and devotion ofa master lans to create such a masterpiece. These for a number of innovations never before continent. The octagonal plan adapted for first time, and until then no architect had ometric complexities. The usual practice adapted from the Zoroastrian fire temple. rly funerary constructions were of square ornamentation including the brick work, ork is also an experimentation never before
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Page 132
DISPLAY OF THE RELCS By K. R. Var
DISPLAY OF THE RELICS IN EAR
This paper is partly continuing a short disc Roland Silva when he took his Ph.D. deg As usual in Holland, the debate during the of each opponent, and short, appropriate, have expected, Dr. Silva played this role { most generous host when afterwards the c be his guest, as Iam now honoured to be the of Sri Lanka.
Our short debate was about the ritual of relic boxes (dhatugarbha) in a stupa (S to me that the main difference between displayed and honoured as if being the Bl a relic or rathera relic casket, for instana course of construction, is recorded in seve it has rightly been noticed by Silva (1988,
Deposits, however, have the functic building, and they are not exclusively Bl Hindu temples as well in both South- and
The display of relics as a Buddhist curiosity and brought about a series of que relics? On what kind of occasions were history provide us with answers to these q
However, the display of the relics is reason that all my Sri Lankan colleagues of the Kandy Perahera, which is meant to

N EARLY BUDDHSTART
Kooij
LY BUDDHIST ART
:ussion I had with our host and friend Dr. ree at Leidon University a few years ago. : ceremony was limited to a few questions
answers of the candidate. As you might xcellently, and proved moreover to be a legree was celebrated. I was honoured to eguest of the Archaeological Department
deposit box (yantragala) and the number ilva 1988, 26-29). Afterwards it occurred relics and deposits may be that relics are addha himself. The custom of displaying ce on the platform of a stupa which is in ral Sri Lankan Pali- and Sanskrit texts, as 31). The relic cult is exclusively Buddhist.
bn of consecrating a building or part of a uddhist. Deposit boxes are known from
Southeast Asia (O'Connor, 1966).
religious ceremony started to rouse my stions. How old is the custom of exposing they exposed and worshipped? Can art uestions?
not an easy subject indeed, if only for the have grown up with the famous ceremony expose the famous relic of the Tooth.
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As a matter of fact I would like to d forms of the cult of the relics. For this sho categories: (1). visual material contained in Sanskrit Buddha's relics. (2). visual material contained in Buddhi beginning of the Christian Era. (3). Accounts of modern Buddhist lay CustonS.
As to the first category, recent rese Bareau brought up some important theori of the canon that deal with episodes of the the Mahaparinirvanasutra (MPS). These the Buddhist cult of the relics and are ( Buddhist art.
In respect of the second category, i. to put forward an unusual interpretation religious practices, more than literary text of scenes referring to the life of the Buddh in particular. Moreover, Buddhist art of th accounts in that little attention is paid to life-story from conception to Parinirvana follow other patterns.
As to the third category, I discovere ceremonies in ancient India, at least as fau we do know are ceremonies performed in still is a living religion, for instance in Sri This does not necessarily mean, neither ancient Buddhism, nor that all Buddhistrit of worship. On the contrary, Buddhism establish its own identity by creating new we have to rely on indirectevidence, starti of ceremonies still occurring in modern B
126

raw your attention, mainly to the earliest rt study the sources used consist of three
und Palisources dealing withshowing the
it art of the early period, i.e. before the
ceremonies which may reflect ancient
arch by the French Buddhologist Andre es regarding the formation of those parts : Parinirvana of the Buddha, in particular theories have a bearing upon the age of of great importance for the historian of
e. the art historical material, I would like l. This is based on the hypothesis that cs, created a model for a visual rendering a in general and to the Parinirvana-scene he earliest period conforms to the literary ) the life of the Buddha as a continuing Scenes from the Buddha's life seem to
that very little is known about Buddhist as lay ceremonies are concerned. What modern Asian countries where Buddhism Lanka, Thailand, Burma and also Japan.
that lay ceremonies were unknown to uals more or less resembled Hindu forms 1 from its very beginning was eager to itual forms. It does mean, however, that ng from the presupposition that anumber Iddhist countries reflect ancient customs.

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As an example, I would like to ma someone wants to become a monk upasampada-ceremony) he leaves the ho dressed in the luxurious outfit of a Kandy a large retinue. A parasol is held over h custom is, or quite recently was, pra (Bechert-Gombrich 1984,34-35) and is re Great Departure (Levy 1957, 6-7, 27 note horse that is white, the same colour as Ka an India',the parasol over his head by a "l with him bearing offerings and uttering cr Buddha. Afriend will often mimic Chanc horse's tail" (Levy 1957,8). Even Mara'. women clothed in fancy dress.
" Indirect evidence about the existe comes from literature and from pictorial father's palace in the middle of the nigh groom, but legend has it that he soon bec Yaksas and Devas, among them Indra an
Buddhist art clearly emphasizes thef in the life of the Buddha. A relief in Bhar. depicts the palace and two court-ladies lo horse Kanthaka is accompanied by an invi Three Devas are present and of course th other Devas are added, one playinga dru
The splendid carving on the middle Sanci stupa (Marshall and Foucher 1982 interpretation, represents the episode of The departure, however, takes place in numbers of people. Apart from the groc horse, Devas carrying camaras and the par possibly Mara who tries to stop the Bodh

ke a short digression. When in Sri Lanka and is admitted to the sangha (the use of his family in a festive procession, 'prince, riding on a horse, surrounded by is head as a token of honour. The same ctised in other Theravada - countries garded as a re-enactment of the Buddha's 1). In Cambodia"the novice rides... on a nthaka. The bridle of his horse is held by Brahma'. The parents and friends who go ies, represent the gods praising the future laka, the faithful squire, by clinging to the s army is present in a group of men and
ince of such a ceremony in ancient India
art. True, the prince Siddhartha left his t, only accompanied by his horse and his ame surrounded by a growing company of d Brahma.
estive character of this important moment hut (Coomaraswamy 1956, pl. XV, fig.38) oking at the departure of the prince. The sible retinue holding cauris and aparasol. e groom Candaka. In the lower panel two
architrave of the east torana of the great
126 and pl.40, 2) according to the usual the Great Departure of the Bodhisattva. broad day-light and is witnessed by large om, there are four Yaksas supporting the "asol, or making gestures of adoration, and isattva.
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In the centre a little ceremony is goi might refer to the first meditation under not completely out of place in the Great However, the ordination ceremony is
(pratimoksa), after which "parents and fù
Sangha. and follows a sprinkling of lust at the tree seems to refer to this part of th
The offering of gifts and the sprinklin of the Sancirelief. Figures bringing gifts a near the tree to which the gifts are syr confirms the gift. Another man with a pi footsteps to the right side. The pitcherma ordained monk,"in order to call the earth rules and precepts of the religious discipli out its contents on the ground, in accorda
These details prove, firstly that the litt as a picture of the donations that are give secondly that the procedures of the ordina here, and not the episode of the Great D
The absence of the person of the Bodhi character of early Buddhist art. In her r Susan Huntington makes the intriguing r notaniconism. The scene is not a recordo a processional celebration of it at a later ti that actors are performing a re-enactmen
This challenging proposition may now at Bharhut and Sancipoint to an early exar (upasampada), similar to what can be composition the artist at Sanciwas no dou citizen of Vidisa leaving for the nearby Considering the large number of monks l
128

ng on at a tree, which in Schlingloff's view the Jambu-tree if only this episode were Departure scene (Schlingloff-1987,5-6). traditionally concluded by a confession iends of the new monk offer gifts to the 'al water" (Levy 1957,12). The ceremony le ordination procedures.
g of water is clearly indicated by the artist nd another personage with a pitcherstand mbolically made.” The pouring of water toher, richly dressed, is pictured near the y refer to the solemn rite when "the newly to witness his undertaking to observe the he.... takes a small flask of water and pours nce with ancient custom'''"(Levy 1957,12).
le ceremony at the tree has been intended in at the conclusion of the ordination, and tion ceremony determine the composition
parture.
isattva is usually explained by the aniconic ecent book on the Art of Ancient India, emark that the reason for this absence is f the "historical' moment itself" but rathér me" (Huntington 1985,99). She suggests t of this episode.
"be carried one step further. The carvings nple of the Buddhist ordination ceremony perceived today. When designing this bt guided by the festive departure of a rich monastery in order to become a monk. iving in the Sanci monastery at that time,

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this ceremony must have taken place q easily been witnessed by any artist man until recently in Cambodia, the ceremo Great Departure of Siddhartha. No act
The artist did not illustrate a litera the past, but he carved a contemporary pi by anyone, and that should remindlay Bl to be proud of. In Amaravati (Sivarama Great Departure is the first of the foul Since it is the first step of lay Buddhists
Another example of this ceremoni which the Buddha's mindfulness (budd his seat. I came across a moving pa Buddhaghosa in the fifth century. A reverend Ananda reached Sravasti impermanence. "Soon after the instruc the room of the Buddha, lifted the seat entered the room and swept it clean. A room the withered flowers that were off He carried back the seat of the Buddha Ananda offered the same kind of worsh way different."(Bapat and Hirakawa 19,
In this text Ananda sets an exam Buddha's seat. This rule has been laid d the Vinaya but it no doubt confirms ar Buddha had stayed meticulously clean a kind of ceremony which is rendered in depicted. The artist may surround thes transmitted at that specific place in ord the term aniconism is misleading and Buddhist art.
These examples have led us away.

uite frequently and openly. It could have r times. Like in present day Sri Lanka and ly itself was meant as a re-enactment of the ors were needed.
ry text either. He did not depict a scene of cture of a ceremony that could be witnessed Iddhists that becoming a monk is something murti 1956, 166 and Fig.5), the scene of the great moments in the life of the Buddha, to monkhood.
all aspect of early Buddhist art is the way in lanussati) is practised by paying homage to ssage in the Samantapasadika, written by month after the Buddha's Parinirvana the and gave a sermon to the people on tion, he entered the Jeta-park and opened of the Buddha, brought it out, cleansed it, fter sweeping it clean, he took out from the ered (to the Buddha) and threw them away. l, placed it as it originally was, and revered tip as when the Buddha was alive and in no 70,4).
ple how people should pay homage to the own by Buddhaghosa in his commentary on Icient practice to keep the spots where the ind to pay homage in the right way. It is this sculpture, when the Buddha's empty seat is e images with legendary scenes which were er to keep the Buddha's memory alive, but does not justice to the character of early
from the main subject of this paper, namely
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the display of the relics. However, we wil work. The display of the relics is intercon around the Parinirvana of the Buddha, an to this ceremony. The classic account of great number of scholars and hardly neec present a visual analysis of this text in or exposing the relics influenced the pictoria
Thereafter, I will briefly discuss th Ahraura inscription. Next, I intend to giv of early Buddhist art with regard to the Pal intend to represent contemporary lay-cer Buddha's life. The episode may have serve was brought to life in these ceremonies bl
It is necessary to analyse the text whicl it is the earliest evidence of a cult of the 1 vorthwhile to have a closerlook atthe vis recent dates proposed by Bareau(1979 well-known, the Buddha himself is suppo his cremation to his disciple Ananda. H although containing quite unexpected del passages of MPS36.7, and 46. 7, because til in art historical literature are not sufficiel Sanskrit version (Waldschmidt 1951,360)
"The body of the universal king (, unwashed (new) cotton; after it has bec enveloped in a thousand (cloths); after ith it should be put into an iron trough filled with another (iron) trough, a funeral pile (the body of the universal king) is cremat cow. The bohesareputinto a golden urn,w stupa is erected on a crossroads; parasol festival is held; it is honoured, adored, garlands, flowers, incense and music. In
130

1 see that here a similar mechanism is at nected with a group of legends that arose d with pictorial representations referring the MPS has been amply discussed by a ls further comment. However, I have to der to make clear that the ceremony of l record as well.
e evidence that is contained in Asoka's e an interpretation of the visual material inirvana theme, assuming that the reliefs amonies rather than an episode from the :d as a kind of mythical background which ut it did not determine the composition.
his contained in the MPS, simply because "elics which is more or less datable. It is lal aspects of this story, and to discuss the ,76) for this part of the MPSAs is sed to have pronounced the precepts for is rules are simple and straightforward, cails. I prefer to give in full the relevant he brief quotations that are usually found ht for a visual analysis. I quote from the , which is regarded as the oldest one.
cakravartinah) should be enveloped in en enveloped in unwashed cotton, it is as been enveloped in a thousand (cloths), with sesame oil; after it has been covered is piled up with blocks of fragrant wood; ed; it is extinguished with milk from the hich is placed upon a litter; a relic (sarira) s, banners and flags are fastened and a respected, worshipped with fragrances, this way only (it is done) for a universal

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king, Ananda; the more so for a Tathagat precepts of the Buddha as related in the M
Unexpected, and almost unknown ir into an iron trough with oil, as Bareau rig only understandable in case of lengthy pr where conservation of the body became cremation.
The cremation itself is nothing un established practice for every buddhist m an Indian ascetic who, as a rule, was buri be considered abrahmanascetic and delib{
The procession and the following erected on a crossroads is likewise very unu (smasana), which is erected far away on a stupa is meant to attract people (Bareau are fastened precisely for this purpose. TI where four main roads (mahapatha) meet stupa should have a considerable size, its everybody's attention. This effect is furth is regularly performed at the stupa.
On the whole, apart from the crem unusual as funerary rites and do not follow despite the efforts by a number of schola just quoted are supposed to resemble th (cakravartin), as the text itself makes clea Kusinagara seem to know nothing about informed about the way the body of acakr: of the MPS probably needed to be inform
The precepts are carried outin due col in a magnificent way. This passage too because of the many visual images contair

a Arhat Samyaksambuddha". So far the MPS.
India, is the rule about putting the body htly remarks (1975, 155f.). The precept is eparations for a royal funeral ceremony, : necessity, but not immediately before
usual in ancient India and it became an onk. But it certainly was exceptional for ed. Probably the Buddha did not want to eratelypreferredanormalkindoffuneral.
deposit of the bodily remains in a stupa isual. Contrary to the Vedicburial mound spot where nobody will ever return, the 1975,160 ff.). Parasols, banners and flags he addition: on a crossroads, i.e. a place probably conveys a similar meaning: the hould be visible from afar, it should draw ler enhanced by the festival (mahas) that
nation itself, these precepts sound rather fancient Vedic funerary traditions either, rs to reconcile them. Certainly, the rules e funeral ceremonies of universal kings ar. Surprisingly enough, the Mallas from t these ceremonies and are eager to be vartin should be honoured. The audience ed as well.
urse, but the ceremony is further enlarged is worthy to be followed in some detail hed in it. I would like to confine myself to
13

Page 139
these elements only, leaving out repetitic of the ceremonies themselves.
The Mallas make clear to Ananda th spoken about, at least not in one, two or the meantime they call upon all people fo body of the Holy one, which is still lying C and women, stretch a canopy over the bo the litter and while the body of the Holy ( flowers, incense and music, they enter Ku right through the centre, and leave the ci is brought to a sacred place which is "crown-fillet".
Thereafter, the body is enveloped i filled with oil, covered with another iro madeoffragrantwood. After Mahakasya Buddha, the pyre catches fire. The fire is of Kusinagara then put the bones into ag and while paying respect,homage, hono flowers, incense and music, they enterth (mahamandale) in the ’excellent residen
honour and worship with perfumes, garl
However, the Mallas never had th Legend has it that seven neighbouring k them in stupas built on their own territor representatives, together with their fou described in some detail, as is the wartha their adversaries. Then follows the inte (Drona, in the Pali version) and the follc
The return of the kings to their own king receives his share of the relics, give village, to place parasols, banners and (mahas) by paying respect, homage, hon
32

ons and intermissions that do not form part
at they cannot carry out the matter he had three days. They need seven days, and in brmiles around to come and to worship the n the lion's bed. Then, young Mallas, men dy, which is made of cloth. The men seize one is worshipped with perfumes, garlands, sinagara through the western gatewaywalk ty through the eastern gateway. The body significantly called Makutabandha, i.e.
n cotton cloths and put into an iron trough n trough, and placed upon a funeral pyre pahasarrived to take leave of the deceased extinguished with cow's milk. The Mallas olden urn, place the urn on a golden litter, ur and worship with perfumes, garlands, 2 city and place the urn on a great platform ce' (agragare). They pay respect, homage, ands, flowers, incense and music. -
e chance of depositing this urn in a stupa. ings claimed the relics in order to deposit y. The arrival of these seven kings, or their rfold armies at the city of Kusinagara is talmost broke out between the Mallas and :rcession of the Brahman Dhumrasagotra wing division of the relics.
territories is only briefly mentioned: Each s orders to build a relic-stupa in his city or flags upon it, and to perform festivities our and worship with perfumes, garlands,

Page 140
flowers, incense and music.
A visual analysis of the literary descri should isolate what actually can be seen in The following visual divisions of the ceren
1. paying homage, namely in three situatic a. to the body still lying on the couc b. to the relics in the golden urn, wh hall of Kusinagara; c. to the stupas in which the relics v
2. Procession,
a. with the body on a litter through b. with the golden urn, also placed 1 c. of the seven kings carrying their The ritual acts of paying homage and harmonious ritual composition. These p. storyteller and his audience, making the s likewise became the keystones for the pict the rites of the Buddha's Parinirvana.
The events around the Parinirvana ol come down to us in a number of different v comparison of these sources, a thorough reasoning brought Bareau (1979, 76) to a most exciting result of Bareau's research final episodes of the MPS, i.e. the par developments that took place in the second just before of during the rise of the Maur date of the Buddha's Parinirvana some developments should have taken place con the rise of Asoka.
The consequence of the research of A
12 S.P.C. 90683

ption of the Parinirvana rites in the MPS such a ceremony from verbal exchanges. lony can be distinguished:
nS,
ichisdisplayedonaplatformintheroyal
Vere enshrined.
the city of Kusinagara;
upon a litter, after the cremation;
share of the relics to their own territory. procession alternate with each other in a arts may have served as a focus for the tory both familiar and attractive. They orial artist to build up a visual image of
the Buddha as related in the MPS have ersions: Sanskrit, Pali and Chinese. The analysis of their contents, and sound number of fascinating conclusions. The is perhaps that he is convinced that the s about the Parinirvana rites, reflect half of the 4th century B.C. in the period tas. If the recent tendency to place the
eighty years later is followed, these siderably later, probably not long before
ndre Bareau might be that the Buddhist
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Page 141
cult of the relics, and the erection of stu established practice only when the first M the North of India. At that time, the relic of devotion in particular for the laics but tokens of universal kingship as well. Gor cult of the relics is "a Buddhist invention' rites authorizes these practices, which b world.
The passages about the threatening and the erection of the first stupasin eig when kings considered the relics of vita power. This situation may have arisen i kings started to build stupas and pillarst
All these phenomena seem to be when Buddhism became afull-scale relig to distinguish itself from Brahmanical o considered as a new architectural pres about 300 B.C. The same is valid for the by the form of the royal assembly hall characteristic for early Buddhism. In su to honour the Buddha's relics and to pe as preaching, ordination or confession. still insufficiently known and need furth
It is important to notice that paying is essentially different from worshipp (1975,178/179) is quite right to underling for the simple reason that he did not re. The Buddha is honoured with perfum gestures of adoration, briefly by what is something quite different from puja or that has been introduced as a Buddhist
Moreover, the worship of the E
'134

pa's in order to enshrine them, became an sauryas were extending their kingdom over softhe Buddha not only became the centre developed into one of the most important nbrich (1988, 123) rightly observes that the '. The legend about the Buddha's funerary became standard throughout the Buddhist
war of the relics, the division of the relics ht royal cities could only have been written l importance for the legitimation of their n the same period, when the first Mauryan o mark their newly conquered territories“
new developments, belonging to a period ion. Buddhism needed new religious forms f Hindu religion. The stupa too should be entation of Buddhism, coming into being caitya-hall, which may have been inspired but became a type of architecture that is ch a hall many people came together both rform a number of other ceremonies such The liturgical functions of these halls are er examination.
homage in the way as described in the MPS ing Hindu deities. I think that Bareau that the Buddha was not considered a god, ceive any form of nourishment or sacrifice. es, garlands, flowers, incense and music, aptly called mahas, a festivity. A mahasis sacrifice. Mahasis rather a new ceremony substitute for the Hindu puja.
uddha is a matter of the whole Buddhist

Page 142
community, open to any one and without 124). The architectural and ritual form religious attitudes.
The first case of a display of the Bud enshrined in a stupa, and during a relic pl the fourth century B.C. at the earliest. Th verbal accout for the first time. People considerably laterin depicting these ceren of it in the reliefs of Bharhut, Sanciand Al remains difficult to explain.
If we follow a chronological o extraordinary inscription of the emperor A of the Buddha is mentioned, i.e. the Ahr 1961. The inscription declares that Aso years ago, and that he became a zealous d a year. During this short period people be 1979, 82), i.e. were living in a golden ag dharma (Sircar 1979,77).
The inscription ends with a line Norman's interpretation that the inscriptic "this proclamation has been promulgated i.e. reckoned from the beginning of there however, has caused a number of palaeo concluding partis not found in the other v is closely followingSircar's renderingofth (m) budhasa salile alodhe, meaning: "aft the platform (manca)".
Whether these last words are the re. sculptor, or whether Asoka himself is problem that does not need to concernu in one of the earliest inscriptions of Asok relics of the Buddha. It points to the prak

the mediation of priests (Gombrich 1988, chosen by Buddhism reflect these new
ldha's relics on a platform inside a hall or "ocession, can thus be dated to the end of e MPS has laid these practices down in a had to learn about them. Pictorial art is nonies, at least as far as we have testimony maravati. This gap of more than a century
rder, we should first have a look at an soka, in which a display of the bodily relics aura inscription, which was discovered in ka has become an upasaka two and a half evotee of the Buddha for little more than came "commingled with the gods" (Sircar ge as a result of practising the Buddha's
which is much debated. I am following bnoriginally ended with the statement that throughout the whole world on day 256, gnal year" (Norman 1983,281). The line, graphic and philological problems, as the ersions of this Minor Rock Edict. Norman e end of this line when he reads ammamca er the body of the Buddha had mounted
sult of a correction made by the scribe or responsible, is an intricate philological s here. The important information is that aa platform is mentioned for showing the :tice of exposing and honouring the relics
35

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before enshrining them in a stupa.
I agree with Norman that the sentenc of the Parinibbana happenings as part ( 1983,282), but I do not think that this re-e the role of the Buddha, mounted the m exposed the complete relics on the manc: in a large number of stupas.
It is not known how Asoka obtain Thupavamsa (Jayawickrama 1971, 53) de recover the relics. According to this sto archaeologist. After he had searched in ultimately found the relics when excav Rajagrha. It has been suggested that at A the place were the Buddha's were buries however, that Asoka found the relics whe
Our second case of a display of the rel not long after he became a zealous upasa written down,i.e. about 258 B.C. Shortl famous building program of 84.000 stupa his sway. This does not necessarily involve the relics were carried out 84.000 times however, that the enshrinement ceremo cases during Asoka's time. People must northern India.
The first examples of a Parinirvana are composed of the same visual keysto homage to the relics displayed in a roya ceremonies might have been acknowledg handed down in the MPS with regard to the Buddha. These regularly took place and could frequently have been witnesse
136

:e "might be a reference to a re-enactment of the re-interment ceremony" (Norman nactment involved that someone, playing anca. I understand that Asoka probably before their division and enshrinement'
ed all these relics. A work as late as the scribes in detail all the efforts of Asoka to ry, Asoka proved to be the first amateur vain in Vaisali, Pava and Kusinagara, he rating an underground stupa, hidden in soka's time nobody had any knowledge of i (Bareau 1975,182). It may be assumed, 2n they were needed.
lics canthus be dated to the reign of Asoka ka and before the Ahraura inscription was y thereafter, Asoka must have started his sin cities and countries which were under that the relevant ceremonies of displaying during Asoka's reign only. It does men, hies were performed in quite a number of : have been witnessed them frequently in
scene on the railing of the Bharhut Stupa nes as the legend in the MPS, viz. payig l hall and during relic procession. These ed as re-enactments of the events that are the cult and enshrinement of the relics of in India from the time of Asoka onwards d by public and artists.

Page 144
The well-known sculptural relief on to the Bharhut stupa (Coomaraswamy 19 procession on the occasion of the build dressed in princely attire and riding upon a a relic casket which has beenplaced upon literally occupy the highest position. He much smaller elephants and followed by an crowned by a Suparna. The procession mc supported by Yaksas and elephants.
This pathway most probably indicate under construction, which in Sri Lanka i (hatthivedi, Paranavitana 1946, 18); in som elephants (Paranavitana 1946,18; Silva 19
Considering the custom to build a reli janghavedika) of a stupa (Paranavitana 19 that the processional road which is depict stupa df Bharhut when it was in course ( here, afterwhich the relic casket was pla platform where it was visible for everyone was probably honoured during several da
A ceremony like this has been descr and again in the Mahavamsa and Thupava told that the enshrinement ceremony foundation of the famous Thuparama byl took place in the third century B.C. The Buddhaghosa, who undoubtedly drew up invent the ceremony. I merely mention description and leave all digressions out: " on the head of the king. He then asked S down on my head; what am I to do now? of the elephant." Thereupon the king pla top of the elephant."

the railing pillar of the eastern entrance 6, pl. V, fig. 15) gives a picture of a relic ng of the stupa One royal personage, large and impressive elephant, is holding he elephant's forehead. The relic should s flanked by two attendants mounted on otherroyal personage carryingastandard ves forward on a raised pathway which is
's the raised terrace (medhi) of the stupa s appropriately called 'elephant-terrace' e cases this terrace is even decorated with 88, 19).
c chamber on top of the platform (medhi, 46,19-24; Silva 1988, 27), we may assume ed on the relief led to the platform of the of construction. The procession stopped ced in the relic chamber on top of the : attending the ceremony. The relic casket ys, after which the stupa was closed.
ibedin Buddhaghosa's Samantapasadika, imsa in almost the same wording. We are was performed on the occasion of the king Devanampiyatissa, which supposedly account cannot be later than the time of on earlier records. He certainly did not the main visual details of this important The casket of the bodily relics came down umana: "The bodily relics, Sir, have come 'The elder replied: "Put them on the top ced the casket of the bodily relics on the
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"At that time, the great elephant was and singing and was shown singular honol city.... got out of the southern gate.... and r stopped intentionally at the basic foundat the stupa". The relics, however, could not take it down once it has been raised" (Jay the king first "to build a platform equal to The platform was built "Knee-high" (jang upper terrace (janghavedika). In the ce. erected. The king offered respect in varic be lowered down. All the people of the came to see the bodily relics. Thereupon (Bapat and Hirakawa 1970, 63-66; Jayaw 89-93).
A few details in this description of th to be noticed with a view to interpreting th the first place the relic procession precedir the city to the place where the first stupa attend the festive ceremony. This part o procession after the death of he Buddhar above). The king himself holds the relic c head and then on the forehead of the roya
In the second place, the relics are p under construction"equal to the height of meters in height, which is not an abnormal (the terrace of the great stupa at Sancime height of this platform was probably dete. relic casket on the head of a full sized ele custom that a relic casket should not be ta.
A large crowd no doubt payed homa having the form of a small stupa during enshrined within the dome of the stupa.
138

surrounded by crowds of people dancing rand respect. The elephant entered the aturned to the site of the Thuparama. It on of the Thuparama... and stood facing be lowered down, as "it is not allowed to awickrama 1962, 201). Mahinda advises the height of the elephant's forehead". happananam), i.e. to the height of the ntre of this platform a small stupa was us ways and he now wished the relics to country, with flowers, scents and music, the erection of the stupa was completed ickrama 1962, 75-79; Samantapasadika
e enshrinement ceremony are important le Bharhut and Sanci reliefs correctly: in ng the enshrinement moves right through was to be built. Many people came to f the procedures reflects the first relic ight through the city of Kusinagara (see asket that is place first on top of his own
elephant.
laced on the upper terrace of the stupa he elephant's forehead", i.e. about three height of the "drum' of the ancient stupa asures 4.50 meter in height). The actual mined by the practice of transporting a phant from the royal stables, and by the ken down.
ge to the relics enclosed in a relic casket everal days. The relic casket was then

Page 146
The Bharhut relief can only depict probably existed from about Asoka's tim the Parinirvana rites. The artist does not Buddhs's Parinirvana. On the contrary, h relic casket, not seven as the story has i character of the Parinirvana rites that are of a relic casket on the head of an elephan mentioned, is not enough to refer to such almost the whole story had to be explaine
The artist, however, did not illustrate had witnessed himself, i.e. the ceremony C of the stupa. Furthermore, the relief has cc entrance to the processionalpathway oft
Similar formulas are used in two different position and form part of the ic Again, one elephant rider is depicted hold assume a position which is lower than (Coomaraswamy 1956, pl.XLIV, fig.166; 1 the relic procession is reduced to on incorporated into a long series of ornan ornamental context influences the inte ceremony is transformed here into an a
people are looking at it (punyadassana).
In another coping stone relief (Ag) elephants is increased to four. Four elep form a procession, which is moreover brig is depicting a relic procession on the occa illustrating an episode from the life of the
The Bharhut railing gives us ano well-known relief (Coomaraswamy 1956, corner pillar belonging to the western pathway pictures a royal hall, a palace an

such an enshrinement ceremony, which : and was regarded as a re-enactment of ive any clear reference to the story of the e only depicts one royal elephant with a E. Moreover, considering the elaborate lescribed in the MPS, the mere depiction t, which in the literary account is not even | a complex cycle of events. In that case, d in a verbal commentary.
: a story but he pictured what he probably f the relic procession during the founding onspicuously beenplaced right at the main ne Bharhut stupa.
other reliefs, which are carved in a quite Onographic program of the coping stone. ling a relic casket, and doing his utmost to the relic casket on the elephant's head Pramod Chandra 1970, pl.XXI). Here too e elephant-rider only, but it has been hental reliefs on the coping stone. This nded meaning of the relief. The relic uspicious image that causes merit when
"awala 1969, 55, pl. XXII), the number of hant riders holding relic caskets seem to htened by a music-party. Again, the relief sion of the founding of stupas rather than
Buddha.
her example of the cult of the relics. A pl. XII, fig. 32) on the upper panel of the entrance which led to the processional a music party. Inside the hall one sees an
139

Page 147
adorned platform covered by a parasol.
The inscription tells us that the hall in Indra's heaven, where the relic of the Devas. It is significant that the insc cudamaho, "the festival of the Buddha's palace is identified by another inscriptic the gods. Coomaraswamy (1956, 50) as could be seen on a feast-day that was de
20. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hian desc
Hadda and consisted of bringing the rel placing it outside the vihara on a high colour, four inches across and raised in t they take back the skull-bone. In they which opens and shuts, made of the seve high, to receive it".
The same pilgrim, as is well-known of the toothin Sri Lanka, which is placed "where the clergy and laity all assemble i lamps, and perform every king of religio ceasing" (Beal 1884, lxxvi). After ninety within the city. Similar records are know noted the that at the monastery in Bodhout every year on the day of the full moc The monastery was built by a Sri Lankan
The Bharhut artist depicts the displa hall, which is situated right near the palac making the appropriate gestures. A fe musical performance.
The same ceremony has influenced the relics in the palace of Kusinagara is are reflecting a ceremonial practice whic
140

Sudhamma is meant, which is the royal hall lairdress of the Buddha is honoured by the iption uses the word mahas (bhagavato rest-jewel") and not a word like puja. The has the Vejayantapalace of Indra, king of umes that people imagined that the relic licated to it.
ibes a daily ritual which was celebrated at c of the skull-bone out of the temple and platform: "The bone is of yellowish-white he middle". The offerings being all done, ihara there is a final-emancipation tower nprecious substances, more than five feet
l, makes mention of the festive procession in the hall of the Buddha at Abhayavihara, in vast crowds and burn incense, and light us ceremony, both night and day, without lays the relic is brought back to the vihara yn from the account of Hsuen Tsang. He jaya the bone - and flesh relics were taken n for public exhibition. (Beal 1884, 133). king.
7 of the relics on a high platform in a royal 2. The relicis worshipped by two adorants tival is going on, including a dance and
that part of the MPS where the display of escribed. Literary and pictorial tradition remained very much alive throughout the

Page 148
history of Buddhism, up to the present day
The third formula used in Bharhut in is, of course, the homage to the stupa (Co pl. XXV, fig. 65). It is sufficient to menti what he could see with his own eyes: a cerel is a representation of the continuous re-en: final episode of the enshrinement ceremo episode from the Buddha's life by using ar
The reliefs of the Bharhut railing th the 2nd century B.C. The visual material, points to three sorts of ceremonies which (1).the relic procession, (2).the relic expos
in a stupa.
Moreover, the artists seem to have b and not by literary texts. As with ceremo
Order to gain merit (punyadassana) and f historical scene in the life of the Buddha
In the next century, in centres like Sai represent ceremonies that were regularly as the cult of the stupa or the display of a procession.
One relief (Marshall-Foucher 1982, festival (mahas) at a stupa. Ebert (1985,3 not represent the annual ceremony in hc rather than the Parinirvana episode itself.
In Jagayyapeta, a catching example isf pillared all (Franz 1965, fig. 69). There is a is shown.

in the temple of the Tooth in Sri Lanka.
connection with the worship of the relics omaraswamy 1956, pl. XXIV, fig. 64 and on her, that the artist again is depicting mony, or a festival at the stupa. The relief actment of the worship of the stupa as the nies. He did not mean to reproduce an haniconic formula.
us inform us about Buddhist practices in when treated as independent evidence, are connected with the cult of the relics: alina hall and (3).the relicenshrinement
een guided by contemporaryceremonies hies, their works of art were looked at in arless in order to be informed about a
lci and Amaravati, the artists continue to performed with respect to the relics, such relic casket in a pillared hall, or the relic
, pl. 36 c 1) gives a beautiful picture of a 1) rightly asks whether this festival would onour of the Parinirvana of the Buddha
Dundofan early reliefillustratingaround platform inside upon which a relic casket
14

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A relic procession is pictured on Sanci (Marshall-Foucher 1982, pl. 61, carried upon the head of a royal persona probably pictures the festive entry of 1 enshrinement in the Stupa. This solemr the entry of the Buddha's relics into thi (see above).
From the beginning of the Christian resulted into compositions of a complete first painted representation of a full bi identified by Schlingloff (1987,1-13) ir century A.D. The division of the relics al Parinirvana episode, as the concludings complete life of a Buddha. A cycle of P Amaravati”. A relic procession is repres of the southern gateway of the great San 16,3; 17.3), with clear references to the
It can be assumed that in the significantly at the same time when tl episodes from the life of the Buddha gr 1976,723-726). This certainly does not m more. In Mathura (Sharma 1979,19 an (Fussman 1980, 54 and pl. VI) the reli platform and worshipped, without a cle: art seemed to have been particularly fo Buddha, which was supposed to "reside' upon a platform and covered by a canop
All this evidence shows that re. beginning of Buddhism as a religion, atl onwards. Our analysis of the early information about relic processions on stupa, and about the display of the relics Buddhist lay ceremonies rather than lit
142

an architrave of the west gate of stupa I at 1), moving towards a city, the relic being ge mounted on the first elephant. The relief he relics into the city of Vidisabefore its entry was performed as a re-enactment of city of Kusinagara, according to the MPS
Era, a new interest in the life of the Buddha : life-story, both in literature and in art. The ography, divided over eight episodes, was Cave nr. 10 at Ajanta, dated to the first ld the following procession now refer to the cene of a series of eight episodes forming a arinirvana episodes was discovered at early ented on the bottomarchitrave of the back ci stupa (Marshall-Foucher 1982, pl. 15,3; war of the relics.
2 first centuries round the Christian Era, he image of the Buddha was introduced, adually became more important (Lamotte lean that ceremonies were not depicted any d pl. xxxviii, fig. 2),and in early Gandhara c of the crest-jewel is pictured lying on a ur reference to Indra’s heaven. Gandharan Ind of the relic of the begging-bowl of the in this area." It is mostly depicted placed y.
ics were displayed in India from the very ast from the end of the fourth century B.C. Bharhut reliefs brought about some new the occasion of the construction of a new on a platform in a temple hall. Moreover, erary accounts may have served as models

Page 150
for artists working in the early Buddhist p informative in its own right and shows usev is generally left out in early Indian literary

eriod. Pictorial art appeared to be very idence about an aspect of Buddhism that
SOCCS,

Page 151
1. I am grateful to Prof. Dr. R. Kloppenborg who drew my att
2. Nowadays Buddhist devotees still present gifts to the sang
Sangha. Ithank Drs. M.J. van der Heijden for this informatic
3. See also Bareau 1970, 1971.
4. Inscriptions on relic caskets from the Gandharan area, wh
great merit was earned by enshrining relics in a stupa where n
S. I am thankful to Prof. Dr. Gustav Roth, who mentioned th
subject of the exposal of the relics.
6.The use of the singular salam can be explained, when all the
number of stupas. They thus represented the complete body G
7. See Beal 1884, xxxiv. The final-emancipation tower isa forn
the Japanese sharito temples.
8. Another relief at Sancion the back of the middle architrav
the reason that no relics or relic casket can be seen (Marshall.
9. See Sivaramamurti 1956, pl. xiv, fig. 2 and pl. xliii, fig. 1 and
Amaravati (Ghosh 1964-65 168-177).
10. See the remarks made by Fa-Hian (Beal 1884, boxviii).
44

ention this publication.
ha after pratimoksa and hang them om a tree representing the
.
ich were recently examined by Fussman (1986, 1-1), show that
ever before a stupa had been erected, i.e. in new territory.
M
is inscription to me a few years ago when we talked about the
relics were exposed before Asoka distributed them over a large
If the Buddha.
n of a stupa which apparently can be opened and shut. Compare
e of the western gateway is probably not a relic procession, for
Foucher 1982, pl. 61, 2).
2 A complete Parinirvana cycle was discovered on a relief from

Page 152
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Bareau, A-1970-1971 Recherches sur la biographie du Buddh
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Bareau,A.1975. Les recits canoniques des funerailles du Budd
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Fussman, G. 1980 Documents epigraphiques Kouchans (II)
Fussman,G. 1986 Documents epigraphiques Kouchans (IV),
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45

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Huntington, S.L., Huntington, J.C. 1985. Theart of ancient Undi
Jayawickrama, N.A. 1962The inception of disciplinc and the Vinay
of Buddhaghosa's Samantanasadika, th nava Commentary. S
yawickrama,N.A. 1971. The chronicle of he thupa and the Thup Thupavamsa Sacred Books of the Buddhists Vol. XXVIII. Lon.
Lomotte, B. 1976Histoire du bouddhisme indien, des OriginCSA
Levy, P. 1957 Buddhisma Mystery Religion 2 Jordan Lectures
Marshall, J, Foucher, A. 1982 The monuments of Sanchi.3 wols,
Norman, K.R. 1983 Notes on the Ahraura version of Asoka's fil
O'Connor, S.J. 1966 Ritual deposit boxes in South-East Asians
Paranavitana, S. 1946The stupa in Ceylon. Memoirs of the Arch
Schlingoff, D. 1987 Studies in the Aianta paintings. Identificatio
Sharma, R.C. 1979 New Buddhist sculptures from Mathura. Lal
Silva, R. 1988 Religious architecture in Carly and medicva Sri La
patimaghara. Leiden.
Sircar, D.C. 1979 Asokan studies. Calcutta.
Sivaramamurti, C. 1956 Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras G
Museum, new series IV. Madras.
Waldschmidt, E. 1952Das Mahaparinirvanasutra. Teil II, III.Ab Berlin. K sur Spract Li K al 19S
46

acred Books of the Buddhists Vol.XX. London.
Bei lati Cdition of Vacissarathera
kon.
.Reprint (1958). Louvain ܫܪܩܣܐ
in comoparative religion III, 1953. London.
Reprint (1940). Delhi.
st minor rock edict. Indo-Iranian ournal 26, 277-22.
nctuaries. Artibus Asiac28, 536
aeological Survey of Ceylon Vol.V. Colombo.
ns and interpretations. Delhi.
Wernment Museum, Bulletin of the Madras Government
andlungen der deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
N1, 102-524.

Page 154
SRI LANKA IN VORTEX OF C. A brief analysis of cultural phenomen pre-historic times up to
By
A. D.T. E.
The history of Indian Ocean cultures goes the present era, that is many centuries or the Christian era. It is only through archael apicture of this earliestphase of cultural b. Our own investigations have enabled pre-Christian centuries the Indian Oceal share their cultural activities both by offe by absorbing from others, the cultures of
The pattern of cultural growth in littoral of the Indian Ocean is an index to advanced technological knowledge in reg they were able to spread their culture in than what we might think they would have a cultural phase could be taken as the megal age and subsequently the iron age by the
Cultural objects of the megalith occupation areas of the Indian Ocean regi (e.g. Sri Lanka, Indonesian archipelago,th Southeast Asian mainland (comprising Vietnam can also be included as a periphe of a material culture of a megalithic per burials, chert and quartz implements and ex-voto items, megalithic buildings of sig Southeast Asian sites have yielded a sign period and of subsequent phases.
The cultural dispersion of the period

LTURAL CROSS CURRENTS a in south and southeast Asia from early historical times
PERERA
back to several thousands of years before rather millennia before the beginning of ological finds that one can possibly depict ackground of Indian Ocean communities. us to postulate that even during the communities have made it possible to ring their experiences to others and also one another.
places of occupation by early man in the the contention that although they lacked ard to easy and quick communication, yet a wider area in the Indian Ocean region chieved in such an early date. The earliest ithicage which developed into the bronze ime of the dawn of the christian era.
ic period are widespread in the major on. Thus the Indian mainland, the Islands e Malaysian peninsular, the Maldives) the Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos, ral region) have yielded enough evidence iod. These remains comprise megalithic tools, pottery utensils and objects used as nificant dimensions." Several South and ificant number of cultural objects of this
is traceable throughout the Indian Ocean
147

Page 155
littoral occupation sites such as Arikame valleysites, Maldive atols, Mantai, Pomp and many pre-historic sites in Southeast. papers have been published by scholars
The terracotta figurines of this perio to above show a marked similarity. The religious or a cultic purpose for the inhab area covered by the dispersion only speak beliefs.
The problem of the archaeologist ar dispersion took place (as well as how th account of the presence of these cults a period of time. Although the time was in to note that there was a brisk traffic of c this period of remote past. There coul country (overland) passage for the spreac of beliefs and practices). It is not difficult traffic during these distant times. Howev traffic accross the vast expanse of the In out-trigger canoe or the reed-craft coulc across the vast expansion of the Indian Herdayal of Kontiki fame (the Norwagia oceanic journeys by such feeble crafts further research is needed on this matter
But the fact remains that the majo common cultural heritage even in the re pre-historic times.
I wish to ennumerate a few such similarities are more striking:-
"The ethnic types giving certain c Lanka, Munda, Bhill and other nomadic: in Lakadives, Malaysian and Indonesian,
148

u and Pondicheriin South India, the Indus arippu and several other sites in Sri Lanka Asian mainland about which many learned who have worked on the discipline.
i discovered at almost all the sites referred e clay votive objects could have served a itants of the region under review. The vast s of the widespreadnature of the cults and
ld the historian is more to explain how the e similarities occured) than to provide an ; various places in the region at the same the pre-historic period yet one can not fail ultural knowledge and experience even in d have been both cross-oceanic or cross l of this cultural phenomenon (in the form to imagine the land routes for the cultural ritis beyond imagination to think of such dian Ocean. It is difficult to imagine that have provided the long distant journeys Ocean although some scholars like Thor in explorer try) to prove the possibility of luring the period under review. Anyway before we should arrive at conclusions.
rity of the Indian Ocean people shared a mote past the period we designate as the
instances in the following analysis where
lues to a common origin. Veddas of Sri
indhill tribes in India, the primitive tribes ungle tribes and especially the aborigines

Page 156
of Australia. The Dipavamsa and the Mah
refer to the expatriation of pre-histori denizened in Sri Lanka in pre-Buddhi euhemerism of a pre-historic incident invaders from outside, arriving in Sri La inhabitants. The Veddhas of Sri Lanka are and pre-historic tribes. The similarity be ethnic and racial types of Veddha and Au worth re-examining in the light of the abc
* Some valuable clues to the cultura communities in the pre-historic period available through an analysis of linguisti beliefs that have woven into the religion o of these characteristics are easily discerni referred to above. Such a task is unimagir because it involves the exercise of set archaeology, art-history, history, sociolog quote only a few.
I may suggest a few possible avenues of some of the above mentioned disciplin effort, or to say it in a different manner, to might be able to arrive at possible hypoth some aspects of the cultural backgro communities. Such a revelation might be working towards understanding the dynal cultural growths among the Indian Océan
* Through an anthropological inve dispersion of homogenous ethnic types i communities. The presence of the Medite Negrito (Malayo-Polynesian) ethnic type Ethiopean tribes, Sri Lankan Veddhas, M and Indonesian hunting tribes, the A dispersion of Indo-European (Aryan) eth
13 S.P.C. 90683

avamsa, the early chronicles of Sri Lanka, c Yakkhas of Sri Lanka, a tribe which st period. Could this not be a counter whereby strong and culturally advanced nka, to push out the less advanced local supposed to be the survivors of primitive tween the cults, practices and especially stralian aborigines are especially matters Ve COnteXt.
1 correlations of the Indian Ocean region and early historic period could be made c formations, ethnic types and cults and f the early man of the region. The survival ble among the less civilized tribal people lable to be undertaken by a single person veral disciplines such as anthropology, y, linguistics, religion and philosophy to
for future research (however as a layman es) so that a multi-disciplinary combined ) put together many heads for the task, we esis for future research towards revealing und of the early Indian Ocean region of need for future scholars who will be mics of homogeneous and heterogeneous
region communities.
stigation one may be able to explain the in the formation of Indian Ocean region rranean mixed and proto-Austrolioid and s in the entire Indian Ocean region (E.g. undas, Lakadive hill tribes, the Malaysian, ustralian aborigines). The arrival and nic types who have overpowered the early
149

Page 157
proto-historic denizens of the lands of th and explained in the same light.
* In the sphere of religious beliefs, that still lies unexplored or partially explc the influx of the Aryan colonisations amor be understood better through the proce pre-Biblical (by which term I mean, communities. The belief in a God Alldestroyer could have been the prevalent Indian Ocean region communities.
'The cult of 'Yehowah' of the Judai of 'Yakkha' (also pronounced as Yaksa) a in India and Sri Lanka especially and als before the advent of Buddhism. Let me believe that there was a common religio Ocean region occupation area and this co the so far little exposed and scantil archaelogical objects that have been di pre-historic period. The terra-cotta exvo discovered in places quite apart from e Middle Indian sites, Jericho, Aegean anc
* The Polytheism of Judaic and oth gradual formation of their ethical andmo of the Monotheistic beliefs of a ‘creator”, are not concepts and beliefs uncommon Indian Ocean region. In the sofar unexan Religion' of South Asia as found in s Tripitaka)“ and some semi-historical Wri countries, there are references to the l followers were also known as Yakkhas beliefs, cults and practices with those of the fact that Yakkha religion has much si Jewish (Israelite) and Cananite origin. T
50

e Indian Ocean also could be investigated
cults and observances also, there is much pred. The religion of the early man before ng Indian Ocean region communities could ss of investigating the pre-Buddhist and pre-New Testament) religion of the Mighty, the Creator, Preserver and the common religion of the early man of the
creligion could be compared with the cult astrong religious belief that was prevailing o in South and Southeast Asian countries, suggest that there is quite good reason to us belief in the vast expanse of the Indian immon religious belief is manifest through explored, but prominent remains of scovered and have been assigned to the to objects of very identical type have been ach other (e.g. Sri Lanka, Mohenjodaro, Cretan sites, Southeast Asian sites, etc.).
er Biblical (West Asian) communities, the ral codes and the subsequent development Preserver and Destroyer "God Allmighty to other pre-historic communities of the nined survivals of the little known 'Yakkha ome tracts of the Buddhist canon (the tings of Sri Lanka and other South Asian ost religion of the "Yakkha Cult' whose . A comparative analysis of the Yakkha the Judaic and Cananite religions proves milarities with the Semitic religions of the he juristic tendencies of these pre-historic

Page 158
religions (i.e. one that requires the fulfiln ethics and morality rather than belief-alaw should live.The emphasis on the sacrifices (ten commandments), the worship of the Asia and Yakkha and Bali of South Asia) ti Judaic religion, cf. Sarpa) and the serpa communities in South Asia (India and Sri
"The household gods, family gods a the primary Godhead- of the West Asia origin and the Granadevatas Kuladevatas family deities of South Asian primitive re. larger pantheon under the control of april all probability could be adeified cosmicpov cf. the later Mahayana Buddhist con Cosmocrator.)
"The shrines dedicated to the panth who performed the sacrificial ceremonies Jesus Christ). In Buddhist texts and Sri Lar to as Cetiyas - Yakkha Cetiyas - which hav
accepted the new religion of the Buddha.
The Mosaic phase of Judaic religior This tendency is found even in early Ther Islam.
* An investigation of the religion or r region communities is a matter that has no up to date. The obsession of many scholar religion as found in the Rigveda that was religious beliefs and practices of the Indiar considered a factor that holds much va Indo-Aryans have been influenced by the 1 of the Indian Ocean region communities.T is a clear index to this. Even the religion of

lent of a Code based on work, practical ofrighteousness according to which man and the sacrificial objects, the decalogue cultic Godhead (Yahweh, Baal of West hrough the symbol of a brazen Seraph (of nt cult the Naga cult) of pre-Buddhist Lanka) and Southeast Asia."
nd tribal gods who are manifestations of tic Biblical religionists of pre-Christian (the village deities and the household or ligion) who are also representatives of a mary Godhead - the Maha Yakka, who in wer manifested in the sun (the Solar deity. cept of Mahavairocana Buddha, the
eon of minor deities and their priesthood (condemned both by the Buddha and the kan chronicals these shrines are referred 2 been destroyed by the people once they
developed a dislike towards iconolatry. avada Buddhism and firmly followed by
eligions of the pre-historic Indian Ocean ft been thoroughly undertaken by anyone 's that it was the Indo-European (Aryan) primarily responsible in the formation of Ocean region communities could not be lidity on the above analysis. Even the more popular religion (or religious cults), The fourth Veda known as Atharvan Veda the Sakyas, the clan to which the Buddha
151

Page 159
was born, was supposecly a type of Yakk wasa Yakkhaknown as “Sakya Vardhana was offered in the same manner babies v the present day at village shrines of deitie folk in Sri Lanka and many other Sout understanding of the origins of the cultur one has to get rid of such obessions ord Vedic pre-eminence in the Indian Ocea to understand the broader perspectives theatre- the Indian Ocean and its peri Australasia (including the Pacificislands dispersion)- has to be undertaken with cl notions, obsessions and prejudices.
"The linguistic formations and evolu region could only be reconstructed t comparison of the Veddha and Australia it could yield very promising and exiting cite a few Australian aborigine words at
Domestic utensils and weap proto-historic man of the region can a reconstruction of the cultural fabric of t the piece of wood used by the primitive
boomerang; the mythical Cakrayudha-t
(enemy) could hit it and return to 1
Boomerang).
The above analysis throws at leas traits, affinities in religious beliefs and artefacts of cultural value, that the mani
But to explain how such parallelis not an easy task unless we can show defi matter that various conjectures, suppositi by scholars. Knowledge pertaining to the
152

ha religion. The patron deity of the Sakyas at whose shrine the newborn baby Buddha rere offered to redeam vows (bara) even in s (Grama devatas) by devotees among rural h Asian countries. Therefore for a better es of the Indian Oceanregion communities, lusions as the Aryan predominance or the in region cultural theatre. A new approach of the culture of early man in the entire hery- the West Asia, Southeast Asia and as the eastern most frontier of this cultural earness of mind and without pre-conceived
utions of the early man of the Indian Ocean hrough survivals of tribal languages. A in Aborigine words is vital in this regard as g results (Mikatra, vaga vaga, Koomari, to random).
bons used by the present day survivors of lso provide valuable results towards the he Indian Ocean region communities (e.g. man; the Veddha club and the Aborigine he discoid weapon once hurled at a target he thrower; cf. Sinhalese Bamara and
t some light on the similarities of cultural practices, parallelism in the objects and in Indian Ocean region possessed.
ms, similarities and affinities took place is lite proofs of cultural impacts. It is on this ons, and plausibilities have been suggested methods of early transport by man in the

Page 160
region is a primary factor that one has to above the theory suggested by the Norw Hardayal on early cross-Oceanic navigatio (For primitive types of boat building that see, Jeffrey Millefoot, Australian Nationa Review, ed. K. Mcpherson, Perth, Vol.1, 1 through land routes is the other proce: maintained. The primary question of what achieve this is also a matter worth conside new pastures, natural calamities or esca problem faced by the Jews of Mosiac time. the Yakkhas of pre-historic Sri Lanka), ort people of diverse cultures to meet one a and absorb; to give and reciprocate. All investigatedinastudyaimed towardsunde culture of Indian Ocean region communiti
Our knowledge of the pre-historic culture of Indian Ocean communities is sti for this knowledge on a few attempts to inv select cultural sites.
The great antiquity of the early begi Pacific Islands is also a matter worth rec cultural communities, because it has now island people who comprise Melanesian, have originated as migratory groups from and Papua New Guinea, at a period betw. this migratory process the Indian Ocean significant role. These are however widera cultural communities, hence could be ove advocate for the cultural theatre of the I could be lightly taken or shalowly treated thought as well as the facts pertaining to a cultures of the Indian Ocean region con further investigated before conclusions a

olve in this respect. We have referred to egian explorer cum archaeologist Thor when man was still using primitive tools. have survived even up to modern times, il Maritime Museum, The Indian Ocean no. 4, for 1988, pp. 22f ). Communication is by which the cultural contacts were was the provocation of the early man to ring. Was it war, conquest, acquisition of pe from annihilation of one's kind (the s and the Sakyas of the Buddha's day and he mere thrill of exploration that brought nother; to mix and share; to accomadate these factors have to be analysed and :rstanding the broaderperspectives of the es, which poses a challenge to any scholar.
; and proto-historic layers (strata) of the lvague. Therefore we are still dependant restigate, at random, and also at particular
nnings and the evolution of the people of koning in a study of Indian Ocean region | been established by scholars that these Polynesian, and Micronesian ethnic types 1 south and southeast Asia via Indonesia een 3000 to 6000 years ago' Therefore in region cultures could also have played a spects of the study of Indian Ocean region rlooked. But in a overall study which we ndian Ocean, none of these perspectives , let alone ignored. The above line of possible inter-relationship of pre-historic munities as proposed by us, have to be re arrived at. The customs, habbits,
153

Page 161
beliefs, cults and practices of these col Ocean could not have begun all of a suc These could not have developed in iso affinities are too striking than otherwis commonsubstratum for the culture oft prevalence of an awareness of each othe earliest times. -
Our thesis however incomplete as this aspect of study. We expect that furth the future scholars as well as the stude broader perspectives of Indian Ocea subsequent period in the centuries aftel
54

mmunities in the vast region of the Indian lden with the dawn of the historical period. lation either because their similarities and e. Therefore it is reasonable to postulate a he Indian Ocean region communities and a rs' cultures, by these communities from the
it seems, is aimed at throwing more light on her investigations on these lines will provide nts a better opportunity to understand the un region cultural formations during the r the Christian era.

Page 162
N O TE S
1. See C.E.Godakumbura, Asanagharas, Paranavitana Felicitat
see also A.D.T.E.Perera, The Asanaghara Shrines in ancient Sr
(JRASSB), New Series, Vol.20, for 1976, pp.31-41.
2. Samyutta Nikaya PTS, London, Vol.1, p.207.
3.A.A.Macdonall, Lectures on comparative religions. Calcutta
(ERE), Vol.6, pp.254, see further ERE(op.cit), Vol.2, p.290.
4. Vinaya Pitaka, PTS, London, 1964, pp.24ff; A. A. Macdon
(DPPN), Vol.1, p.423 f; Manorathapurani, Commentary to th
5. See, A.D.T.E.Perera, Sigiriya, was it the Mohenjadaro of Sr
notes and querries; Id. Yatala Vehera was it a pre-historic Yak
1977, pp.299-304; Id. Rediscovery of the sacred Seat on which
1978, Colombo, pp. 28-36.
6. See the article, South Pacific' in Australian Foreign Affairs

onVolume, ed.N.A.Jayawickrama,Colombo, 1965, pp.159-171;
iLanka, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. SriLanka Branch
1925, pp.119 ff; See also, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
eil, op.cit.,p.123; See also the Dictionary of Pali Proper Names,
e Anguttaranikaya, PTS, London. I, pp. 165 f.
i Lanka?JRASSB. New Series, Vol.17, for 1973, pp.xxviii-xxix,
kha shrine? The Buddhisi, YMBA Colombo, Vol.25, no.11, for
the Buddha sat at Kelaniya, The Buddhist, Vesak Annual for
Record, Vol. 54, no.8, August 1983, pp. 379-402.
155

Page 163


Page 164
A TALE OF
B
Gregory
al
M. H.
INTRODUCTION
Two strikingly similar bead/seals have bee of the greater tradition of the Indus Civ] shaped" objects, with geometric designs
first of these (Figure 2) is unpublished ar Rojdi (LAR 1962 - 63 : 8). It is presenti Archaeology in Ahmedabad. The second
1988 : 100, Pl. 81) was found at Mehrgar of the Indus Valley, atthefootof the Bola different cultural and chronological conte to be a sound one.

TWO SEALS
L. Possehl
d
Raval
nfound in Bronze Age sites that are apart lization (Figure 1). Both are flat, "wingcaved or molded onto their surface. The d comes from the 1962-63 field season at y with the Gujarat State Department of of these bead/seals (Figure 3, Anonymous n on the Kachi Plain on the western edge nPass. While these bead/seals come from xts, the comparative parallel would seem

Page 165
O Aq Kupruk . حس-۰۰حریر
AFGHANISTAN
g
• Mundigak s Y Deh morasi _n-c آر. به
Ghundai - 3 op
a محمحمد ν : سی ... م" c Said Kala ...so s Kili Ghul K. Gardan Reg Mohammad
ཡོད་། Damb śadaat**Faiz Mqhamm, ༥ S...کس.سی. حساس مرد. ح ۲۰ س...اس.س *Dabar Mehrgarh, "Kirota «Gau
y PAKISTAN Nausharo. Da
1. Nad-i Ali Shahr- Sokhta
Nindowari Pandi Wahi "لاسہ، سہ.. برہ Ar’s Mehi>~
í ஆ Sehwan Sutkagen-dor Edith ShahrVo G, o Chanhu
sotka Koh Niaí But
ARABAN SEA
Distribution of
Urban Harappan Phase (2550-1900 BC) and Related Sites
O 200 4OOKM
LIII || — ||—||—
158
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

\ ܓ ܐ ܓ
r/
* محمية *
y .• . . مرمر o Shortugai /"をベー。
Sites ،بصبر ملا - ފެނިއި CHINA
V // -سم...، سی-۰. -حبی
y Jhafîg o o
y ܘܘܙܳ6 oBannu - د.م.
Mianwali Rehman
the Y
Hisham riano Dherị ihundai
O Chandigarh d O Hulas Bargaon
Vainiwal Daulatpuro IV * kot Kudwala Siswal NB li o Krishni hd Lurewala ) sgwa (ဗုဒnawal no *క- Rakigarhi
: ... Manpur / Kalibangan Sothi Mitathal
O
- Alamgirpur محمد Ganwariwala ہسہ م.
حس. م. حسی
njo-daro aro-daro
l Bagor haro Bhiro
nio Pir M onј Sor
; Yمجوسی ”
e Kuntasi Adamgarh Cave O
Rangpuro
hwar Babaro Namadaناظ
Rojdi • oriyoo
Prabhas Patan (Somnath)
Fig. 1

Page 166
်မြို့တွိ့မ္ယက္စိမ္ယး
O 1
Figure 2, The Rc
Figure 3, The M
 
 

2 cm
jdi bead | seal
ehrgarh bead / seal
59

Page 167
THE ROJDI BEAD/SEAL
The Rojdiseal is make of blue-gr
comes from Period II, Sub-phase B, d account of this work is short and can be
Period I provided a sequence of Harappan, while Phase B showe
In Phase A a mud-platform lime-floorings, alternated with showed signs of intense bu buff, coarse-corrugated, reserv Associated finds include microll beads of shell, carnelian, steatite
Sub-phase B reflected the ma settlement. Ceramics of the coarse-corrugated and micaceou typical Indus forms with scarlet fragment of the Prabhas Ware a paintings in black and bown arew this Sub-phase give a range of 19, 199 respectively, calculated at 57.
More recent excavation at Rojdi ha
Raval 1989) with our Rojdi B dating to (Klein, et al. in press).
160

en faience and is broken. It is labeled and 'signated by M.A. Dhaky. The published quoted here.
wo Phases: (Earliest) Phase A was purely
links with Prabhas.
was found to support a succession of seven mud-ramming, the lower three of which rning. The ceramics comprised red, ed slipped and micaceous pink wares. thic blades of jasper and chalcedony and and faience.
terial prosperity and expansion of the
preceding sub-phase, such as buff, spink ware continued. A few dishes in the slip recalled the Lustrous Red Ware. A nd two sherds of cream slipped ware with orth mentioning. Two carbon-14 dates from '0+115 and 1745 + 105 B.C. (TF-200 and 30 as half-life value).
s sustained this periodization (Possehl and 300-2000 B.C. based on calibrated dates

Page 168
Rojdi B PRL
PRL
PRL
PRL
čojdi A PRL.
PRL
PRL
PRL
PRL
PRL
PRL
5568
Half-life
-1282
1281
-1088
-1083
-1285
ー1284
-1089
-1093
-1283
-1087
-1085
3470+140
3520+110
3770-125
3875土125
3740+140
3810-100
3865士115
3920+105
3980+100
4010+105
402005
B.P.
B.P.
BP
B.P.
B.P.
B. P.
B.P.
B.P.
B.P.
B.P.
BP
Hall
16
16
2C
2C
21
21
21
These new dates from Rojdi al
two other dates gathered as a par
the site (Table 2).

LE 1
s for Rojdi A & B
730 Callibrated lf-life Date
20 B.C. 2000—1665 в.с.
80 B.C. 2015-1710 B.C.
30 BC. 2420-1980 B.C.
40 в.с. 2640-2160 B.C.
}00 B.C. 2410-1945 B.C.
80 BC. 2415-2135 B.C.
)30 B.C. 2640-2150 B.C.
90 B.C. 2645-2310 B.C. 40 в.с. 2660-2385 B.C. 80 B.C. 2680-2515 в.с.
90 B.C. 2680-2515 B.C.
are not significantly different fron
t of the 1962/63 season of work at
6

Page 169
TABE
Radiocarbon Dates
5568 573
Half-life Half
TF-200 3810-110 B.P. 1975 B
TF-199 3590+110 B.P. 1745 В
If these dates are averaged usi
the Quaternary Isotope Laboratory at
chronology for Rojdi is as follows:
Rojdi B 2139-1983 B Rojdi A 2471-2367 B
162

... 2
; From Rojdi IB
ife
ه C •
C
Callibrated Date
2415-2135 B.C.
2160-1850 B.C.
ng the computer program CALIB from
: the University of Washington the
.C. .C.

Page 170
THE MEHRGARH BEAD/SEAL
The Mehrgarh bead/seal is grey terra to Period VII at the site which is estimate beginnings of the Mature, Urban Phase o entry indicates that there is a second, SI which is "...tout a fait exceptionale au E (Anonymous 1989; 100). The example fr
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This bead/seal type has a remarkab seems to have a history of something appr to readjust the radiocarbon chronology f occurrence of such an object, but it is ofte at times open doors, or admit new ideas a the Greater Indus Valley. This is justifica

-cotta and is perforated. It has been dated dat ca. 2800 B.C.. It thus just precedes the the Harappan Civilization. The catalogue aller, unillustrated, example of this type aluchistan et dans la vallee de 1’Indus". om Rojdi changes this, of course.
le low level of occurrence for a type that oachinga millennium. We do not propose or either Rojdi or Mehrgarh based on the in small, relatively obscure things that can bout the cultural dynamics of a region like tion enough for presenting this parallel.
163

Page 171
BBLOGRAPHY
Anonymous 1989LBSCITESOUBLIEESDEINDUS: Arch Guimet.
Indian Archaeology, A Review 1962-63 Excavations at Rojdi
Klein, J., J.c. Learman, P.E. Damon and E.K. Ralph in CHRONOLOGIESNOLD WORLD ARCHAEOLOGY.
Possehl, Gregory L. And M.H. Raval 1989 HARAPPAN C American Institute of Indian Studies.
164

cologie du Pakistan. Paris: Musee NationaldesArts Asiatiques,
Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India:8.
press one sigma calibration tables. In, robert Ehrich, ed 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
VILIZATION AND ROJDI. Delhi: Oxford & BH for The

Page 172
A TECHNIQUE OF POLYEST ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBJECTS US
VULOCANSED RUB]
By
H. R. Pren
Glass fibre reinforced Polyester Resin is: and its use in sculpture is still more recent
The first time I saw this being used for the film Cleopatra. Already the set assembled in a site in Hollywood, when the the original set made in Plaster-of-Parisc make the whole structure out of the reinfo
Being the massive job that it was, the w I saw it. Later, I had occasion to see the wo this material at another studio. The mould trade name of "Vinamold".
In the early 40s, I had made some sculptures, dolls, etc. usingjelly moulds. T cotton and a filler of powdered brick, a pri Mr. Duncan de Alwis, then working at th (M.R.I) as its modeller. Casts were made interesting-but expensive-hobby. Some g most of which were given away as present
As construction Engineer - Colombo, convert an old Royal Airforce (RAF) hang Hall capable of accomodating not only th gathering of local and foreign dignitaries a of the Independence of Ceylon now Sri L in February 1948.
14 S.P.C. 90683

CER RESIN CASTING OF SING FLEXBLE MOULDS OF
BER LATEX.
maratne .
a comparatively new structural material
for Architectural casts was for a stage set had been made of Plaster-of-Paris and 2 authorities decided to film it in Italy. As ould not be transported, they decided to orced polyester resin process.
whole process was mechanised at the time ork done manually, and even to work with ls were made of a synthetic rubber by the
a small flexible moulds of parts of stone he jelly was stiffened by reinforcing it with ocess claimed to have been developed by he Colombo Medical Research Institute : in Plaster-of-Paris or wax. This was an oodcasts were obtained from the process,
S.
it became my responsibility in late'47 to eratTorrington Square intoan Assembly le Houses of Parliament but also a large ind the general public for the Declaration anka by H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester

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I had visions of a grand Durbar Hall of the Anuradhapura period, with or "Makara' (dragon) balustrades and "Punk
For this purpose I decided to get ca: mould method. I made two flexible moul I believe, was the largest job of its kind made three pairs of plaster casts and one of jelly, and though the possiblitity of m: mind, there was no opportunity or need t
Whilst working on the sets for the st use rubber latexfor making ornaments.T treated to vulcanize.
In the late sixties, I was invited by the a set of casts of Archaeological objects to C, U.S.A. Time allowed as usual was very flexible.
I had used 'Vinamold', before, and was a hot application and unsuited for th imported was "Cold-Cure Silastomer' whi mould built up by laying strips of gauze in be imported at high cost and large quar material was airlifted, the time factor whi the whole exercise.
Faced with this predicament, I thoug on the job. I discussed the matter with Scientific and Industrial Research (CISIR was a Senior Officer in the Rubber Resear of Colombo. He prepared a latex com Vulcanize. I bought a quantity of this and
166

fit for the occasion, with a raised platform late steps flanked by guardstones, with alas” as the central theme.
its of authentic guardstones using the jelly ds of the guardstones at Thuparama. This, attempted to date. From these moulds, I of wax. So far flexible moulds I used were aking latex moulds had flashed across my o pursue this further.
age play “Siri Sangabo”, I had occassion to nese were made in plaster moulds and heat
then Director of Cultural Affairs to make be sent for an exhibition in Washington D limited. All moulds had of necessity to be
even had a small quantity with me, but it e purpose. A more suitable material also ch could be applied on the object and the pregnated with the liquid. But this had to |tities were required. Besides, unless the ch was our constraint would have vitiated
ht of using rubber latex and vulcanizing it some officers of the Ceylon Institute of ), and also consulted a friend of mine who ch Section of Richard Pieris and Company pound which had to be heat-treated to. made some trial moulds.

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The latex could not be used in its liqui of cotton gauze and pasting on the objec the main defect being the difficulty of get
I thought of an additive to make th idea of using cotton flock as again the cost approach to it was to use chopped cottor prevalent waste from tailoring establish about 1/4" lengths, made fluffy and mixe satisfactory paste.
This mix Iused for my very first flexit was taken off a wax cast of the Thuparama guardstone placed on a low table was giv should suffice. The first coat was appliedt bubbles on the surface. When this coat carefully and not too vigoursly, as not to c
When this coat was also dry, a third latex cotton waste mix covering the wh beginning from one end. The paste was la were put on to give the required thicknes
Then I heated the whole mould usin This was not a convenient process. This c
All this while I was urging my friend external heating. Whithin a couple of wet what he termed "prevulcanized" compou field it has not to be heat treated. Sun a being used to this day. Richard Pieris & C this to order.
Another major breakthrough was w waste with Kapok fluff. Halfway throught

d form, so I first tried impregnating pieces t. I found this tedious and unsatisfactory, ting rid of the entrapped air. -
e latex into a paste. I had to abandon the would have been prohibitive. The nearest waste (not to be confused with the now ments). The cotton waste chopped into dwell with latex compound made a very
ble mould of rubber latex. The first mould guardstone I had with me from 1947. The en a few coats of latex compound - three aking care to prevent the formation of air was dry, I applied the second coat again listurb the lower coats.
coat was applied and whilst wet, Ilaid the ole figure. This was done systematically id thinly and a sufficient number of coats S.
g heater bulbs for a about a day and half. ould not be done in the field.
for a compound which needed little or no »ks he came out with a selfvulcanizing, or hd. This proved to be a great boon. In the nd air is all that it needed. This is what is ompany and one or two other firms make
then we started replacing chopped cotton the project I had undertaken, whilst taking
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moulds at Anuradhapura, we ran short mould and were searching for somethin spilling over. I used this to supplement til waste. Thereafter there was no chopping
filler.
MAKING A FLEXIBLE MOULD
Two principal ingredients for mak
(a) Self vulcanizing latex compou (b) Loose and fluffy Kapok.
Also required are parting agents to agent should not be harmful to the object products are available. Softwaxes lightl
The "master" from which the mou dirt and dust. On an exposed outdoors free the object of dust. I apply a coat or it off the object. All the loose dust and leaving a clean surface to work on. (D hardness in which case it may not peel c
Moulds can broadly be divided inti
(a) One piece mould generally us plaque or a panel in relief or even a gua
(b) Two piece moulds for taking or statue or a three dimensional object.
In making a two piece mould, th mould must be decided on first. Alon plasticine. This barriershould be flat and on which the mould is to be taken first. I
168

of cotton waste for just a small section of a g. We came across a tornpillow with kapok eshortage by mixingit with chopped cotton
of cotton waste. Kapok is now the standard
ing flexible moulds are
nd and,
facilitate stripping off of the mould. Parting ... Waxes, light oils and even soaps and patent y applied is largely used.
ld is to be taken is now well cleaned free of culpture, I use the latex compound itself to two of latex compound and when dry peel dirt will come off with the peeled rubber on't keep this application to dry to brittle
ff).
o two categories for our purpose. They are:
ed for making a mould of an object like a rdstone.
asts of objects in the round such as a head
line of separation of the two parts of the g the line a barrier is built, preferably of smooth on the front face, that is the section may be about two and halfinches high. On

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the flat surface of the plasticine barrier n raised toggles on that half of the mould fo (see the sketch).
Having prepared the "master" them apply a parting agent on the appropriate latex compound into a container and app area including the flat surface of the barr to avoid air bubbles. When the coat is di third coat, taking precautions to avoid sifficiently dry to permit the nextcoat to a COat.
If individual coats are allowed t separation adversly affecting the mould vigorousforit might distrubthe coat und
Once the two (or three) coats are co coat and whilst it is still wet, apply the ru done by hand or by a spatula. (I prefer compact mould can be obtained this way
For preparing the latex kapok mi preferably a plastic bowl and add loose a by hand, until a sufficiently thick mix is ob of course must be thoroughly impregnate not be so wet that latex will drain and c. which will dry unevenly and contract and on drying the longer it is kept. Therefor possible as soon as the mould is stripped
Generally about three or four coat the mould to areasonable thickness. Eacl but not too much before the next layer is layer must be painted over with latex co one to the other.This is important for

lake indentations which will reproduce as r subsequent registration of the two halves
ould of the object to be castin this manner face of the object. Then take some of the ly on the surface carefully to cover all the ier with its indentations. Take precautions ty, apply a second coat, and if necessary a air bubbles. Each coat should be only dhere to the former to forma homogenious
o dry too much, there can be a plane of l. Also brushing the latex should not be erneath and dislodge it from the "master".
implete and sufficiently dry, apply another bber kapok mix in thin layers. This can be the hand method as a much denser and a
..)
X, get some compound in to a container, und fluffy kapokandmix, again preferably rtained, not too dry nor too wet. The kapok d with the latex compound. The mixshould bllect in pools and result in a poor mould deform. (Note that latex moulds contract e I make all the casts required as early as rom the"master". This ensures a true cast).
s of the paste will be sufficient to build up llayer should be allowed to dry sufficiently added. They must be thin layers and each impound to ensure that the layers adhere otherwise the layers have a tendency to
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separate when the mould is stripped. V surface is smoothened and two or three the surface even.
When the first half of the moulc plasticine barrier taking care not to loos and remove any plasticine adhering to t second half of the object, not forgetting 1 rubberlug with its toggles. Now repeatth two or three coats of latex compound asl the rubberlug formed round the partir before and build it in layers to the requie inch or more according to the size of the it should yet not be removed from the "n
bl ldi ial and this the "naster". This is required to support the "master" and to keep the mould in pc
One Piece Mould A guardstone appropriate modifications as necessary guardstones free of dust and dirt, then a Some guardstone have plain framesands and sides with figures carved on them.T I have always taken them as one piece mc process. I provide apartial separation on to front. This provided for two flaps and e the flaps. In not so ornate and shallow gua open with a sharp knife, and carefully join together for casting. The back of the guar were any special features I would take a plain and a suitable backplate was made
As stated earlier, after complet undistrubed for sometime with the "mast to contract quickly is great if the mouldi
70

(hen a sufficient thickness is built up the coats of latex compound applied to make
is dry and well set, remove carefully the 2n the rubber round the edges. Then clean he "master", apply the parting agent to the o apply the parting agent on the projecting process carried out on the first half. Apply before covering the exposed area including g line. Then lay the rubber kapok mix as d thickness, say half to three quarters of an object. Having completed the mould thus
laster". A casing-built Over and around the
hilst the rubl ldi the flexible mould when it is stripped off )sition.
is best done in a one piece mould with . The process is as before to clean the pply aprting agent and proceed as before. ides whilst others have ornamental frames nese can be taken as two piece moulds, but uldsby making a slight modification in the the top of the guardstone mould from back nabled the sides to be released by opening rdstones I simply made the flaps by slitting ing the two, when necessary, stitching them lstone is generally dressed smooth. If there separate mould of it. but mostly they were from a flat rock cut impression.
ing the rubber mould it should be kept r" for it to dry. The tendency for the rubber stripped to early.

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When the rubber is well set, in the works I made the cases in plaster of paris. I resin cases were more practicable and e making a plaster case was a straight forw object with planks, cardboard, oran suitab with plasticine or clay and pour the plastel see that the whole "master" is fully covere faces this was difficult and I made a thic Moulds were made firm and strengthened reepers which were then placed on the mo a composite mould. It is to be noted that with hessian scrim or suitable material.Ca toggles or some means for correct registra complete and firmly set they can be sepa master. Each case with its mould should no It is advisable to keep the two parts of the are joined then the space inside should be mould from sagging and deforming.
The largest casing I have done in Anur-adhapura and the most complicated (both one piece moulds) also at Isurumuni casings in reinforced polyester resin. Cas distoration. In this work orderliness and c clean the "master" carefully and thoroughly even in distilled water, and tidying the sur
Having completed the moulds, we h dealing here in making casts in glass fibre
A word about the material is require (a) Glass fibre hopped strand mat (b) laminating polyester resin.
Glass fibre reinforcement: Glass di window glass. The fibre is not brittle, is

object the case is made. In all my earlier ater I found that the reinforced polyester asier to handle. In a simple flat mould ard operation - make a fence round the le material, and if the edges were uneven of paris over the "master" taking care to :d and free of entrapped air. On vertical k mixture of plaster and laid it by hand. by suitable shapes made of scantlings and uld before the plaster was applied to form plaster of paris too should be reinforced ses for two piece mouldstooshould have tion of the two halves. When the cases are arated and the mould stripped from the ow be carefully stored to prevent warping. moulds in their cases separately. If they packed compactly to prevent th flexible
plaster of paris is for the moonstone at
one was for the Man and Horse sculpture, yat Anuradhapura. Now of course Imake es have to be sufficiently rigid to prevent leanliness are important. Don't forget to , washing in clean water, where necessary roundings.
ave to set about making the cast. We are reinforced polyester resin.
‘d. Principally, the materials used are: and
awn into filaments is very different from flexible and has high tensile strength. A
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strand of glass fibre perhaps contains a filament.
Chopped strand mat which we are chopped into pieces of about 2 inch le together with a sizing which dissolves in are several other basic types such as glas glassfibre tissue or surface mat, glassfib
Polyester resin is a petroleum prod purposes. What we need most for our w a liquid, and thixotropic resin which com into a solid with the addition of a catalys
To control the curing time, a chem resin is marketed with the accelerator a more convenient for our purpose.
When the required amount of cat mixed, it begins to harden or polymerise. heat within the mix, and the liquid turns into a solid. The time taken for the mixtl as the gel time and varies according to ti longer when the mixis applied and spre volume. The workable time of a catalise the container or the mixing pot before (known as pot life). Therefore the harde of the mix as could be fully used before i
For making glass fibre reinforced chopped mat, polyster resin, thixotropic fillers and tools brushes and ancillary creams,etc., and also such solvents (for thinner or acetone.
72

many as 200 extremely fine hairs of glass
using consists of multifilament glass fibre ngths and randomly distributed and held olyester resin. Besides chopped mat, there sfibre scrim, which is a loose weave cloth, e ribbon, etc., used for different purposes.
ict. It comes in different grades for various ork is the laminating resin which comes as es in the form of a jelly. The resin changes t (sometimes called the hardener).
tical accelerator is added to the resin. The dded or without. The accelerated resin is
alyst is added to the resin and thoroughly This is a chemical reaction which produces into jelly first and then gradually hardens ire to turn from a liquid to a jelly is known 2mperature, humidity,etc. The gel time is ad to rather than when it in a container in i resin mixture is the time it will remain in turning into a gel and begins to harden, ner should be added only to such quantity tbegins to gel and solidify.
olyester resin casts, we require glass fibre resin, accelerator, catalyst, pigments and material such as release agents, barrier cleaning brushes) as methylated spirits or

Page 180
Fillers are required mostly for sculpt
For most of my work, I make my ow varities, granite to micasious stone and li limestone does react slightly with polyest change, which I turned to good advantag powder for casts of a terra-cotta head. Also on the nose of the man and horse sculptur to the pigmented resin. I have evenusedt as filler and made some excellent reprodu import some bronze powder.
I have nothesitated to try out innova correct colour and texture of the cast from and details in the mould itself so that tl completed cast.
For instance the Buddha and Ambalantota and from Tissamaharam adhering to them. I touched them in the Also I have got goodsimulations of bambo paturu) by this process. Much experimenta
For making a cast, gel coat sufficient fo be made in the first instance, otherwise ch in the finished cast.
Pigments can be obtained from the Innat.
After the gel coat is prepared, take begins to set in the vessel, add about 1% ( catalised gel mix on the mould treated w brush (I use the Ravi brand or equivalen

ureS.
n fillers. I use finely crushed stones of all mestone. Though fillers should be inert, er resin mix with some degree of colour ge. I remember using ground calicut tile ) to simulate the texture of cement plaster 2 at Isurumuniya, I added a little fine sand horoughly dry wood flour and paddy husk ictions of wood carvings. Only once did I
tive methods. Inot only strived to get the the gelcoat, but also incorporated colours here was little or no touching up of the
bodisatva heads from Yatala and from a had in them bits of egg-shell plaster mould and got a perfect and natural cast. os, arecanut stumps, plantainstrips (kehel ation and imagination had gone into these.
ora full application over the mould should langes in the colour and texture can occur
: dealers who supply resin and glass fibre
as much mix as could be applied before it of hardener, and mix well. Then brush the ith a parting agent, useing a stiff yet soft t) making sure that all nooks and crevices
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are well covered and that no airpock
When the entire surface is uni before laminating begins. In our temp - 30 minutes. Whilst the gel coat is laminating stage. Laminating mix shou filler and also a lesser percentage of th
Remembering that the pot life i resin mix that can be used before it get laying in position. when the gel coat has mix on the gel coat, place the glass ma forcing the mix up through the glass f overlap the other already laid by aböut the edges by about two inches. About th thatall theglassfibreiscompletely satur Resin mix sufficient to saturate the final
Casting a two piece mould is slight
cast the two halves separately and thenj mould.
The gel coat is painted over a part I edge. when the gel coat has cured, and hi. that they are fully covered treat the othe the gel coat has hardened sufficiently, ap mat and laminate as before. The glass r prevent fouling when joining.
When the two half moulds have cul that they are in proper register and tie t provide bolts and nuts for this purpose). add catalyst, and pour the mix into the m
gel coat covers the seam fully right round CCS,
74

are left.
mly covered the gel coat is left to harden ature and humidity this may take about 20 etting preparations can be made for the be made as for the gel coat but without the otropic paste resin (about 10%).
limited add the catalyst to only that much hardened. Glass fibre should be cut up for hardened sufficiently brush the laminating on top and tamp it with a stippling action bre. Each piece of glass fibre mat should in inch or so and the final one overlapping ree layers should be the minimum. Ensure ited and that no air bubbles are left trapped. layer is all that is needed.
ly different. Here the method I adopt is to "oin them together unless it is a very small
hould going up to but not over, the joining her spots are carefully examined to ensure half mould also in similar fashion. When ly a coat of laminating mix and lay the glass at is stopped short of the joining edge to
d, bring them together in their cases, see m securely together (in larger moulds, I hen make up a mix of sufficient gel coat, ld down the seams making sure that the &eep the mould moving until the gel coat

Page 182
Next, cut up some strips of glassfib Also prepare some laminating mix and pc the adjoining glass fibre mat reinforceme: a time, and impregnate them well with t cover the joint as well as the adjoining g continous reinforcement across the seam. four hours - the mould can be stripped off: inself.
Casts should not be kept for undulylo. them off. The longer it is kept, the mored the rubber mould. I lost both the cast sculpture this way.
Casts, when released, should be ex rectified. Casts of two piece moulds ofte: These should be carefully chiselled off, a done with resin and appropriate filler wit
If parting agent is adhering to the cas suitable remover, and the cast finally tint
What I have described above is just o taking a cast off it in glass fiber reinforce
Though there are any processes of latex was solely developed here by a few
The largest cast made so far of Bodhisatva head (11 feet high). The mou the Archaeological Department under . Colombo by staff employed by me.
The largest cast of reinforced gl

remat one and a hlaf to two inches wide. urit over the seam and apply it well over ht. Place the glassfibre strips one piece at he laminating mix, making sure that they lass fibre reinforcement, so as to make a After a lapse of time - say about three or first the casing and then the rubber mould
ng periods in the moulds without stripping ifficult it becomes to release the cast from and the mould of an important piece of
(amined for possible flaws which must be n have some resin extruding at the joints. hd the joint touched up. Any filling can be h hardener added.
t, it can be removed by wiping off with the ed or painted to obtain the desired finish.
w
le process of making a flexible mould and d polyester resin.
making flexible moulds, moulds of rubber dedicated persons.
a rubber latex mould is the Dambegoda d was taken at site by the technical staff of my directions, and the cast was made in
ass fibre made in Sri Lanka is that of the
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Polonnaruwa Recumbent Buddha, made Court, London, in 1981, by staff of CEY of reinforced polyster resin bolted togeth
In taking rubber moulds, or any ki extremely careful to prevent any damag
doubts about the stability of the "maste from it.
There are many do's and don'ts. In enumerate them all.
The artist's first concern must undou
176

for the Commonwealth Exhibition at Earls NOR Company. Here, a split type mould ler was used.
nd of mould for that matter, one must be e whatsoever to the "master". If one has ", he should refrain from making moulds
a short article like this, it is not possible to
btedly be the preservation of the "master".

Page 184
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177

Page 185


Page 186
INDAN AND SRILANKAN EPIG By K. V. Ra
Countrary to what the title of my paper objective here is not so much to make a general format and contents of Indian and the common and differing factors in the na peoples which have made the epigraphy c are no doubt available in good measure in but departures from one another, which on the one hand, the inherent diversities ( numerous competing if not always mu segments and, one the other, the mostly u the centuries by the interplayof native and though continuously affected and occa elements, mostly from extreme peninsula
The most striking point is that simila to perennial contacts promoted by geogra differences of an abiding nature. For inst the epigraphical history of both the count time and with the employment of the same edicts of India, the early Brahmi inscriptio But the correspondence stops here. The empire, the Phonetic peculiarities of the for the palatals, and the inalieanable gl proto-Dravidian speech, through curious the archaic Sinhalese language which is n Brahmi inscriptions. The nature of the do inscriptions also differs; in the case of Ind the plains, with the exception of the early c like the latter, the nature of the donal inscriptions was dictated by the mountainc and rarely worked up caverns for the re. already there (agata) and also for the futuu

RAPHY-A COMPARATIVE STUDY
f V
maesh
outwardly seeks to convey, my primary
matter of fact comparison between the Sri Lankan inscriptions as to underscore tional psyche of the Indian and SriLankan of the two nations what it is. Parallelisms the epigraphical history of the two nations are no less significant, serve to highlight, of the Indian psyche, variously affected by Itually repellent cultural-cum-linguistic nitary Sri Lankan psyche built up through overly Indo-Aryan elements, peripherally sionally even threatened by Dravidian r South India.
rities are superficial and owe themselves phical proximity, and deeper down are the ance, on a superficial plane, we find that ries originates at almost the same point of script. With the exception of the Asokan ns of both the countries are brief and terse. 2 Prakrit dialects of the vast Magadhan eastern Indian tracts with a predilection utturals of the geographically proximate intermingling, had already given birth to oticeable even in the earliest Sri Lankan nations made and recorded in these early lia, the donative records mostly hail from ave inscriptions in Tamil Brahmiwhereas, tions recorded in the early Sri Lankan bus terrain and mostly consisted of natural sidence of the Buddhist monks who wer ce ones (anagata). What is more, while we

Page 187
INDIAN AND SRILANKAN EPI(
B
K. V. R:
Countrary to what the title of my pape objective here is not so much to make : general format and contents of Indian an the common and differing factors in the na peoples which have made the epigraphy are no doubt available in good measure in but departures from one another, which on the one hand, the inherent diversities numerous competing if not always m segments and, one the other, the mostlyl the centuries by the interplayofnative anc though continuously affected and occ elements, mostly from extreme peninsul
The most striking point is that simil to perennial contacts promoted by geogra differences of an abiding nature. For ins the epigraphical history of both the count time and with the employment of the sam edicts of India, the early Brahmiinscriptio But the correspondence stops here. Th empire, the Phonetic peculiarities of the for the palatals, and the inalieanable g proto-Dravidian speech, through curious the archaic Sinhalese language which is 1 Brahmi inscriptions. The nature of the do inscriptions also differs; in the case of In the plains, with the exception of the early like the latter, the nature of the dona inscriptions was dictated by the mountain and rarely worked up caverns for the re already there (agata) and also for the futu

GRAPHY. A COMPARATIVE STUDY
y amaesh
r outwardly seeks to convey, my primary a matter of fact comparison between the d Sri Lankan inscriptions as to underscore ational psyche of the Indian and SriLankan of the two nations what it is. Parallelisms the epigraphical history of the two nations are no less significant, serve to highlight, of the Indian psyche, variously affected by utually repellent cultural-cum-linguistic initary Sri Lankan psyche built up through loverly Indo-Aryan elements, peripherally asionally even threatened by Dravidian ar South India.
arities are superficial and owe themselves phical proximity, and deeper down are the tance, on a superficial plane, we find that ries originates at almost the same point of escript. With the exception of the Asokan ins of both the countries are brief and terse. e Prakrit dialects of the vast Magadhan : eastern Indian tracts with a predilection utturals of the geographically proximate intermingling, had already given birth to noticeable even in the earliest Sri Lankan onations made and recorded in these early dia, the donative records mostly hail from cave inscriptions in Tamil Brahmiwhereas, tions recorded in the early Sri Lankan ous terrain and mostly consisted of natural sidence of the Buddhist monks who wer ire ones (anagata). What is more, while we

Page 188
easily discern, right from the beginning, Prakrit and Sanskrit and between the ultimately leading to the triumph of the la of Sri Lanka no such internal conflict is predominant motivating force in relig followers of other faiths tacitly acknow comparison, these very same factors, en early Indian epigraphical scene, furn unknowable points of early Indian history the first impression gained is that of mc proved by some Sri Lankan scholars, the information on Sri Lanka's early socio-ec
Let us now examine, also on com writing in India and in Sri Lanka. It is co migration to Sri Lanka had begun as early it is being asserted by all scholars that introfuced into this island nation by then during the days of Asoka in the 3rd ce. argumentis the result of the peremptoryp all Indian inscriptions. On my part I hav establish that some of the early cave insc Brahmicharacters, from the Pandyan cou are pre-Asokanby virtue of the absence o importantly, the absence of the inheren employed therein. How does this preepigraphical scene as far as the antiquity delving into this question we must a p introduced into Sri Lanka was the practic and not the art of writing itself. It is a hist be written down with a borrowed scr. insulation. The written alphabet of Kanna tongues of South India, was originally bo Brahmi script and we know only too we influenced by Prakrit as well as Sanskrit I inscriptions were respectively written.
180

an ongoing battle for supremacy between Buddhist-Jaina and Brahmanical faiths, ter onthe Indian subcontinent, in the case liscernible, Buddhism having become the ous matters with the numerically weak edging this fact. Speaking on a note of inciated above, have added veriety to the ishing information on many otherwise while, in the case of Sri Lankan epigraphy, notony though, as has been competently y do provide on deeper study, worthwhile 'onomic history.
parative basis, the history of epigraphical inceded on all hands that the Indo-Aryan a in the 5th century B.C. At the same time the art of writing was for the first time hissionaries sent for religious propogation ntury B.C. To say the least, this line of remise that Asoka's are the earliest among re been labouring for some years now to riptions in archaic Tamil and rudimentary ntry, to the immediate north of Sri Lanka, faspirates, conjunct consonants and, more ta - vowel value in the bare consonants Asokan possibility affect the Sri Lankan of writing in this island is concerned? For diori assume that what Asokan Budhists of engraving inscriptions on rock surfaces orical fact that when a language begins to pt, it is found wanting in conservative da and Telugu, two of the major Dravidian rrowed from the Indo-Aryan strain of the ll how greatly these two languages were ight from the dates on which their earliest Dn the other hand, when a language is

Page 189
endowed with a script before it come language-culture, it would have develope influence. The degree of success of proportionate to the degree of dominance case of Srilanka, the absence of conjuctlet (eg. naka for naga, nakara for nagara, replacement of dentals with palatals (eg. of aspirates and their replacement by inas that even before the introduction of As orthography had been refuced to writing. Kannada and Telugu orthography wo orthography too. My argument is that til de-aspirations are indicative of the conti and that they would have succumbed to th had not been practised in writing in reasonably suppose that, like the anc pre-Asokan Sri Lankans also knew the ar and that, while the pre-Asokan Jaina m Asokan Buddhists merely converted this epigraphical medium in Sri Lanka. But, \ the Indo-Aryan dialect to local phor parallellisms in eastern and extreme Pei proper. Future discoveries and researche as to who employed this rudimentary Br Pandyan region or the Sri Lankans.
It is in this light that we have to tak the development of proto-Sinhalese lang usage of Dravidianmarumakafor grands for 'son'. An interesting fall out of this is the adapted form panumaka and its vi inscriptions. The borrowal here is obvio not from Palipamukha as is suggested by Once the form panumaka came into pop and maka came to be related to Dravidia which, on the Dravidian analogy of maka
AS S.P.C. 90683

es into contact with a more dominant :d an inbuilt natural resistance to outside
such resistance is, however, directly of the intruding language-culture. In the terforms, the gutturalisation of soft letters badakarika for bhandagarika etc.), the sagasa for Samghasa, etc.), the avoidance pirates, hard or soft, all these seem to show okan Buddhists, pre-Asokan Sri Lankan Otherwise the same fate which overtook uld have overtaken ancient Sinhalese hose gutturalisations, palatalisations and nuance of pre-Asokan linguistic features le influence of Asokan orthographyifthey pre-Asokan days. We may, therefore, ient Tamils of the extreme south, the t of writing in rudimentary Brahmi letters igrants did it for the Tamil country, the already locally available writing into an while doing so, the Sri Lankans subjected letics and spelling which had marked ninsular India rather then northern India salone will answer the resultant question ahmi alphabet first, the Tamilians of the
e note of the early Dravidian influence on guage as is tellingly brought home by the on' as against the usage of Indo-Aryanputa the analogical change that has resulted in ariants occurring in the proto-sinhalese usly directly from Sanskrit pramukha and 'the retention of the repha of prain paru. ular use, its origin was perhaps forgotten in makan (= magan = “son”) as a result of 1 (magal = "daughter) the feminine form
8

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parumakalu (lali) came to be used.
The next epoch in the epigraphical hist to commence with the decline of Buddhis) the subcontinent, of royal houses owin sucessively in and after the 4th century. naturally resulted in the sharp reduction o and missions to Sri Lanka resulting in fau linguistic, palaeographical and epig Thenceforward we see the development and Sinhalese language, palaeography a though not entirely on independent lines, influence. Naturally enough, the void crea was filled up by influences from geograp the Tamil Country in particular and, there region. This is nowhere better illustra medieval Sinhalese inscriptions and t developments and changes which were in
1. While, during the Buddhist epoch, as the main sources for enriching protoepoch, Sanskrit became the main source South India, all the ruling houses of Brahmanical faiths. The Kuchcheveli inscription, both of the 7th century, in Sa significant linguistic switch over. This succintly stated as the change over from S
2. Being by then far removed from t place in North India, the Sinhalese scrip the Grantha script of the Pandya and Pa developed to suit Indo-Aryan phonet inadequate for that purpose.
3. It is but natural that this close co tip of India got reflected in the form
182

ory of Sri Lanka should properly be taken min India after the establishment, all over gallegiance to the Brahmanical faiths, A.D. The loss of active royal patronage fofficially sponsored Buddhist migrations reaching changes in the political, social, raphical fabric of this island nation. of Sri Lankan Buddhism on the one hand ind epigraphy on the other, proceeding, certainly with much less direct Indo-Aryan ted by the decline in Indo-Aryan influence hically proximate South India in general, again, more particularly from the Pandyan ted than in the format and contents of heir palaeographical features. These ter-related may be listed as follows:
, the Prakrit dialects of North India served -Sinhalese vocabulary, in the subsequent and its import into Sri Lanka was through which were under the influence of the rock inscription' and the Tiriyay rock inskrit verse, stand at the threshold of this all-important transformation could be iddham to Sri or Svasti-Sri.
he scriptal developments that were taking t came to be tremendously influenced by lava kingdoms which had been specially ics, the Tamil alphabet having proved
ntact between Sri Lanka and the Southern at and contents of medieval Sinhalese

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inscriptions. But, when studied in proper Sanskritic elements in these Sinhalese re and independent nature of the Sinhalese of course, in the fact that, as in the ear medieval Sinhalese inscriptions continue which had long before virtually vanished of apreamble, an operative part and a medieval Sinhalese inscriptions as also th encouraged by the royal courts and a epigraphical preambles fall in line witl inscriptions. But the more communicativ not as communicative in detail as the Ch records. Again, from a perusal of the impr given, we are lead to believe that only Sinhalese imprecations were so compose a strictly Sri Lankan context.
These qualitative differences whic Lankan epigraphy is tellingly brought commemorative epigraphs, particularly much about the national psyche of the philosophy of self-denial and selfnear-obliteration in course of time, gets r inscriptions in Sri Lanka. Also this ma existence in India and its absence in Sri national psyche, segmentary in the case O. For in the case of India where natio) segmentary considerations, there was a g as spiritual, to draw men to the battle field

historical perspective, the Tamilian and cords only serve to heighten the distinct inscriptions. The basic reason for this lies, lier epoch, an overwhelming number of 2 to address their contents to Buddhism from the Indian soil. The general pattern n imprecatory portion noticed in many e vainglory, flamboyance and Ostentation amply reflected in medieval Sinhalese h the format of medieval South Indain e medieval Sinhalese inscriptions are still ola records but are nearer to the Pandya ecatory passages, wherever they are found the general idea was borrowed and that d as to suit the prevalent Buddhist faith in
h highlight the independent genre of Sri home by the absence in Sri Lanka of hero-stone inscriptions, which tell us so Indians. It is possible that the Buddhist abnegation, inspite of its universal eflected in the absence of such memorial jor difference may be attributed to the Lanka of the pressures generated by the f India and unitary in the case of Srilanka. nalism had always been challenged by reat need for incentives, material as well ls. This was not so in the case of Sri Lanka.
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NOTES
1. Ep. Zeyd, III, No. 13, pp. 158-61 and plate.
* Elio Ind, XXIII, pp. 196-97.

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DEVELOPNG PROGRAMMES FO
SUR
B
M. Red
Much has now beenpublished about und years a number of underwater excavat coverage. New discoveries and excavatio) underwater surveying, stratigraphic reco seafaring and trade. However, in concent years, one might gain the impression th intellectually and spiritually dead, living reality is that underwater archaeology ha speed. A growing number of professional time supervising underwater sites, w professionals in many countries.
More developing, countries nov archaeological sites ranging from (for exal vessel off Mombasa (Kenya), and trade c. century off Malaysia, to pre-European cr and wrecks in the Indian Ocean (rece increasing awareness of the cultural in maritime Zone by governments and instit
The vast number of sites whic opportunities. Whilst the sites are not all data means that specialists can search for time, spatial patterns and links and cau objects of intrinsic beauty or technical interpret them as parts of culture, trade, of living. Obviously those working on the land sites to make such tentative deduc information now means that more sophi basis of comparison between underwater

DR MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGICAL
VEY
у lknap
erwater archaeology, and in the last thirty ions have received considerable media ns have furthered the art and discipline of ording, and the interpretation of ancient rating on the high points of the last thirty hat underwater archaeology has become off the grandeur of its achievements. The s been developing and spreading at great archaeologists spend at least part of their hilst thousands of amateurs assist the
w support scientific work on underwater mple) the seventeenth century protuguese entres dating from the ninth to the twelfth aftoff Korea and Thailand, and early ports ntly reviewed press in Rao 1988). This nportance of archaeological sites in the utions is extremely encouraging.
h are now known provide us with new
of equal importance, the accumulation of
correlations, evolution and trends through
ses. Instead of treating artefacts only as
achievement, archaeologists can start to
economics, politics, industry and patterns
earlier excavations used comparisons with
tions, but the increasing accumulation of sticated analysis can be attempted on the
sites.
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There is a growing awareness archaeological heritage belongs to the community, and that nobody has the rigl that if a wreck (or city) is too expensive should be left and protected underwater. in many countries, if social priorities motorway, barrage, or oil well, then prev first.
Another important trend in underw many countries between amateurs and pri archaeologists stress that their work assistance. There are now sports diving f most of them show serious interest in ur not surprising that the number of new s. increasing rapidly.
Owing to its geographical position the sea lanes linking the Near East and important landfall for seafarers for cent Greek and Roman authors including Palladius and Cosmas Indicopluestes ( writers. Cheng-Ho's Muslim interpreter provides a description of country, and th the Basses Reefs (Mills 1970). Cheng-Hc the Island in the early 15th century and gi across the Indian Ocean. Li Chao (a Mal Lankan ships several tens of feet in heigh earlier cross continental contacts has be course many wrecks in Sri Lankan coasta expansion into South Asia. The Great formed the first attempt at the archaeolog off southern Sri Lanka. Analysis establish (reign of Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb dat built in southeast Asia (Clarke 1957, 196
186

in many countries that the underwater population at large, to the nation, to the t to destroy it or exploit it for private gain; o excavate and preserve in the dry, then it In parallel with principles applied on land demand the construction of a harbour ntative archaeology should be carried out
iterarchaeology relates to co-operation in ofessionals. Many professional underwater would be impossible without amateur derations in over sixty-five countries, and lderwater archaeology. Consequently it is tes reported to the authorities should be
in the Indian Ocean, centrally situated in the East Indies, Sri Lanka has been an res, being mentioned by over 40 classical Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Devendra forthcoming) and many later Ma Huan's Xing-yai Sheng-Lan (1433) 2 names of coastal harbour sites including 's naval expeditions made several trips to ive strong impetus to maritime commerce ndarin of the T'ang Empire) describes Sri it (Devendra forthcoming). The nature of in reviewed by Silva (1984). There are of waters dating to the period of European Basses reef expedition in the early 1960s ical exploration (albeit partial) of a wreck d that coins from the site came from Surat 2d 1702) and that the ship may have been , 1984; Clarke & Wilson 1964).

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In this paper, I would like to outlin tackle common areas of concern in marit
UNDERWATER CULTURAL, HERIT
The problems of establishing an effect archaeologyin Britain have recently been Nautical Archaeology Policy Committee 1989). They canbe simplified into (i) par underwater environment, (ii) the poor p planners, resource allocators, and the pu makes any work more expensive than onl The second area is clear to those of us in that it does not always have a very high st let alone some sport divers and other users of underwater archaeology is coloured purporting to be of an archaeological na undisciplined artefact recovery. The lack archaeological studies is, in part, due t disseminated through mainstream archae
EVALUATION OF THE ARCHAEO
This can be treated at two levels: (1) the management of a centralised site (2) active fieldwork including pre-emptiv
Information on submerged sites, b inundated landscapes and settlements, o. avariety of sources. Apart from archaeolo is collected by sport divers, commercial fis and here in Sri Lankatropical fish collect to be of "commercial value', and conse obtain through formal channels.

; some recent developments in Britain to me archaeology.
AGE MANAGEMENT
ive management policy for underwater the subject of several review papers (Joint 1989; McGrail 1989; Redknap and Dean ticular problems due to the nature of the erception of underwater archaeology by blic (iii) inadequate resources. The first and, and threatens the sruvival of the site. folved in underwater work who recognise (anding among our land-based colleagues of the sea. This is oftenbecause the image by the high profile of work sometimes ture, but which forms nothing more than of awareness of advances in underwater o the fact that information is too rarely :ological publications and conferences.
LOGICAL RESOURCE.
register of data, and e survey and site inspection/recording.
e they wrecks, harbours and anchorages, foreshore 'wetland' sites, can come from gical work, data of varying degrees ofvalue hermen, geophysical surveyors, engineers, ors. Some of this informationis considered fuently is often difficult or impossible to
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There is pressing need for c. particularly in the face of escalating in souvenir hunting, mineral extraction (s erosion, and port developments. What programme utilising available resources, situ of appropriate areas where high ar perceived threats. Effectiveness will de interest groups - such as recreational ince to directthe touristinterestawayfrom sol of interest groups in implementing the r
In Great Britain, data collection or U.K. territorial waters is part of the fun the Navy, and they have more than 100 within British territorial waters, most of wrecks. The National Maritime M archaeological records on over 80 sites shipwreck index which includes 1,600 pri which are in British waters. The Roy. (England)holds some200“underwater'si It has now proposed that a National Inver established and that studies.should be un strategies for the National Archaeologic Monuments Records. Provision has rece an enhancement of the NAR nationally ir forward.
Seabed evaluation has been under example, the National Maritime Museur and individual site assessment. The Archa Institute of Maritime Studies, University archaeologists contracted to the Depart administrating the safeguard provisions the Procedures for the disposal of wreck Shipping Act. The ADU provides the De sites proposed for designation, reports
188

llection and assessment of all this data, esity of threats to sites from salvage and uch as reef mining), coastal and seabed is required is an effective management and a policy of survey and preservation in chaeological potential is accompanied by end to some extent on the incentives for ntives along the lines of marine sanctuaries venir hunting, fostered by the involvement cording and conservation of sites.
wrecks as potential navigation hazards in ction of the Hydrographic Department of ,000 records worldwide. A proportion lie which are related to comparatively recent useum (Greenwich, London) holds around Britain, and has a computerised e-1,800 wrecks, only a small proportion of al Commission for Historic Monuments tesin the National Archaeological Record. itory of underwater archaeological sites be dertaken to develop satisfactory recording al Record (NAR) and for county Sites and ntly been made in RCHM (E) budget for 1991, and this is obviously a welcome step
aken with the support of institutions. For n has supported some limited areasurveys eological Diving Unit based at the Scottish of St. Andrews, is a small full time team of hent of Transport which is responsible for of the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 and recovered under part IX of the Merchant partment with expert first-hand reports on in the standards and achievements being

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made by licensed divers on existing desig Its brief now includes the survey of areas active amateur groups in the survey fieldi which was formed in 1983 as a registere evaluate sites of interest. Run by voluntee surveyors and electronics engineers, it ha survey industry and has acquired its own specialised in building up a seabed evalu Estuary and the Goodwin Sands. The Go the Kentish Town of Deal (Fig.1). The S. bordered on the east by the sand banks shipwrecks, and the Goodwin Sands ha Swallower'. The area has been gaining no Britain’s maritime heritage that takes plac contour at the North Sand Head to the s. distance is approximately 10 sea-miles, a of Kellett Gut is 2.5 sea-miles. Only a rela low spring tides, and the precise area flu wave and sand movement. The Goodwin Hydrographic Section of the Navy, who ha of the Goodwins of up to 60 m. a year. Th wrecked in 1703 may be associated with th the sand patterns.
Speculation on the total number Examples of loss are documented in t Calendar of Close Rolls, Lloyds list (174 Returns from 1843 to the present, lifebc the Burney collection, and other sources. been positively identified, and of the know under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973
Finds have regularly been dredge offering important signposts to sites of a bronze breech-loading gun with swivelm 1775 in the Gull Steam while sweeping f

lated sites, and offers advice to licensees. and site identification. One of the most s Marine Archaeological Surveys (MAS), d charity specifically to survey areas and s who include archaeologists, geophysical s developed close links with the offshore remote sensing equipment. So far it has lation of the archaeology of the Thames odwin Sands lie four miles offshore from ands and the Downs, the wide anchorage , have been the setting for hundreds of ve long been known as the 'great ship toriety for the looting and destruction of ethere. The area is large from the 5 metre ame contour at the South Sand Head the nd the width at its widest point just north tively small proportion is ever exposed at Ictuates according to the effects of wind, shave been regularly re-surveyed by the |ve recorded advances in the western scarp le 1979 discovery of four ships-of-the-line he development of a New Cut and shifts in
of shipping losses in the area continues. he Calendar of Domestic State Papers, 3 - 1850), Admiralty and Board of Trade at journals from 1850, Kent newspapers, Few of the historically attested losses have tnwrecks only four are currently scheduled
'd up from the vicinity of the Goodwins, rchaeological importance. For example, a ount and iron "rat-tail' stock was found in or anchors, and an iron swivel gun of 16th
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century type dredged up by Deal "hovell evidence for another early loss. More rect in the trawl of a local Ramsgate fishermal Closest parallels for it are the three swive in 1973 (dated to c. 1530), one in the Stoc Wreck, and an example in the Nederlands
The vast quantity of data to be coll MAS from "local fishermen ; over 317 between North and South foreland, of wh coherent wrecks that are now spread, anc area contains a total of 141 wreck sites ( Trinity House, over half are of World W
Areas for which geophysical surveys of North Sand (Fig.2, Areas A & B), in Ke Sand (Fig.2, Area D) and north-east of D A-Cwas completed in 1983, using Waverl sub-bottom profiler, and ELSEC magnet categories, those concerned with the loc those concerned with the survey as a pilo distribution of part of the survey area (v great potential. A total of 98 targets were channel through the sandbanks. The maj channel as isolated events or significant ch protected wrecks of 1703 mentioned abov and Restoration' (in 1980, 1981 and approximately 75-80 min length, and meta anomalies in the sandbanks appears sin completely validate the triple sensing sys
With the exception of some port a ownership, the Crown Estate Commissin the "twelve mile" territorial limit. Beyond responsible for the Crown rights to ex Continental Shelf, excluding oil, coal
190

ers' c. 1928 off the South Goodwins, sole 2ntly, in 1988 an iron swivel gun was found 1 while working to the west of South Sand. ls from the Cattewater Wreck discovered kholm Stadsmuseum from a 16th century Ich Historisch Sc M
ected is hinted at by the data collected by net-fastenings are known for the area ich 283 are classifiedas obstructions', 12 i3 protected wreck site. The chart for the Fig. 1). Of 226 known losses recorded by ar II date.
have been completed lie on the west side lett Gut (Fig.2, Area C), to west of South over (Fig.2 area E). The survey of Areas ey3000 dual channel sides and sonar, ORE ometer. The results were divided into two ation of possible archaeological sites, and t study for future work. The anomaly plot which totalled 7.5 km) has indicated the recorded, together with the course of the ority of anomalies were located within the lsters, and three such clusters are the three 'e: The 'Stirling Castle, Northumberland' 1981 respectively). Wreck D (Fig. 3) is allic, asis wreckE,The density of magnetic nilar to that in the channel. The results tem employed.
nd harbour areas which are not in Crown ers own the freehold of the seabed within territorial waters, the Commissioners are ploit the natural resources of the UK's and gas. Contrary to the belief that no

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archaeologically interested wrecks fall witl 3 and 15 miles offshore), the case ofth illustrates that important and well-preser remarkable conditions, within such areas the area tends to reflect fishing activity a the need for their archaeological evaluatic
The work by MAS on the Goodwi National Maritime Museum, ADU and oth an adequately resourced programme archaeologists to ensure that the appropri up-to-date database of archaeological : designation or protection. Recommendat Archaeology Policy Committee that the existing legislation a policy for the survey the underwater cultural heritage with Archaeology Policy Committee 1989).
In Britain, the Heritage bodies for Heritage, Scottish Development Agency the Ancient Monuments and Archaeo scheduling of underwater sites considered strong body of opinion that would prefer "heritage bodies' because they are likely to the problem of protecting underwater site
The nautical Archaeology Society has 1 as important a role as legislation in the heritage. In recent years a training schem established track record with courses in abroad (most recently in Goa, India). T syllabus, and is arranged in 3 parts - part Ion techniques is designed to build upor Part I with a more advanced lecture seri completed in one session). A certificate practical and conference requirements

lin any existing areas (generally between 2 Admiral Gardner (wrecked in 1809) ved sites most certainly survive often in (Fig.1). The density of net fastenings for ld not actual distribution. Nevertheless In remains.
ns has helped alongside the work of the erbodiesto illustratetheneedtodevelop
of survey and recordig by trained ate Secretary of State is furnished with an sites under threat, for the purpose of ions have been made by a Joint Nautical : Government should activate through and preservation in situ or by record of in territorial waters (Joint Nautical
England, Scotland and Wales (English and Cadw respectively) help administer logical Areas Act 1979, which allows to be of national importance. There is a all submerged sites to be dealt with by ) be more sympathetic in the long term to -s than other bodies.
"ecognised that education can play almost protection of the underwater cultural e has been formulated, which now has an numerous localities both in Britain and The courses follow a carefully designed forms and introduction over 2 days, part the theory and techniques introduced in es, and is modular (does not have to be ; is awarded on completion of lectures, (for further details contact Miss Dawn
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Summers, c/o Scottish Institute of Ma certificate provides recognition that th andrecognised course. The areas of comp system of continuing education, thoughp and limited.
SURVEYING IN SRI - LANKA
Nautical archaeology in Sri Lanka has re papers (Devendra 1988, 143: Gunaratn Marine Department Records, India Of Archives of the Netherlands, and Depa record many losses over the last 300 year Colombo in 1653 (Rao and Gudigar 1988) Ellswout (1756), Den Arend (lost near Governor of Ceylon ; Reimers 1946, 16 Ceylon in January 1813) and Duke of H (burnt at point de Galle, January 1811 Daedalus (1813) (Fig.4). While such ‘ear identification and care of vessels pre-datir native craft would be an important m archaeology.
The need fora programme of contro outlined elsewhere (for example, Redk exploration has already shown the pol archaeology programme. For example, harbour, 115 km south of Colombo (in including local and importedwares was fo of the harbour along a 200 m. long perpe finds, now deposited with the Departmei longevity of the bay as an important anchc 1990, an archaeological survey team from Aquatic Resorces Agency (NARA) acti Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri La Drunken Sailor Rock (Galua) off Colom
192

ritime Studies, St. Andrews). The NAS 2 participant has attended an approved etence covered should form the basis of a resently formal opportunities are variable
cenlty been the subject of several review a 1988, 145). Historical sources such as ice Library and Records, General State rtment of National Archives, Sri Lanka s, including the S. Joao Baptista lost near , the Streetkerke (1741), Polaanen (1753),
Batticaloa ; Memoir of Jan Schreuder, ) the East Indiamen Euphrates (lost off (ingston (burnt in August 1783), Bengal ), H.M.S. Diomedes (1795), and H.M.S. ly modern' vessels, are of importance, the ng the arrival of the portuguese andofearly tilestone in the annals of international
lled archaeological investigation has been nap and Weerawardane 1986). Limited ential benefits of a coherent maritime surface finds have been made in Galle litt. S. Devendra). A scatter of pottery und in 1986by diversonthesandybottom hdicular to the northern shore line. These it of Archaeology in Colombo, reflect the rage (fig. 5). More recently, during March Great Britain together with the National ng on behalf of the Government of the nka ran a site investigation survey of the po, Sri Lanka (Fig. 4). The archaeological

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site was identified by localdivers someyeat to be the location of two jettisoned cann were identified, indicating the location of south side of the reef. They all appear to One cannon could be recorded in detail muzzle to end of cascable. It had abore, so of approximately 7.2 cm. When recorded had been raised by local divers and mechni vent astragal and first reinforce ring were s remained to suggest the original form. Nc of lifting guns from the sea in the absen demonstrated by reinspection of the untrea the muzzle and cascabel button had dropp type for merchant service (in litt. Ruth Bro to investigate the natural and archaeologic ad magnetic techniques.
The Drunken Sailor reef forms part described by Swan (1983, Figure 10.5), wh 10 m. level from south of Mount Lavinia r is known as Degalmeda). Bottom deposi white sand with rock outcrops (and coral contours suggest that the seabed gradient large outcrops may be smooth, but posses: outcrop appears SW of the rocky foreshor the high water mark at Fort and recorded of the bay, city and fortifications of Colom as Galbokka Point). The shallow peak of exceptional weather, it may be exposed surface, by large waves or Swell.
THE 1990 SURVEY
The 30' fibreglass survey vessel provided used on site. Lane control was provided theodolite and ship-shore two-way commu

sago, at adepth of 9 metres, and assumed on (Figs. 6-7). In 1986 two more cannon a 17th or early 18th century wreck on the be the same size, and made of cast iron. , and measured 1.36 m. in length from mewhat roughened byears of immersion, in 1986, approximately one year after it cally cleaned of concretion, the base ring, everely corroded, but sufficient evidence ) marks could be discerned. The dangers ice of conservation facilities was clearly ated gun in 1990. In the intervening period edoff. The cannon may be of 17th century wn). The objective of the 1990 survey was all features of the findspot, using sounding
of the third sandstone (beach rock) crest ich runs north south along approximately northwards to Ona Gala and beyond (and ts from Colombo area in general coarse ) (Cooray 1984, Fig. 4. 12). The charted is slightly concave seawards, and that the sgullies and runnels. The Drunken Sailor e of the one-time headland visible above in 17th century charts as Gal boca (Map bo 1655 : Paranavitana 1984; known now the Drunken Sailor Reef suggests that in or at very least dangerously close to the
and manned by the Sri Lanka Navy was by use of a shore -based line - of-site inications. Polar Laser Positioning System
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Navitrack navigation receivers were inter for line control and data logging for plc Fathometer fixing via shore station to sou
Water depths have been resolved to at 1 metre intervals (Fig. 10). At the loc metres LAT. The maximum recorded d survey block, and the minimum of 3.4 Drunken Sailor Rock formation. The sea runs down to west, interrupted by severa the main feature of the Drunken Sailor R in the order of 1-3m above slope and su Sailor formation, which comprises two n chanel or gully 40-50 m wide and a chart features show irregularities in outline, anc ridge or rise.
It will not be possible to identify the dating evidence becomes available but t important record of the site topography a examination and evaluation of the site. Admiralty charts was collected in 1906. I process of wreck formation. The general For example, as prelude to the Dutch s Colombo in 1642 compelling the Portugu territories to defend the force. The Dutch for 35 days, tacking up and down the Co their assult on Colombo in 1656, the Dutc attacking the Santa Cruz breastwork from of the Dutch governors provide an insigh the century. Governor Ryckloff Van Goe when visiting Ceylon, destroying 5 Portl Goa, and according to his memoirs on his some considerable strength, consisting of gallots, and 20 smallyachts, frigates, sloo
194

aced to a lap-top computer-plotter system tting at 20 second intervals, with manual lderoperator with2-way communications.
1.1 metre, plotted on charts and contoured tion of archaeological site the depth is 9
•pth of 15.2 metres occurs in the NW of as recorded) on the western part of the bed shape within the 800 mo survey block rises in the bottom relief to the south of ock formation. These subsidiary rises are iggest vestige extensions of the Drunken hajor sandstone reef rises, separated by a ed depth of 10-11 m. All these sandstone the N.S. gully appears to possess a central
2 Drunken Sailor Reef wreck, until closer his initial bathymetric survey provides an hdfirst stage of possible multi-disciplinary The source data for this area from the looking at environmental factors and the period is well documented and published. eizure of Ceylon, 13 ships appeared off ese settlers and soldiers to abandon their force continued to alarm the Portuguese lombo coast, finally leaving for Galle. In h ship Maid of Enkhuysen was sunk while the harbour (Pieries 1948). The memoirs t into maritime affairs in the later part of ns distinguished himself in action in 1953 guese galleons bound from Colombo to retirement the Ceylon naval force was of 8 ships of war and fluits, 5 native ships, 2 os and boats (Reimers 1932).

Page 203
CONCLUSIONS ,
Simple projects such as the Colomboree with multi-disciplinary and inter-dep grounds for future Sri-Lankan archaeol well as land) sites.
Areas of concern common to programmes of data collection for main provision for training, for conservatior material, for recognition of the need to i towards underwater archaeological herit solution to each will vary in detail betw made by co-operation between governi organisations, with multiple source fun related disciplines - and the opportul archaeological reserves on the Basses, provided an important means of re archaeological) where enforceable. Amat if properly directed also enhance signific to create the effective management prog of scientific research and public educatio
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Drunken Sailor Archaeological Sur archaeologists from the National Museu jointly with the National Aquatic Re: Maritime Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka in and Department approval and permits, ap Ministry of Foreign Affairs and prepar logistical support. To these, I am extren from the Royal Geographical Society (C Academy, and Society for South Asian St. support. I would like to thank in parti
contributions : 1990 Sri Lanka expeu

survey on coastal sites in Sri-Lanka could rtmental co-operation become training ogists with responsibilities for marine (as
most countries : the need for organised taining high standards of field work, the facilities and for curation of maritime nfluence public and professional attitudes age, and for protection of sites in situ. The een countries. Considerable gains will be ment and non-governmental the help of ding - between both archaeological and lity to pool resources. The creation of and of natinal Marine Sanctuaries, has -source protection (both natural and eurenthusiasm, interestand resources can antly attempts by the archaeological world rammes of our historic sites to the benefit
.
vey was undertaken by a team of British m of Wales and University of St. Andrews sources Agency, with support from the obtaining Archaeological Advisory Board proval of the Ministry of Defence, and the ng the groundwork for Sri Lanka.Naval lely grateful. Funding from Britain came eographical Magzine Trust fund), British dies and Igrateful to these bodies for their cular the following individuals for their dition: (from NARA) Dr. Hiran W.
195

Page 204
Jayewardane (Chairman, MARA), I Dr.Gamini Ranatunga (research officer K.A.Perera, M.A.Ariyawansa, S. R.Me1 Keith Wilkinson, Paul Roberts, Prasau Dipl-Ing. Ulrike Bielke for interpretatio assistance, and to the Archaeological II Studies, University of St Andrews for t MAS: I grateful to the following for theiu Wall, D. Lyon, J. Langford, D. Hymans, Webb, and all the companies and bodie
196

)r W. S.Wickremeratne (team leader), , Mr.Nihal de Silva (Senior hydrographer); dis; (from UK) B.J.F. Ferrari, Ian Oxley, Ina Weerawardana. I am also grateful to n, to Lt. Cd. S. Devendra for administrative living Unit, Scottish Institute of Maritime he loan of electronic equipment. Work by invaluable contributions: Les Emptage, F. T. Brown, Caradoc Davies, M. Borrow, M.
who have supported the group.

Page 205
BIBLOGRAPHY
Clarke, AC, 1957 The Reefs of Taprobane: underwater adv
Clarke, A.C.,1964 Ceylon and the underwaterarchaeologist E
Clarke, A.C., 1984 Ceylon and the Underwater Archaeologist
Clarke, A.C. & Wilson, M., 1964 Indian Ocean Treasure Lo
Cooray, P.G. 1984 An Introduction to the Geology of Sri Lan
Devendra.S.,1988 Indian Oceanic Shipping and Southern Sri
Devendra,S,(forthcoming)Sri Lankan Ports in Ancient and
Guinaratna, R., 1988 The Development of Maritime Ethnogri
1988, 145f.
Joint Nautical Archaeology Policy Committee 1989 Heritage a
underwater, National Maritime Museum, Greenwhich.
McGrail, S., 1989 Maritime Archaeology in Britain, Antiqua
Mills, J.V.G. 1970Yingyai Sheng-Lan-the overal survey of
Paranavitana,K.D.,1984 An Inventory of Sri Lanka Maps in t
Pieries, P.E.(trans.)1948The Historic Tragedy of the Islando Second King of Portugal. Our Lord, (written by Captain Joa
Rao,SR(ed)1988Marine Archaeology of Indian Occan Co
Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries, Oct. 1987, Goa.
Rao,S.R.,& Gudigar,P., 1988 Underwater Cultural ieritage o
16 S.P.C. 90683

untures around Ceylon. New York: Harper and Row.
xpedition 1964, 6O3) - 18-21
Exhibition 12-21.
don: Sidgwick and Jackson.
ka National Museum of Sri Lanka Publication.
Lanka. In: S.R. Rao 1988, 143f.
MedievalTimes
aphy and Underwater Archaeology in Sri Lanka. In : S.R. Rao
Sea proposals for the betterprotection of archaeological sites
icsounal LXIX, 10-22.
the oceans Shores by Ma Huan (1433) Hackluyt Society, CUP.
lc General State Archives in the Netherland. Colombo,
Ccilao dedi to hi icstyDom PedroT
Ribeiro), Colombo.
intries. Proceedings of the first Indian Conference on Marine
Indian Ocean Islands In: S.R.Rao (ed.) 1988, 153f.
197

Page 206
Redknap, M.& Dean M.,1989 Underwater Archaeology in
Redknap,M.& Weerawardane, P.,1986 Sri Lanka Maritin presented to Department of Archaeology.
Redknap,M.,(in progress) The Colombo Reefs Archaoeok
Rei E.1946 Selection f Dutch R
... March 17, 1762. Ceylon, Colombo.
Silva, R.,1984. Mantotal.The Emporium Port between romc Mantota Excavation Programme 10.6.84
Swan, B.,1983 An Introduction to the Coastal Geomorphol
198

Britain. The Field Archaeologist 10, January 1989, 157-162.
e Heritage Project. Short and Long-term projects. Document
gical Project, Sri Lanka.
Ceylon G No.S. Memoir of Jan Schreud lelivered
and PekingPaper delivered to the Specialists and Trainees of the
gy of Sri Lanka National Museum of Sri Lanka Publication.

Page 207
FIGURES
Figure 1. Charted wrecksites off the east coast of Kent (UK)
Figure 2. A-E: Areas of Archaeological survey around the G
Figure 3. Detail of 1983 survey of the Goodwin Sands (area a
Figure 4. Map of Sri Lanka, showing approximate position of
Figure 5. Range of Pottery from the bed of Galle harbour 1
17th-19th century bottle fragments. Scale 1:4
Figure 6. Iron gun from the Drunken Sailor site, Colombo, p
Figure 7. Iron gun from the Drunken Sailor site, Colombo.
Figure 8. Running survey lines on the Drunken Sailor site, C.
Figure 9. Two cast iron cannon photographed in 1986, lying cascabels towards camera). There appears to be little weed c
of this high energy zone.
Figure 10. Contour survey of the site (March 1990). Depths

(scheduled sites designated by stars).
odwin Sands 1-2 : Areas designated for sand extraction.
some historically attested sites.
9 : kocal wares; 10-12: import china (18th-19th century); 13-18:
hotographed in 1986 at the Kinross Club, Wellawatta, Colombo.
Dverall Length = 1.36. m
olombo, March 1990.
in a rock gully on the Drunken Sailor site (one behind other, over and only a thin deposit of mobile shell and sand in the gully
NA
are in metres, plotting courtesy of NARA.
199

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NEW LIGHT ON
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INTRODUCTION
In this paper we have taken the opportu Archaeology in Sri-Lanka an account
settlement site in Wales (U.K.). The use site has generally been restricted to u illustrate wider applications outside the
For the Dark Age or early medieva Roman political control to the beginnin settlement is sparse, and comments nece few early medieval settlement sites hav twenty-five years. The scarcity, or absenc problems of ground recognition of certa hillforts like Dinas Powys (Glamorgan) a an increasing amount of evidence from Ireland, where ringforts, crannogs, undefended settlement have been recog
Recent work by the National M College of Cardiff on a crannog or artific shedding new light on one rare form of ninth-tenth century royal association preservation of structural and excavati remains.
Llangorse Lake lies at 150m. above sea and Wye overlooked by the Old Red Sa
8 S.P.C. 90683

DARK AGE WALES By
dknap
Lane
nd
mpbell
nity to present to the Second Centenary of of recent work on a partially submerged of some of the techniques employed on this inderwater sites. This brief account may U.K.
l period in Wales (from the termination of g of the Norman Conquest), evidence for ssarily imprecise and general. Remarkably fe come to light in Wales during the last 'e of diagnostic pottery and metalwork, and in types of settlement (except for occupied nd Dinas Emrys (Gwynedd), contrasts with some other areas of "Celtic' Britain and promontory forts and various kinds of nised in greater quantities.
useum of Wales and University of Wales ial island in Llangorse Lake, Powys, is now Welsh settlement. Its importance lies in its s its plan, and the special qualities of on evidence in a period poor in material
level, in a hollow between the rivers Usk ndstone scarps of the Brecon Beacons and

Page 218
Black Mountains (Figs. 1 & 8). At 160 he water in South Wales, but it is nowhere n 40m.. from the present northern shore, iu
The lake figures prominently in We accounts from the twelfth to the nineteen and other supernatural occurrences (Rh the 1190s, noted the wealth of fish and red-coloured currents, now believed tob tales of drowned landscapes and buildin little doubt that the early traditions of su centuries, relate to the recognition of ve which would have been more prominent
The site was discovered in the late Henry Dumbleton, after the lake leve Dumbleton 1870 ; H. Dumbleton 1870). they described a substantial mound of b and lenses of sand. They noted that the edged by one or two Oakpalisades. Exan and E. Campbell, who also led the 1989 U survival of timber on the site some 100 split oak planks to the south of the island. a ring sequence from A.D.747-859, sugge early tenth century (Campbell and Lane
In July and August, 1989 the Natic History and Archaeology, University of W survey and excavation both above and b conventional land techniques such as tr 1m.square drawing frame was extendedu on clear PVC sheet and Direct Measure land surveying techniques (for example points and levels are recorded), but th measurements. Tape measurements ma slope between two points at different de
210

ctares it is the largest natural body of fresh ore than 7m. deep. The crannoglies about water about 1m, deep.
sh folklore and antiquarian tradition, with h centuries of sunkenpalaces, water spirits is 1901: 70-4). Gerald of Wales, writing in eels in the lake, its occasional green and algal blooms (Jones et al., 1978: 642), and gS (Thorpe 1978: 94-6). There now seems Inken buildings, though amplified in later stiges of the timber planks of the crannog in the past.
l860s by two localantiquarians, Edgar and l was lowered by 18 ins.(0.45 cm.) (E , In the publication of their observations, Oulders, lying on top of brushwood, reeds south and west sides of the mound were hination of the site in 1987 by Dr. A. Lane Jniversity team, established the continued years later, revealing two lines of radially Initial tree-ring dating of one sample gave sting construction workin the late ninth or 1989).
nal Museum of Wales and the School of sales College of Cardiff, jointly conducted slow water on the crannog. Recording by angulations/trilateration and drawing by nderwater and combined with 1:1 tracings ment Survey. In general, this is similar to
tape measurements are taken between ere may be more freedom of choice of not have to be kept horizontal but can oths, one being a labelled datum point of

Page 219
known 3-dimensional cartesian co-ordin carefully selected vertical plank piles oft of hand plotting, the measurements are f analyse the measurements and calculatetl this kind of technique, extensive checkm this case the computer will search for information, and in addition will highlight so that they can be rechecked. From this i the errors in the plan, and by adding extr accuracy meets those specified in the pri sites such as Llangorse crannog where su be difficult.
Two families of mathematical techn measurements - the Variation of Co-ordil Multidimensional Scaling. Although each over the other, in general their use is sim this technique). In practice the time take depend considerably on the technolog Llangorse handwritten measurements in of tape recorders by divers or diver to surf have advantages when reliable.
THE SURVEY
Initial survey in 1987 and 1988 had confir of the site as a probable crannog with two dendrochronological samples of late ni Campbell 1988a, 67-8). During furthers exposed areas of roundwood were noted of the island and it was clear that detaile increase the number of timbers recogni further detailed survey was undertaken ir south and east sides and of the Subme reported on previously (ibid, 67, Campbe accompanied by resistivity survey of the di

lates - in some instances nails fixed to he crannog itself (see Figs. 3-4). Instead ed later into a computer programmed to he position of the unknown point(s). With leasurements are normally taken, and in the position that best fits the available any measurements that seem to be wrong nformation the archaeologist can quantify a measurements refine the survey until its oject plan. This is useful on low visibility pervision and visual checking of data may
iques can be used to process the recorded nates (often known as Least Squares), and has specific advantages and disadvantages ilar (see Rule 1989, 157-162 for details of n in the field to record measurements will y available for the hard copy data. At creased the survey time considerably. Use ace communications inlieu of writing pads
med the nineteenth century identification lines of oak plankpalisades, and provided nth-early tenth century date (Lane and ite inspection in November 1988, several on the south-eastern and western shores d underwater and shoreline survey would ised and planned already. Consequently, n 1989 of the island foreshore on the west, rged and partially exposed timber lines ll and Lane 1988b, figs.1 and 2). This was ry and cleared part of the island in advance
21

Page 220
of excavations and detailed contour S Additional oak upright planks were ident lines. A regular setting vertical round immediately behind the vertical setting of east of the crannog, and a band of vertic: 4m. south of the outer plank palisade, ru
Selective excavation was undertak refine the site chronology and recover en
Area A was an L-shaped trench on ti sequence of late rubble deposits at the post-medieval activity on the island, perha layers lines of vertically set hardwood pla the trench into two discrete areas. The st sandstone boulders comprising the carefu clearly bounded on the north by the inner a horizontal bed of roundwood laid in re inner plank line. The roundwood at then to the inner plank line, whereas at the sou this. The roundwood bedding that had bee of preservation across the trench. Regula roundwood, sometimes heldin place by sin joint holes, and presumably acting as a tim hardwood beams were clearly reused fro evidence for a Dark Age timber building contained silt deposits and considerable ev of bone and frequent finds of carbonise external to the crannog. Vertical pileslays line and irregularly elsewhere. Trench Br Behind the plank palisade line at the no boulders overlay a horizontal hardwood continued an orientation picked up in the behind a line of vertical stakes constructed onto further roundwood. No timber wal palisades, whichwerefoundtopenetratetl
212

urvey above and below the waterline. fied filling in and extending the two main wood piles c. 5-6cm. in diameter lay the inner plankpalisade to the south and l piles discovered in shallow water some ning parallel to it, in an east-west arc.
en to examine the island's composition, vironmental data.
le eastern side of the crannog. A complex
east of the trench indicated probable ps associated with fishing. Beneath these inks running approximately E-W divided outhern arm of the trench contained red lly laidstone core of the island, which was oak plank line. Underlying the rubble was gular fashion and again bounded by the orthern end had been laid at right angles thern end it had been set at 90 degrees to in exposed varied in thickness and quality ly spaced hardwood beamslay above the hall split pegs driven through large square ber bracing for the brushwood raft. These m some earlier structure providing rare in Wales. The eastern area of the trench idence ofburnt timber. An upper deposit grain suggest the presence of middens ome 4m. to the north of the plankpalisade an into the lake from the southern shore. rthern end of the trench, red sandstone beam on a bedding of roundwood which outh-west corner of area A. This stopped with wattle which had collapsed outwards
found between inner and outer plank e 'natural'shell marlbyup to 1.3m. Three

Page 221
planks, from each line, showed clear evid
Area C was used as a preliminary i island. Due to past use as a landing area ar. deposits only survived at the southern en area was divided into 1 m. sectors, and all each quadrant was sieved using 4mm. mes One large squared timber pile was record
Area D examined in detail an area foreshore being cleared of wood and mc palisade was found to continue aroun roundwood piles (8-19cm. in diameter) la line 1m. to the east of the vertical plankp within the palisade line was examined in avertical post-and-wattle revetment with piles supporting the wattle extended appr west, sandstone boulders lay above a dep regular fashion perpendicaular to the rev revetment had collapsed outwards towarc
Apart from a small quantity of m net-weights, few artefacts were found, Carbonised grain and animal bone from v the excellent preservation of timber exhib usage, will provide information on woo technology in Wales. A quantity of worke S. Green), though none is yet securely d significance remains obscure.
DISCUSSION
The 1989 excavation and survey season validity of the Dumbletons' nineteenth ce many of the key features of the 1870 plan is artificially constructed, though a shallc

ence of reuse from earlier structures.
nvestigation of the northern shore of the ld other erosion factors, stratified crannog d of the trench (stippled area, fig. 5). The the surface silt from the lake bed within h, to establish the degree of bone survival. led in its centre.
of exposed roundwood, the surrounding dern surface silts prior to planning. The d the east side of the island. Vertical y to the north and at regular intervals in a alisade. One area of exposed roundwood detail (area D 1), and evidence found for in and parallel to the plankpalisade. The Oximately 1.8m. into the shell marl. To the osit of roundwood, which had been set in atment, and overlay a deposit of peat. The is the lake and foreshore.
edieval and later pottery, glass and lead and none were recognisably Dark Age. arious area suggest a mixed economy, and iting cut marks and cut joints from earlier land management and Dark Age wood id flint is of late Mesolithic date (in litt Dr. erived from pre-crannog deposits and its
at Llangorse has confirmed the essential ntury description of the site and identified (Dumbleton, E.N. 1870, fig. 1). The island w deposit of peat underlying part of the
213

Page 222
island suggests that the crannog may have Environmental assessment of the peat an evidence of the water depth in which the pattern of construction of the site impli specialized knowledge, labour and matel the crannog may not be of single phase
comprised approximately 50% of the
extensions into the lake on the south and of these new planks gives a 167 year t confirms the contemporaneity with the otl C. Groves). Sapwood survives on many o by shell marl and further dendrochrono clarify the present dating of the site, an tenth-century court of Twdwr ap Elisé dendrochronological dates from both inn ninth/early tenth-century felling of the tim timbers could add an unknown date bracl
Many of the crannogs known in Ir higher status than the standard ringforts historically attested at Lagore from the 8tl of the larger crannogs are royal or pri crannog? Manuscript B of the Anglo-S midsummer 916 ‘Aethelflaed sentan army and captured the king's wife and 33 other or Brecknockmere was the English name Welsh) until the mid eighteenth century. Mere itself, and as no other sites are kn crannog, and it is here that the queen, Brycheiniog, was captured.
Further evidence supports a royal pr charter, ostensibly of the eighth century, c his sons gave Lann Cors and its territoriu No. 146). The bounds, written in Welsh before the tenth century (Davies 1978:29
214

been builton a natural shallow of the lake. Ipeat-shell marlboundary should provide crannog was built. The carefully planned 2s an ability to call upon a high level of ials, and the 1989 evidence suggests that construction. The initial phase may have island's present area, with subsequent west. Initial dendrochronological analysis ee-ring chronology of AD 693-859 and her plank revetments of the mound (in litt. f the oak palisade planks when protected ogical dating of selected timbers should il whether it is to be associated with the :dd, or is earlier in date. Certainly all er and outer plank palisades indicate late berthough clearly the evidence ofre-used ket onto the crannog construction.
eland are rich in finds and seem to be of ites (Lynn 1983:51). A royal presence is h-10th centuries, and it is likely that many ncely sites. Could Llangorse be a royal axon Chronicle tells that shortly before 7 into Wales and destroyed Brecenanmere persons' (Taylor 1983:64). Brecenanmere for the a Lake (Llyn Syfaddan in modern The Chronicle mentions an attack on the own on the Lake, this must refer to the presumably the wife of the local king of
esence in the vicinity including a Llandaff aiming that King Awst of Brycheiniog and n to Bishop Euddogwy (Davies 1979: 98, ind unlikely in their current form to date ) indicate a substantial estate of over 100

Page 223
hectares; they show that the local kingsh area. When followed from topographic et the present parish of Llanfihangell Tal-y- presence of the kings of Brycheiniog in t donation of his and his sons' bodies to the church could be a royal burial site.
Such historical sources suggest residence of the kings of Brycheiniog.
If the Llangorse crannog is a late identification is of major importance rectilinear enclosure at Cwrt Llechrhydi few radiocarbon-dated re-occupations settlements in Wales in the period from 4-10).
From a methodological point of opportunity to combine archaeological te either to dry land archaeology, or ur applications further afield beyond British

adlands and presumbly a residence in the vidence this estate corresponds roughly to Llyn to the west. This helps to confirm the he area, and the Awst charter records the church for burial, implying that Llangorse
that the Llangorse crannog was a royal
: ninth/tenth century royal settlement, its to Welsh archaeology. Except for the In Powys (Musson & Spurgeon 1988) and a of earlier sites, there are no excavated c. AD 700 to 1100 (Edwards & Lane 1988,
view, the project is providing a unique 2chniques that have usually been confined derwater archaeology. Many will have
WateTS.
215

Page 224
BBLOGRAPHY
Campbell, E & Lane, A., 1988a Llangorse Crannog, Arch
Campbell, E & Lane, A.,1988b The Llangorse Crannog, I
Campbell,E. & Lane,A.,1989''Llangorse: a 10th century ro
Davies.W., 1978 An Early Welsh Microcosm London: 1
Davies,W., 1979 The Landaff Charters Aberystwyth Nat
Dumbleton,E.N.,1870. On a crannog, or stockaded island, i
192-8.
Dumbleton,H.,1870 On the island in Llangorse Lake and it Field Club(1870), 101-8.
Edwards, N. & Lanc, A.,1988 Early Medieval Scticment
Cardiff.
Jones, R.K.Benson-Evans, F.M Chambers,B. Abell Sedde
from Llangorse Lake, Wales. Verhandlunger Internation
Lynn.C.,1983 Some "earlyring-forts and crannogs, ournal
Rhys.J.,1901 Celtic foreloc. Welsh and Manx Oxford, Cl
Ruke, N.,1989The Direct Survey Method (DSM) of under
Taylor.S(ed)1983The Angio-Saxon Chronicle a collabo
Thorpe, L-(ed)1978 Gerald of Wales. The journcy through
216

Cology in Wales23,67-8.
nvestigations in 1987 and 1988: An Interim Statement.
yal crannog in Wales'Antiquity63,675-681.
Royal Historical Society.
ional Library of Wales.
in Llangorse Lake, near Brecon. Archaeologia Cambrensis (1870),
spossible artificial origin. Transactions of the Woolhogeaturalists
in Wales AD400110. Early Medieval Wales Research Group,
&Yuk ChunTal 1978Biological and chemical studiesofsediments len Vereingigung Limnologie 20,642-8.
of Irish Archaeology,47-58.
rendori.
water survey, and its application underwater, IJNA 182, 157-162
ive Cdition 4M 3. Cambrid
Wales.The description of Wales H sworth: Peasui

Page 225
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Wales in the early Medieval period, showing main kingdo
2. Aerial view of Llangorse crannog (photo: Royal Commiss
3. Direct Measurement Survey: example of input and output in the values calculated from the difference between the me
co-ordinates arrived at by the least squares algorithm program
4. Initial plot of souceof the submerged cranogpalisade timbe (Plot by N. Rule).
5. Plan of 1989 season of Llangorse crannog.
6. Excavations and recording in progress in area B, Llangorse
7. Detail of the vertical post-and wattle revetment behind the e of Wales).
8. Llangorse Lake, indicating early estate boundaries, crannoga Campbell).
19 S.P.C, 90683

in for Ancient & Historic Monuments in Wales)
iata. AV is average residual error, an estimate of confidence surement made by the divers and the measurement from the
me. (Calculations by N. Rule).
son the south side of the island (totags on individual timbers).
crannog (1989). Photo: National Museum of Wales
astern palisade line of the crannog (photo: National Museum
Ind position of early logboat find. (courtesy of A. Lane and E.
217

Page 226
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Input File:
DATUMS : R N 534 827 18, 555 l A., 372 13. 395 829 17. 029 14.285 12. 828 825 6, 13 6 1 4 34 3 2. 625 837 2, 465 l A, 562 1.79 () 836 1, 368 14, 790 1 1,624 835 O. 902 4 896 ). 5.93 95.3 1 () 497 15, 38 0 1 1. 628 832 l (). 328 lb () 43 l l . 570 95 OF 17,058 13,462 12.01 9) W l 6. 2 9 5 13. 63 . 857 952 10. 190 15.47 11. 635 840 O O 65 5, 24 O 78 BS 9 323 S. 4. A 7 1, 680 856 9. 747 ls, 59 . . 456 857 9. 97 5. OS 5 350 858 9 73 is 16.000 l.2. 210
DATUMS : R N 534 33 In 15, 53 2 14, 272 2, 355 39 9.883 15 - 380 11 - 8 4 0 28 11. 85 () 4, 5 A () . . . . 95 34 4 . () 85 4 3)2 l. 3 () 60 8. A to 6 1 6 - 1 / Ե 1 2 - 295 5. 5, 384 4, 133 2, 303 Output:
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Pre-Norman documented names
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Pre-Norman inscribed stones
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Brecenanmere N Linn Sy vadon
Present parish boundaries
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225

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SOME UNIDENTIFIED OBJEC RUVANVAL-SAYA PREM
E
Gunapala
The theme of this lecature is based on premises of the Ruvanvali-saya. Out of th slab lyinginlaid in the Sala-patra-maluw: the other two are to be seen sculpture fragmentary column lying together witho of and unattended to in a corner of the si
The first figure, though appears ( ancient slab with a net-work of cracks du face, is still clear enough for its identifi roughly 2 ft. x3 ft. that would have once Vahalkada the existence of which could few similar pieces of architectural remai
However, it has to be stated that the be contemporary. The figure on the sla probably to the very early period of Budd would have then served as a votive object to be represented, as a rule, byan anth worshiped only in the form of a represen
The two latter objcets, judging fron wearing out together with other historic treated as falling on to a period between limestone was used for the first time in t corresponds with the glorious era marke Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda fame.
The figure that appears on the surfac known to the Indologists as the "Triratna
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rs DISCOVERED FROM THE MISES, ANURADHAPURA у
Senadeera
three sculptured figures to be seen in the em, one appears as an engraving on an old (stone-slab - terrace') of this stupa while d in shallow relief on an old lime-stone thers in a similar state ofneglect, unnoticed ame site.
on a much weather-beaten and worn-out e to excessive weathering appearing on its cation. It is a rectangular slab measuring served as a member adorning an ancient only be hypothesized by the presence of a ns at the site referred to. .م
three objects referred to do not appear to
b would go back to a pre-Christian date, hism since its introduction to the land, and when the person of the Tathagata was not ropomorphized image and he was to be tative symbol. Χ
n the kind of stone used and the extent of al factors to be taken into count could be the 2nd and the 4th cent. A.D. When the his land for sculptural work - a period that d by the remarkable works of sculpture of
e of the slab referred to above is popularly on account of their general belief that it

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symbolizes the Buddhist Triai.e. the Bud them, Col. Maisey " and Col. Cunningha John Marshallo Foucher“ Benjamim Rc as Nandipada or Taurine. Meanwhile while Ananda Coomaraswamyo calls it tl
designation Tauri lovedil available to name the Symbol. However,
The Triratna' symbol to be seen i tridental object mounted on aplain disc w with two leaf-like formations projecting between the base of the trident and the c issued a roll - like object, each reachingt rolled up ends.
The fragmentary column which we in the same premises bears on its face tw they are different from each other in res appears on the face of its front elevation more stylized form. The Chattra that accorded to it. In this case the whole obje to a tall shaft. The other object which a possesses a likeness to the symbol that r of the "Triratna' to be seen on the Sumn Sanchi figure which bears an appearance observed by E.L.Johnston, has been recc likeness of which appears on the breast O seya object like the Triratna' with which referred to is crowned equally by a chatta ( by a spear which issues from apurna-gh of the complex.
Out of the Indian examples of Trii units that remain in a good state of presel crest of the eastern gate-way at Sanchi th on the northern gate-way at the same s

dha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. Among n' prefer to call it the Triratna' while Sir wland and Hienrich Zimmer' refer to it ournouf identifies it with Vardhamana Le Trisula in Buddhism, and adds that the holars is the inol ב
le does not give any reason for his opinion.
1 the Ruvanvali-saya premises is a sort of hich, again, is surmounted by a short stand from the point of tangency on either side lisc. From the same point on either side is he bottom of the figure on both sides with
referred to earlier as an object to be seen to sculptured figures in shallow relief and spect of their appearance. The one which bears resemblance to the Triratna' in its crowns it signifies the eminent position 2ct is hoisted on the point of a spear fitted ppears on the side elevation of the stele 2mains enclosed by the two flanking arms uit of the eastern gate-way at Sanchi. The similar to the pattern of a shield, as was gnized by Coomaraswamy as Sri-Vatsa the fVardhamana Mahavira. The Ruvanvaliit is placed injuxtaposition on the stelae lenoting its Supremacy. It is also supported ata (brimming vessel') placed at the base
atna' as isolated units, there are only two vation. While one of them appears on the e other which is partly damaged, appears ite. However, we have at Sanchi several
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examples of it, in sculptural relief rema other examples on relief are found amo Bharhut, Bodhgaya and Amaravati. Ou referred to earlier, are of special improt
A little more description may be examples as it will enable us to evaluate
In Buddhist art, the Triratna” is av one or two features varying from those o not of serious proportions, and as such, to their essential features.
Every “Triratna”, as a rule, has a tric two leaf-like formations projecting fro between the Triratna' and the disc. In a prong of the trident terminates at a low another object mounted on it while being thus making the latter a composite symb Triratna' symbols that are in relief at th the symbol or, to put it more realistical level without an additional object placed middle member of the symbol has noth higher level as shown in a decorative fi Same is the case with the Sri Lankan ex premises in Anuradhapura which forms
The "Triratna' seen on the summit ( short stand, the base of which is compose complex is served by a male chowrie Buddhistic type. In this respect sculptur they certainly represent a Buddha, Eithe or another Buddha belonging to the bo represented by a Triratna'appearing in a His enlightenment at the sacred Bodhi the Buddha is installed on a plain ston
228

ning in a good state of preservation. The ng the sculptural remaings particularly in of them, the examples from Amaravati, ICC.
necessary in respect of some of the Indian he importance of its Sri Lankan parallels.
ailable at least in three types, each having f the others. However, these variations are they are practically indentical with regard
lental object mounted on a floral disc with m the point of tangency on either side lmost all the Sanchi examples the middle er point, and in several cases, it supports genclosed by the two arms of the Triratna, pl. However, this is not the case with other e same site. In them, the middle prong of ly, the central cusp, terminates at a lower Over it. In the example from Amaravati this ing mounted on it, and it terminates at a . ieze discovered from the same premises. ample to be seen at the Ruvanvali - saya he basis for our discussion.
)f the gate-way at Sanchi, is mounted on a lofa three-tierred pedestal. This symbolic bearer, porbably a yaksa of the pre - al representations are more interesting as the Buddha Gotama of the present Kalpa dy of 28. Thus we have Buddha Gotama panel of Sculpture from Bharhut showing Tree. Here the Triratna' that symbolized :-seat representing the Vajrasana. In this

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particular case the symbol consists of a T leaves, each projecting out from its poir Triratna which looks like a twin-armed bi
We have another panel from Sanchi triplet. Like the former representation Vairasana at the base of a Bodhighara wh It is not clear here whether the triple s Buddha, Dhamma and the Sangha, oritis.
A panel of sculpture discovered f offers some features which lead to the ide the helmet of the Samurai-a subject wh mounted on a floral disc which is support partitioned into several compartments. Ea on its back. Besides, it is canopied by an u belonging to the royal insignia of the anci anything associated with it. Besides, garl suggesting, again, the very eminent pos. bottom of the panel in pre-Christian Bra the Bodhi of the Vessabhu Buddha. The E with the account given in Buddhist litera Thus we are left with the impression tha person of Vessabhu Buddha. This is fu worshipped by a man and woman, certain on either side of the Vajrasana the surfac flowers.
Then there are examples of the “TI elaboration, occupying an eminent posi ornamented body, mounted on the flora important function in that it supports a important symbol, employed to represer introduction of the Buddha-image.
From Amravati too we have an exa

piratna mounted on a floral disc with two nt of tangency between the disc and the "acket.
in which the Triratna' is represented in a , this triplet too is seen installed on a ich provides protection to the Bodhitree. ymbol represent the Buddhist Triad viz. justa tripplication ofthe Buddha Himself.
rom Bharhut is of particular interest as it ntification of their paralles observable on ich will be discussed later, (Fig,41) It is ed by a short stand the surface of which is ich compartment has a line of beads in laid mbrella which, being an important article ent Indian world signifiying supremacy of ands are hanging from each termination ition it holds. A legend inscribed at the hmi characters describe the the scene as Bodhi treeshown here is asalatreetallying ture in respect of this particular Buddha. at the Triratna'in this case represent the rther strengthened by the fact that it is ly a husband and his wife who are kneeling ce of which is laid with garlands as well as
riratna, also from Sanchi, but with less tion. We have another example with an ll disc as usual. It is made to perform an
Dhamma-cakka which is another very it the Buddha during the era prior to the
mple of a "Triratna' sculptured in shallow
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relief. Its design is elaborately executed a a trefoil which is very close in appearance fully occupied by a closely-knit elaborate
We have also from Amaravati, Tiratnas' depicted in shallow relief on foot, and it is usually flanked by two auspic by a Swastika. The SVastika has a very long eminence throughout the ancient world, flank the Triratna' suggests, the eminent character.
Let us now consider the various de be applied to this symbol. They are: the T Taurine. Buddhist Trisul i Vard Triratna” or the Buddhist Triad. As we hav Meiseyo being the two eminent archae restoration work on the Sanchistupa, ar. terminology. However, those who are no that the Triratna is not qualified in this r it does not possess three prongs. As we has of the examples is taller than its flankers For the first catetgory, we can cite Ruvanvali-saya example.
However, in the case of the Triple-g and the Sangha are being considered to deemed to be higher or lower in their confronted with the difficulty in applyi Triad. There could hardly be any reason particular case, to be differently treatec canonical support for such descriminatio
Besides, a careful examination of 1 the middle member of this symbol is not by the meeting of the lower ends of the t
230

ld the termination of each arm comprises to fleur-delis of the west. Its floral disc is
Ornament.
is we said earlier, representation of the he hind part of the sole of the Buddha's ious symbols. In one example it is flanked history as an auspicious sing of very high and the fact that it was employed here to position it held as a symbol of auspicious
signations suggested by the Indologists to
he Buddhist Triad. Nandipad
mana. Let us take the first one. viz. the ve said earlier, Col. Cunningham' and Col. ologista who conducted excavation and eforemost among others who favour this ot agreeable to this porposition point out espect to represent the Buddhist Triad as ve shown earlier, the middle prong of some while the same of some others is shorter. some Andhra examples as well as the
em the three- ratnasi.e. Buddha, Dhamma be of equal standing and one ratna, is not rank or significance. Therefore we are g this symbol to represent the Buddhist for one of them, the middle prong in this or represented, for we do not find, any n for the Buddhist Triplegem'.
he design of this object would reveal, that another prong, but a mere cusp resulted in wo converging brackets.

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Then comes, the next designation i.e Marshallo, Fourcher', Benjamin Rowla distinguisheq Indologists. Nandipada lit well-known that Nandi is the name of the Nandipada is derived from a small Brahi engraved in old Brahmi characters on th
inscription reads as Nandi-pa-am which
In addition to this symbol, there a hoof-marks on the rock. Because of this as to whether the designation Nandic pa: to the hoof-marks visible nearby.
While the term Nandipadanor Nan inscribed here in Maharastri Prakrit wł period prior to the Christian era. Ho uncertainty pointed out by Coomaraswai figure concerned, bears fair resemblanc seen on the gate-ways of Sanchias well a premises.
Although the Nandipada on the Pa as the Sanchi example, yet the two symb apparent deviations in their details. The horn-shape, and is mounted on a round two arms, each terminating in a sprout tre-foil. In this regard we may compare t Triratna of Anuradhapura variety which
One notable feature is the somev Nandipada. Although this is not regulari with some marks of cracks. The whole lotus which we see in the floral disc of th
On the whole it appears to my I bull called Nandi in thi e

.Nandipadaortaurine favourd by Sir John nd and Hienrich Zimmer' who are all erally means Nandi's foot or track. It is bull of Siva, used as his vehicle. The name
mi inscription that appers beside a symbol he Padana hill near Bombay. The Brahmi
is equivalent to Skt. Nandipadam.
are in close proximity to it some clear-cut Coomaraswamy has already raised doubts, amis applied to the symbol in question or
ldi-pa-amis not found elsewhere it is found hich is an ancient dialect going back to a Weyer, whilst being confronted with the iny', it is easy to observe that the engraved e, at least in their essentials, to the symbol s the one to be seen in the Ruvanveli- saya
dana hill is not as impressive and aesthetic pols agree on essent points, in spite of the middle member of the Nandipada is of a body from the two sides of which project - like formation closer in appearance to a his with the terminations of the arms of the is our present concern.
what round body seen in the centre of the in its shape it has the shape of around seed symbol remains unadorned, and the open Le Triratnais totally absent here.

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When a symbol is formed all the na based, are not incorporated in it. Only designer would regard, as important to hi
The details given above appear to terminologyproposed by Burnouffi.e.V. f ing. H o proposer did not give a convincing ex Ananda Coomaraswamyo calls it is “TI designation Taurine employed by some available to name as symbol.
The term vardhamana occurs in se well as Jain literature, but no where it v making its proper identity extremely diff that the term Vardhamana as will be sh shades of meaning. This situation has unestablished. The word Vardhamana is But this word appears to have been appli which very little research has been made covering an entire phase of a civilization lecture to do even little justice in the way
In western terminology the symbol circlet is called Taurine or Taurus repres This zodiacle constellation presents a c. Pleiudes and Hyades respectively. In ast with Hyads that takes the V shape surmc shape. The constellation of Taurus play primitive peoples both in the northern an are included the Australian aborigines, 1 of Peru and the Mesais of East Africa. T
232

ization of til fgermination of of cotyledons, two young shoots and the
bolini
tural features of the object on which it is the striking features which the original s mind, would be adopted. w
be providing a satisfactory basis for the ardhanana which means something in the acceptable to other Scholars because its planation for his suggestion.Meanwhile risula' in Buddhism and adds that the Buropean scholars is the best terminology
veral places of our Buddhist literature as was applied to one particular object thus icult. This inconsistency is due to the fact own by Sanskrit Dictionaries, has various rendered it to remain its identification derived from the Skt. root Virdh to grow. ed to a widely diffused concept regarding 2. Its implications are large and extensive , and I am afraid I would require another
of its identification.
resembling a pair of antlers mounted on a ented pictorially by a bull's fore-quarters. ombintion of two clusters of stars named ronomy, it is represented by a bull-head unting the Pleides of a somewhat circular an important part in the calendar of the d the southern hemispheres. Among them he Omagna Indians of Brazil, the Indians hey all treat this constellation as a giver of

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rain which brings prosperity to them, and It thus shows its connection with the cl practiced by the ancienr civilizations of been adopted by them at a very early da interpretations to suit their respective in
Probably it is the semi-anthropomc shallow relief on a terra-cotta seal discov Indus Valley. What is shown on this seal god seated in a typical yogic posture, w head - gear as it were, fitted with two buffalo. Also he is surrounded by severa of three animals well known to us, viz, absence of the horse is attributed to contemporary Indus. However, a carefit would reveal to one that he possesses a unanimous that it represents the head o
The belief that the so-called protoIndus seal appears to be a misconception would reveal to one that it has only or slouching ears which are typical of the sp down, the respective side of the face, ar the cross-view of another human face. ( give a human appearance to gods-at le practice, the nose of this divinity cornev the very longnose ends up at the lowerex and it is the case with the face of a bull c
The association of the bull with the of the ancient world. Insumerian art, the as driving a primitive chariot drawn b: mountains." There, the weather god wa is illustrated in the relief found at Alaja room the figure of a squatting bull is Throughout the Roman empire, the w

celebrate its appearance in the firmament.
ult known to the west as the Fertility cult the world. The belief of Taurus may have ate of their history with modifications and dividualities and ethnic intersts.
orphized form of Taurine which appears in ered by Col. Mackey from Harappa of the , according to all scholars is a three-faced fith legs crossed beneath him. He wears a horns which are very similar to those of a lanimals among which one finds the figurs
the elephant, the lion and the bull. The
the non existence of this beast in the il examination of the head of this divinity bovine face, although the Indologists are
fthe so-called proto-type Siva.
type siva had three faces' to be seen on the .Acareful scrutiny of the head of this figure le face-the face of a buffalo. Its long and ecies of this animal, show their tips half-way ld would, at first sight,mistake them to be, Dne more point. It is the usual practice to ast to their face. Contrary to this general ver be regarded as anthropomorphic. Here treme of the face without showing the chin, or a buffalo.
rain-cult goes back to a very remote period a weather god of the Hittites is represented y the bulls over the heads of personified s often represented in the form of a bull as Huyuk. In another relief showing a shirne
depicted right behind the empty altar. feather god standing on the bull became
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well-known under the name of Jupiter L thunderbolt (Vajra of Indra) in his rightha has played an important role in the format In these examples the head of the drag modelled out of the head of a bull in rut.
The fact that the figure of the bul pre-Vedic period is proved by the figure Indus Valley. Thus the proto-type siva wi his head appears as a symbol of this and designed with an actual pair of horns of a an artificial head of the respective beast c an ornament on the wall of the verandah times before they came under the western island, which is continued upto date in so their verandah or the parlour with a simila of stag or deer.This ornament with its baya closer appearance to that of the Na fore-quarters of the so-called proto-type be added that this concept is not out live would like to live the (illustration from Bucholoi in chechoslovakia).
It is true that these figures are being these homes as their erstwhile significanc most of the present generation they may a or cloth-hangers of some archaic interes. remote rural areas these antiques are son an ancient tradition which he is unable to
It may be interesting here, as to whya for a symbol to represent either the Tauri any other more popular object such as a pl on the head ofan animal continuesto grow even after death of its original possessor. plantis weak and will perish once it reach
234

olichenus (Skt. Dyupati) who holds the hd while atrisulain the left. The bull-head on of some dragonfigures of the east too. on or the makara appears to have been
l was used as a symbol of fertility in the of the humped bull discovered from the th the the fore-quarters of the buffalo as ieht concept. Interestingly an ornament wild buffalo (Sinhala: madaya) fitted to arved out of wood used to be displayed as of some houses in Sri Lanka until recent impact. Still more popular practice in the me remote areas is to adorn the walls of ir ornament composed of a pair of antlers antlers and tips branched into tines offers ndipada on the Padana hill or to the Siva appearing on the Indus seal. It may d even in the west. For an example, we
the entrance-door in a chatean called
used as mere wall- ornaments by most of 2 is totally unknown to the occupants. To ppear as some old-fashioned hat-hangers ... Yet to the unsophisticated villager in he serious objects worthy of respect with explain.
figure with horns happened to be chosen he or the prototype Siva in preference to ant, flower or fruit. As we know, the horn , and is so strong that it has along survival Contrary to this nature of the horn, the sits maturity.However, in later times we

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see these attributes being shifted regardl modelled out of vegetative elements.The in a sculptrued panel from Nagarjunikon the stage, in which this transition was tak
The Triratna appearing in this frieze flower. It is important to note that the appears to be a sun-flower known in Sri be bearing astrange reaction to the Sun-ri side of the sun-flower are recognizable while the sun-flower gives a pictorial ri yellowish colour goes well in accord with represented in art. Not only does its flow flower so opened faces the sun's directi have imspired the designers of this partic adequate solar representation to be usec composition of the sun and the Triratnas representing the concept of growth duri When the Andhra culture saw its Zenith.
Besides, the Triratna symbol app a three-tiered cushion-like objcet. It is p Triratna which served during this age as a which was supposed to bring forth luci mention here that the Japanese helmet a connection with the Triratna is usual worked out with precious gold embroide
It is now time that we address our 1 the name applied to this symbol in Sri L unknown to the Buddhists of this countr that its name too remained lost in our usz
in the Dhampiya-atuwa-getapadaya Writ
This work which is the oldest avail. an authoritative work helpful in determi

ess of their weaknatto a form of Triratna' type of the Triratna to be seen in a frieze da could be regarded as representative of ing place.
is characteristic of a plant bearing an open kind of flower seen in this representation Lanka as Surya kanta which is believed to ise. Besides, the two leaves shown on either as those belonging to this particular plant, epresentation of the sun's disc its deeply n the traditional colour in which the sun is sering coincide with the rise of the sun, the on too. This nature of the sun-flower may ular Triratna frieze to have chosen it as an i in this piece of art. It is possible that this rved as the most importantfertility symbol ng the early centuries of the Christian era.
A
earing in this frieze is seen surmounted on ossible that this is an imitation of an actual an ornament as well as an auspicious object k to its adorers. It may be worthwhile to of the Samurai which appears to be having ly surmounted on a red-coloured cushion
гу.
mind on the important issue of finding out anka. As we know, this symbol remained y for a long period of time, and it is natural ge. However, there is a little clue available ten in the Ioth century.
able literary work in sinhala is accepted as hing the implications of many sinhalaterms
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which have gone into oblivion or unintelli which appears in the Pali Dhammapadatt
kunta nandvisuciya meaning that Kunta not told about its shape. The only diffic
so-called Triratna is that, the Kunta desc two prongs while the former is supposed to this as a misconception on the part of som another prong or suci.
The name konta is synonymous wit author of the Vamsatthappakasini'uses Kunta used in the text of the Mahavansa the construction of the Mirisavetiya stupai
This shows that at the time when the Chrc probably in the 12th cent. A.D. the usage i the king is said to have carried on this occa kuntaa factwhichshowsthata part of this it, thus serving itself as a carrier of sacred as sacred too. It further supports our con Lanka as a standard of highesteem carried as a weapon to be used in warfare.
If the kunta referred to in the story as "two - pronged' in the light of tl Dhampiya-atuwa-getapadaya it could saf the'Triratna' of our concern. Again it viz.“Triratna” and Buddhist Triad have terminology suggested by most of the indic basis. In spite of this erroneous positionth this talk for easy reference.
The story of the Mirisaveti-seya cor had gone to Tisaveva in a procession wit water sports to mark the conclusion of vi had the kuntainstalled on the spot, whe1 return to the city after the festival, his mer
236

gibility. While explaining the term kunta a-kathaits author says that it is 'dvisuci is an object with two prongs. But we are ulty in applying this description to the ribed by our royal author, possesses only possess three. We have earlier explained : indologists who took the middle cusp as
1 kontain the Sinhala language and the the latter form in explaining the word while dealing with the events that led to n Anuradhapura by king Dutthagaminio“ onicler Commentary was being compiled, 1vogue waskonta and not kunta Besides, ision some relics of the Buddha inside the object-probably its shaft had a hollow in objects - partly areason for its being held jecture that the kunta was treated in Sri lat the head of the processions andnever
of the Mirisaveti-Seya could be regarded
he explanation by the author of the ely be presumed that it is identical with becomes clear that both designations no logical support, and apparently the logists - that is Taurine - has areasonable e name Triratna' will be used throughout
struction relates how king Dutthagamani h the kunta at its head for the festival of :tory celebrations, and on his way to have e the present Mirisavetiya stands. On his are reported to have been unable remove

Page 245
this kunta from the spot where it was pla present stupa by enclosing it. This story i the kuntaas aroyal standard (asort of a 1 as ceremonial functions. Many are refere royal processions at the head of which ak standard of high esteem.
This has formed a long tradition anc two spear-like objects called kuntayudhas blade (representing the middle cusp of th the tip of each forming itself into a smalll the Triratna' or Taurine are carried at th
It is interesting to note that these kuu large floral discs called SESATA fitted resembles roughly the arrangement of th the “Triratna” symbol... As a rule, two kun probably to represent the two arms of the the Triratna's floral disc which in turn rep
In this connection, a sculpture on the e is of considerable interest. It depicts two e body, carrying a flag attached to a di appearance to the Triratna) mounted on a parallel practice in the days of early Rc weapon: at the head of their victory para
With the rise of Mahayanism in India role as a powerful votive object. It assur means, among other things, 'adamantine' every arena of the religion as well as p became the most sacred object held by t and all incarnations associated with then we have the colossal Bodhisattva figure disputed Kustarajagalacarrying a vajrawh It appears, by now, the "Triratna' got star

inted whereupon he decided to erect the indicates the ancient practice of adopting mace) in Sri Lanka state functions as well :nces in Sri Lankan classical literature to
unta, konta Orjaya-konta was carried as a
lit is still the practice in Sri Lanka where or murayudhas, each with a longpointed Triratna) flanked by two short brackers half volute reminiscent of the two arms of e head of ceremonial processions.
htayudhas are always accompanied by two to a tall shaft. The design of this object e petals incorporated in the floral disc of ayudhas are carried in these ceremonies, Triratna'. In this set the Sesata represents presents the sun.
astern gateway of the main stupaat Sanchi lephants, each fastened to the other by its puble- pronged kunta, (very similar in a long shaft. This may be compared with omans who used to carry a multi-pronged des.
the Triratna' begantoplayapredominant ned its new designation, i.e. Vajra which , and its name as well as its form occupied hilosophy advocated by Mahayanism. It he hand of the Bodhisattvas, their Patnis h. To cite some examples from Sri Lanka s in Buduruwagala, as well as the much. ichisathree-prongedobjectintheirhand. Ldardised with three prongs converting its
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middle cusp into a full-fledged throng. edifices belonging to the Mahavihara as edifice standing near the Thuparama.
It was this Triratna-Vajra that wasl
Mahayanism. It is probably some featur form the design of the helmet of the San medieval times.
It can hardly be regarded as a coin being present on this important national
We have in this, some features per the famous Indus seal belonging to the 3. the Triratna' belonging to the 3rd cent.
Appearing on the crest of this he bovine, Crocodilian and piscine features. even with the cord set through its nose-tr The rest of this figurine is composed of th as makara (dragon of Indian type). Its c being the charasteristic feature of the recognizable.However, the tiny hornstha are similar to the antlers of a deer and no one bay antler. The pattern of this part of descendent of the primitive headgear wo to earlier as to be seen on the Indus sealf to many other symbolic representations.
As we see, the most prominent presence of the two horn-like formation are made of metal and are guilt, as a rule, in some examples, a silver or steel finis vajra quality. These horn-like proj Triratna,'example that appears on a s Bharhutexample of the Triratna' as we sa
238

The Vajra was not out of bounds even to is shown by the Vajra pillars of the ruined
ter introduced to China and Japan through
's of this Triratna Vajra that have gone to urai, particularly, the type obtaining in the
idence when we see a mixture of features article of Japan.
taining to the proto-type Siva depicted by 'd millenium B.C. and others pertaining to B.C. in one and the same object.
ad-gear is a mythical animal composed of It has the head of a bull in its natural form ils, thus making its identity as Taurus easy. 2 mythical animal generally known in India rocodilian trunk has the features of a fish Indian makara. Its piscine tail is easily appear on the bovine head of this figurine t to those of a bull. Each antler consists of the head-gear, appears to be an improved rn by the proto-type Siva we have referred om Harappa which may have given origin
ature of the Japanese head-gear is, the , make to flank the bovine dragon. They hile the edges of theirjagged blades give, suggesting sharpness, characterizing its :ctions may be compared with the ulpture discovered from Bharhut, The dearlier, has been employed to represent

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the Vessabhu Buddha.
In the Bharhut model, the Triratna open flower and the parallel to this can which is occupied by a similar floral desig are two leaf-like projections on the Budd Japanese helmet two rectangular obj diamonds-probably keeping with the Va Triratna' together with its floral disc is 1 exterior of this stand is seen partitioned verticle line of tiny round objects similar of the cap of the head - hear of Sanurai with gems or artificial stones of green, re line. Set in a straight line.
Then, the Triratna' example discove placed on a support which looks like ath as a rule, is placed on a cushion covered rich embroidery worked in gold thread. ) its being the traditional head-gear worn very eminent national symbol. One whole Tokyo is set apart for the exhibition of its object was made partly at this museum a Education, Sri Lanka, which keeps an Good-will Mission of the Japanese youth
It is admitted that one would not "Triratna' on the Japanese object partic similarity of the features described abo" coincidence.
Lastly, I would like to say that there has drawn the attention of the Indologist ten decades. Various theories, mostly wit forward towards its identification and int hitherto been reached. However, its role,

'is mounted on a disc fully occupied by an be seen on the crest of the Japanese cap in set in a disc. You will observe that there hist symbol. Parallel to this we are on the ects with an appearance of two cut - jra aspect of a later date. As we see, the mounted on a stand of conical shape. The vertically, and each compartament has a to beads in shape. Interestingly the back too is divided into several compartments :d, and amber colours in laid in a straight
red from Nagarjunikonda shows that it is ree-tiered cushion. The Japanese helmet, with red silk (velvet) and decorated with In short, the Japanese helmet, apart from by the Japanese war-lords, is treated as a : department in the Historical Museum of various models.My study of this eminent ind partly in the office of the Ministry of example of it as a gift received from a
ti get the complete visual likeness of the :ularly, its elevation view. However, the ve cannot easily be dismissed as a mere
is no other symbol in Buddhist art which as much as the Triratna' during the past h wide range of divergence, have been put erpretation, and yet no final decision had as the most dynamic symbol, contributing
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to the idea of vigorous growth ensur prosperity throughout the period of unchallenged.
240

ing well-being in general and attendant istoric civilization of the world remains

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BIBLOGRAPHY
1. Cunningham, Alexander, the stupa of Bhadhut, P.111.
2. Meisty. Col. FC Sanchi and its Ruins.Chapir
3&4 Marshal and Fourther, Monuments of Sanchivoli
S. Art and Architecture of India P.274
6. Art of Indian Asia. Vol.II, p. 27
7. Elements of Buddhist Iconography (EBI), P. 16
8. Lotus. P. 627
9. Majumdar, Roadar and Duta (1950) Advanced Hist
10. EBI, op. cit, p. 13
11 Gurney, o R., Hittites, P. 134
12Ed. byWimalakitti, M.P.236
13. Ed. by VenSumangala, H. and Pundit Batuwantudawe (18
14. Mahavamsa. XXVI.10
21 S.P.C. 90683

ory of India, p.20
95), p. 358
24

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Page 251
THE STANDING STAT (UTTARARAMAYA
B
Gunapala
Several theories have been presented in statue to be seen at the Gal-Vihara prer be divided, as they appear from the ver distinctive categories of thought. The sch the statue concerned is of Ananda, cousi of the Buddha, who was also reputed to 1 (Dharma-bhandagarika) of the great tea
that the statue concerned represents the
However the populer Buddhist tradit view, viz. that it represents Ananda whog The supporters of this view take the sorro statue as well as the position of the consideration in making their decision.
The British scholars of the past cent and Emerson Tennent were unanimous i Buddha, and the first dissident on the Bi as 1855 A.D. put it down on record in h referred to belongs to Ananda. H. C. P. E identified the nipanna-patima (recumbel with the Buddha in his state of parinib Senarat Paranavitana positively rejected the statue to Ananda. Since these observi madevaluable contributions on the subj P. E. Fernando and L. Prematillake have history and arthere as well as abroad.
Before one could assess the validit above, it becomes necessary to take an

JE AT THE GAL-VIHARA ), POLONNARUWA
f
Senadeera
the way of identification of the standing nises in Polonnaruwa. These theories can y beginning of this controversy, into two olars of the first group are of opinion that n, desciple and favourite attendant monk have acted as the 'keeper of the Dhamma' cher. Then, the view of the other group is Buddha and Buddha alone.
ion has always been infavour of the earlier rieves over the passing away of his Master. wful expression marked on the face of this two hands crossed over the breast into
ury such as Liet. Fagan, Major Forbes, Sirr in their identification of the statue with the itish side was S. M. Burrows who, as early is Buried Cities of Ceylon that the statue Bell' who agreed with Burrows in this issue it statue) to be seen in the adjoining grotto ana. Meanwhile, both A. M. Hocart and the later theory attributing the identity of ations of the pioneers several scholars have 2ct, among which those of D.T. Devendra, drawn serious attention of the students of
y of arguments of the scholars referred to account of the statues that belong to the
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Gal-Vihara complex.
There are four statues carved on all seated statues, one standing and the other of the collossal type while the other whi referred to in the Mahavamsa' by the nar the last referred to is much symmetrical a the whole the statues of this shrine, accor facial features that are not present in any the land. He recognizes the standing sta
the attitude of paradukkha-dukkita, i.e
others'.
The arguments of Hocar“are chiefly concerned was origanally housed in a sep
”The theory that the standing statu weeping over the dying Buddha has so c. become almost an article of faith. The ar. facts, and not to sentiment, and the facts figures were each enclosed in seperate h( can still be traced, though it is gradually pathetic expression of the standing figure. The figure is simply standing Buddha o represented.”
Then we turn to Prof. P. E. Fernand nce of two distinctly marked facial types n periodin the history of the Sinhalese scul and that of the larger seated Buddha sh seated statue in the excavated cave and invested with similar characteristics'.
"It would appear, he goes on to say
larger statue in the dhyana-mudra and i
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ving rock at the Gal-Vihara, namely, two recumbent. Out of them three statues are ch is seen in a specially engraved grotto he Viadhara-lena is smaller in size. Also nd ranks higher in aesthetic qualities. On ling to Prof. Paranavitana’o, "possess some of the Buddha statues found anywhere in tue as a representation of the Buddha in "He who is sorrowful for the sorrow of
7 based on the presumption that the statue erate chamber. Says he:
e at Gal-Vihara, Polonnaruwa is Ananda aught the popular imagination that it has chaeologists, however, owes allegiance to are that the standing and the recumbent puses. The base of the valbetveenthem decaying... much has been made of the Iregretto sayit is the effect of weathering. ne of the three positions in which he is
oHe observes in these statues 'the prese either of which can be traced to an earlier ture...'....the face of the recumbent statue are similar features while the face of the that of the standing statue................ ae
“that in the two larger statues i.e. in the 1 the recumbent statue, the sculptor has

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employed a facial type appropriate to the the two smaller statues the heads which a impart to them a very attractive appear statues has some affinity with the type fo during the Palaperiod in Bihar and Beng found in some of the Buddha statues oft
The faces in the two larger statues a unusually round and details are seen in a and uninteresting expression. The noses ( the eyes are set rather high in the face circumstance has reduced the breadth of
The validity of the observations mac to any one who does a careful study of the to. In addition to the narrow receding fore nose, exchaggerated cheeks, and sma improportionate by the Indianas well as S appear that these features are closer towh to any other ethnic affinity known in Asia
Professor Fernando who suggests th the creation of these two statues had Chir of his conclusion he cites the full and rou the Chinese statues of the Buddha as wel that existed between Sri Lanka and China stated by him, would have been Tantri Vajrayana introduced to the island in the
The observations made by the scho to the subject under discussion as they a the two statues concerned, i.e. the recun statue were to be identified with one rep1 as is taken by Hocart and Paranavitana, i which names it as a nipana-patina. One made by Hocart who draws our attentio

: larger dimensions of the statues while in ure well modelled and delicately chiselled ance. The facial type in the two smaller und in some of the Buddha statues made al, and perhaps, in a small measure to that he Gupta period.'
re described by Fernando as having "faces somewhat flat surface resulting in a dull of both statues are stiff and unnatural, and . In the larger seated Buddha the latter the forehead.'
le by P. E. Fernando would become clear facial features of the two statues referred head one would notice smaller eyes, larger iller chin that can all be regarded as riLankan standards of symmetry. It would latwe normally describe as Mongolid than
l
at the sculptors who were responsible for lese models for their guidance. In support und face whichis characteristic of most of l as the commercial and cultural contacts a in the 12th century. The result of this, as c influence brought to bear through the 9th century Ꭺ.Ꭰ*
lars above-referred to are highly relevent re helpful for the proper identification of nbent and the standing. If the recumbent resenting the lying posture of the Buddha, tgoes well in accord with the Mahavamsa : cannot reject the validity of observations n to the remains of the ancient wall that
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would have enclosed the chamber which the standing statue under reference. If ea housed in two different chambers separat suggestion that Anandahere is grievingin Then, if the two figures had been accomm case in other places where the scene of present by the side is depicted it could ha effect. In such instances, it was the practi of the Buddha. Even where he was placed not in front of it or adjacent to it. Bes represented in much smaller physical siz
Mr. D.T. Devendra cites several E curly hair on their head and tries to mak not an essential feature of the Buddha's are several Buddha figures as the one fo the Kartha Buddha, a Buddha statue foun at Sivakanchi-puram-all in India an Polonnaruwa, without this feature. In allt as Devendra says, with ahead wearing as from the ancient Buddhist art a disciple (puthuiana) disciple, as was the case with hair arrangement which was exclusive to physical characteristics? Even the padma the Buddha statues in the ancient Buddh sitting or standing, had been exclusive features associated with the standing st above, going to stand in the way of its be hand, the theory to the effect that the re. nothing more than the lying posture ofth
We have earlier referred to the obs Tantric influence which appears to have Gal-Vihara. This too stands against the 1 nipanna-patima-lenais depicting the par the Mahayanists do not accept the positic
246

origanally refers to have accommodated ch of these two statues were to have been ed by a wall there would be no sense in the his isolation over the demise of his Master. Lodated within the same chamber, as is the the Buddha's passing away with Ananda eproduced some effect, if not the desired ce to have Ananda placed behind the feet near the head, it was behind his head, and ides, in all these instances Ananda was e than that of the Master.
Buddha statues, local and abroad, without e a case in favour of his theory that it was head. We admit his submission that there und at Mankuvar. To this list we can add din Mathura, another in the police station il those to be seen at the Vata-da-ge, hese instances, the Buddha is represented, kull-cap. However, can we cite an instance of the Buddha, particularly an unattained Ananda on this occasion, with this special ) the Buddha to be one of his auspicious sana, the lotus pedestal'on which most of list world were made to occupy by way of :o the Buddha. Thus, it appears that the atue at the Gal-Vihara are as described ing identified with Ananda. On the other Cumbent figure at the Gal-Vihara depicts e Buddha appears to gain further support.
ervations made by Prof. Fernando on the been brought to bear on the works in the heory to the effect that the statues in the nirvana Scene. It is commonly known that on that the Buddha was dead and gone for

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ever. According to them it was the physic appearance in the illusory (maya) world, a heavenly bliss in the Sukhavati. This b{ discourage the practice ofrepresenting the where it becomes necessary to depict th becomes highly improbable to presume wished to have a statue of the Buddhatha words, he does not want to perpetuate the
In the event of identifying the nipan of his concentration attitude while lying adjacent to it has to be viewed in a contex earlier, the early European scholars as w Prematilake' totally rejected the theory Ananda. Although all of them firmly belic Buddhathere was no unanimityamong t peculiar hand position to be seen acrossi
Of them, Mr. Hocarto explained hi figure is simply standing Buddha, one represented.”
Prof. Paranavitana" takes a stepf
Much more satisfying aesthetically Buddha; 22ft. 9in. in height, with arms pla expression in the countenance. This atti known from two other examples, a rathe dagaba at Tissamaharama, and a colossali with plaster and paint in the largest cave of the sculptor, achieved with remarkab
para-Oukkha-oukkhita, i.e. "He who is so
While repudiating the earlier th Paranavitana clarifies his point further in

al residue (nirmana-kaya) that has its his ind the sakyamuniin reality is enjoying the elief of the Mahayanist compels him to : Buddhain the parinirvanaposture except e events of his life in series. Therfore it : that the Vajrayanists would have ever t depicts the stage of parinirvana. In other e memory that the Buddha.
napatima with the Buddha in the process
(sute) the standing statue which is seen t different from that of Ananda. As stated ell as Hocart and Paranavitana and lately, which identifies the statue concerned with ved that it represents none other than the hem with regard to the explanation of the its breast.
sview in the simplest terms. Says he: The of the three positions in which he is
urther and says:
than these seated figures is the standing ced across the breast, and with a sorrowful tude of the hands in a Buddha image is r battered figure to be seen at the Yatala image, said to be ofwood, but now covered at Dambulla. It is evident that the purpose le success, was to present the Buddha as rrowing for the sorrow of others.'
eory identifying the statue with Ananda
a foot-note.
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As late as 1905, Mr. S. M. Burrows this figure has generally been taken for a to be a representation of Ananda. This time by Burrows, has now gained wide cl popular writers as a tradition, and has f indubitable fact that the standing imag disposes of the theory that it represents the Buddha. The treatment of the hair i - image, and the lotuspedestal, conclusivel but of the Buddha. At the parinibbana of
However, Paranavitana's opinion 1 para-dukkha-dukkhita attitude of the Bl impression that this work of artimparts a This impression may have been the result two hands as well as the facial expression effect.
Meanwhile Devendra' who interp particularly exclusive to Sri Lanka) to listening or of submissiveness quotes ins or the south Indian Tamilin Sri Lankastal a Superior.
It is unfortunate to observe that, all not appear to have given serious consider hands are crossing over the breast with t arm. It is important to note that Deve difference between the hand - position which one sees in the Gal-Vihara statue.) hand is inserted underneath the upper a But he fails to notice of the fact that the out in stiff form without leaving space b the arms over which they stretch. This is ofan unsophisticated Sinhala villager or variety, who is in the attitude of respi
248

in his Buried cities of Ceylon' states that Buddha, but gives his reasons for taking it
view, apparently propounded for the first irrency so much so that it is referred to by ound ardent advocates to defend it. The 2 was originally inside a separate shrine Ananda sorrowing at the passing away of s ringlets, appropriate only for a Buddha yestablish that the image is not of Ananda, the Master Ananda was not yet anarahat.'
hat the statue concerned is depicting the lddha appears to have been made on the 'sorrowful expression in the countenance.' t of his considering the arrangement of the of the statue to be producing a sorrowful
pretes this posture (which he describes as be expressing an attitude of 'respectful tances of "unsophisticated' Sinhalavillager inding in this very attitude when he is before
these scholars, save Prof.Prematillake, do ation to the unusual positionin which these heir fingers stretched out just touching the :ndra was at least able to recognize this of the "unsophisticated villager and that He says that in the case of Gal-Vihara"each irm opposite it-very close to the armpits. fingers of the standing statue are stretched etween each other and are just resting on quite contrary to the position of the hands of a South Indian Tamil of the Sri Lankan :ctful listening or submissiveness. In the

Page 257
position Devendrais referring to one is req so as to suspendit. No manor woman who is in respectful or attentive listening would breast and closer to the arm-pits with fing the arms without a conscious effort to do SC of the Sinhala Villager, the fingers (in a lo hollow of the other arm without being seer
Meanwhile, Prof. Prematillake' whic the statue of our concern cites many Budd to by others earlier, with this unusual hand. cave shrines at Yapahuwa, Bambaraga Lankatillaka and several other places. He depicting the animisa-locana-puja perforn after his enlightenment.
The wordanimisa-locana-pujais forme this animisa' means "non-winking, locana or 'oblation'. Therefore it denotes "an oblat keeping the eyes open at the object recievin the trunk of the Bodhi tree on which the p)
However, there is one point even Prof notice of. In all these cases referred to abov wide-open so as to make their glanc Disappointingly, this is not the case wi Polonnaruwa, that are half- closed and d. aimed at an object down below. Then, the case, should be seen at a levellower than th statue. It is not possible otherwise, for the glance unless it was a tree of several feetin ofany Bodhitree of such proportions infro or afterwards. It cannot even represent the by the Blessed one at the site of Bodhi-ga too suffers from lack of support.

uired to follow his fingers round the arm eitherstanding at ease or keeps standing keep his or her crossing hands over the 2rs stiff and stretched out just to rest on ). In some cases, particularly in the case pose fist) of one arm go underneath the
from outside.
) is closer to the proper identification of ha figures, in addition to those referred position appearing in mural form at the la, Madawela Vihara, Gangaramaya, describes these Buddha figures to be ned by the Buddha in the second week
2d by the combination of three words. Of means "eyes' and puja means 'offering tion conducted by way of non-winking or g that offer. In this particular case, it was recious glane was fixed.
. Prematillake appears to have not taken e by him the eyes of the Buddha are kept e aimed directly at the Bodhi tree. th the eyes of the standing statue at Own-cast suggesting that their glance is recipient object, the Bodhi tree in this lat oftheupperregion ofthebody ofthe sacred tree to have received this steady height. We cannot imagine the existence ht of this statue in the days ofits execution historic animisa-locana-puja performed ya. Thus the animisa-locana-puja theory
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Then we come to the inevitable que: Sarva-darsana-Samgraha refers to an Bala-Ramayana to a SVastika-dana. In th yogins in the course of their meditation, t the knee so as to make a cross (SVastika). over the breast. The Bala-Ramayana hand-position by the descriptive term své makes a Swastika over her breasts with he which goes back to a very remote date considered a very lucky symbol, and the w referred to above has been described as of
In the case of the ascetics who pr posture have to make a conscious effort to measure of strictness. This yogic posture we see in the open-air at the site of the C the SVastika-dana (SVastika-mudra) to be standingstatue, anditisachievedby its har stretched out and just touching the arm.
w
Some explanation may become nece have referred to. Is it a sorrowful express face of this statue could better be explain 'sorrowful'- a condition resulted in by the
Thus, we have at the Gal-Vihara, th standing, seated, and lying, and in all thes practising a dhyana" The standing figur posture (gati) or the camkanana posture receives support from the two features pr
One would notice in this statue a slightl as well as the abhanga resulted by a sligh This is another unusual feature which h unable to explain so far. Are these featur step about to be taken forward by the Budc
250

ry. What does this statue represent? The asana called svastikasana while the e Swastikasana which is practised by the he toes are placed in the inner hollow of "In Svastika-dana the hands are crossed (75,16) refers to a woman with this hasta-Svastikastani, i.e. "the woman who :r own hands. The Svastika the history of of human civilization has always been oman who appears with the hand-position ering a lucky sight with magical influence.
actice SVastikadana as a very rigid yogic concentrate body and mind in the greatest is achieved in the samadhi-patima which jal-Vihara. Then comes the necessity for depicted by means of the medium of the lds crossed over the breastwith the fingers
ssary for the 'sorrowful expression' many sion ? The sort of expresion worn by the *d as Serious or ecstatic rather than to be mind overpowered by adhyana.
le three postures of the Buddha, namely, e postures the Buddha is supposed to be 2 may be depicting, in a way, the walking of the Buddha. This conjecture of ours esent in this statue.
bump or an exaggeration of the right thigh t bent of the knee in a forward direction. as puzzled the archaeologists who were as giving us a hint which is suggestive of a lhain the process of his cankamana?

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Let us expand a little more what has just statue under discussion could be consic Buddha is practisingadhyana while stan suggest that the Buddha is represented b adhyana associated with the SVastika-n standing with his hands crossed over his adequately conscious (sampajana-kar Svastika-mudrawhich is an essential requ be conducive (adharaka) to the dhyanai
Besides, the Mahayanists - m throughout the later period the Buddhai laid great emphasis on the dhyana aspecta practice, and to them, the Buddha statue also was an agent of auspiciousness. Acc with the Svastika-mudra was considered worshipper who always wished to achi adoration and worldly happiness for him

been said. We have just concluded that the ered as depicting a posture in which the ling. Then it would be more reasonable to this statue in the process of his practising udra while walking, and not when simply breast. During this process one has to be ) not to allow, among others, the irement to be disturbed, and this effort will l progress.
ore particularly - the Vajrayanists, used mage for their Tantric practices. They also usan essential feature of their ecclesiastical was not only an art object of worship, but ording to this concept, the Buddha statue as...imparting a magical influence to the eve a double objective by his puja viz. and his family.
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REFERENCE
1. Bell. H.C.P., Ascar, 1907, pp. 10 ff.
2. MTV. 76.75
3. History of Ceylon University of Ceylon (HCUC), Vol.
4. Ceylon Journal of Science.Vol.II, p. 12
5. University of Ceylon Review, 1960 (Jan. - April), Tantu
6. Nikaya-Samgrahaya, P.18
7. MV. 7675
8. Sir Paul E. Peiris Felicitation Volume. StandingFigure a
9. Artibus Asie, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 61-66.
10. CJS. Vol. II op. cit.
11. HCUC. Vol. II. p. 605
12. Ibid.
13. Artibus Asie, Vol. XIX, pp. 1326
14. Ibid. Vol. XXVIII. op. cit.
15. Wilson, Thomas., The Swastika, Washington, 1894; R. P.
;gate thite nisine vasampajanakari hoti”-Satipatth.م.م.م.م.م.م.‘ .16
252

the GalVihara, Polkomnaruwa, pp. 38
Greg, Onthc origin of the flypot and Swastika, Westminster, 1884.
ana-sutta.

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SRI LANKAN ARCH
AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TC
E
M. A. M
In this closing decade of the twentieth c. first, despite the abundance of materia around the world, mankind appears to h appears to increase in abrasiveness. Ther learned reports and studied presentation on such kindred subjects as population e. waste and pollution of earth, air andwate we live in, is that most of us are cut off frt validity unless it can project toward the was expressed towards the end of the last future by interpreting the present, with r. understanding of the past becomes sing future. More and more we know of ( variousness of cultures and civilizations, humans, despite the diversity of cultura This perception cannot be arrived at by li exclusive supremacy of technology to a about an equitable distribution of such p in, generating a feeling of awe and rever
Archaeology as a scientific discipline human curiosity to delve into man's archaeology, at its present stage, as it h exclusive reliance on oral traditions an physiognomy with modern techniques outlook on a scientific consideration. contribution to world culture and under
Even the ancients, while digging for of earlier men who preceded them, but n interest in man's cultural ancestry. Whe

AEOLOGY (1890-1990) ) HUMANISM AND CULTURE By
1. Shukri
entury, and on the threshold of the twenty ill culture and almost its democratisation ave lost its sang-froid, and life at all levels e is much anxiety bordering on panic in the Sby prestigious institutions and individuals Xplosion, ecological catastrophe, industrial r. But the most striking feature of the world pm avision of the future. That, Life has no future......” is as germane today, as when it War by Albert Camus." Man envisages the eference to the past. Therefore, a scientific 2 qua non for realistic alternatives to the our past and our origin and discern the weare driven to the inescapable truth that l accomplishments, belong to one family. near thinking which make us believe in the ugment our material resources and bring roducts. It is here that archaeology comes ence in our avenues to antiquity.
: is undoubtedly recent, but as an insatiable past is an age-old endeavour. Hence, nas outgrown its antiquarian features and ld literary records has evolved a definite and methodologies thereby basing our Accordingly, it has made a significant standing among the peoples of the world.
one reason or other, stumbled on artifacts. ogeneral conclusions were drawn to kindle ninterest in them really began, it was from
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the antiquarians with a purely artistic an humanist tradition of the Renaissance in Graeco-Roman antiquity was a concernw and Romans. Motivated partly by monetar and other such artifacts were excavated : unmotivated by commercialism. Thus lai expeditions by Europeans to Greece, collecting expeditions. Archaeology begin tradition begins to reveal a scholastic and came to be arranged, classified and chro history.
Despite this philosophic ori archaeological approach to man's pastitw. provincial possessions and the Biblical llar nineteenth century with European involv to wars around Turkey, that the huma European cultural tradition began to spill Anatolia and the Mediterranean isles. methodical enough to read the story of m last few decades of the nineteenth centu replace careless treasure hunts by antic archaeological quests, as distict from t Renaissance period belong|Henrich Schlie for Homer's Troy in Anatolia-present-da Egypt in 1880 Sir Arthur Evans bringing civilizations of Crete and the mainland a Chaldean city of Ur in present-day Iraq expanded, a kind of professional snobbe archaeology began to dissipate and it b{ writings of a concern for MAN behind th objective attitude, this branch of inquiry ir depth and to adopt scientific methods, criteria.
With the extension of European act
254

gle of vision and was really a part of the Europe. Part of the revival of interest in ith the art and architecture of the Greeks y considerations, pottery, sculpture, coins and collected for reasons not altogether mentably, the earlier nineteenth century Rome and the Near-East were mainly is to show early signs when the collector's academic tendency by which the artifacts nologically determined to interpret past
entation of the early humanists to an as restricted to Greece, Rome and to their nds. It was only towards the middle of the ement in the Eastern Question which led nist tradition of being concerned with over to the lands of Egypt, Mesopotamia,
Earlier diggers were not patient and han as written in the earth. Not until the ury does systematic excavations begin to puarians and aesthetes. To these early he purely humanist approaches of the smann's exploration in 1870 on Hissarlich y Turkey; Flinders Petrie's excavations in to light the lost Minoan and Mycaenean nd Leonard Woolley's expedition in the and so on. As the area of excavations try which persisted in the early phase of ecame increasingly evident in European e artifacts. With this broad, detached and to man's past began to acquire clarity and , measurable techniques and verifiable
ivities in Asia in the 16th century and the

Page 263
consolidation of their rule in the 19th, arc mainly under the direction of the British exploration of the subcontinent and the Il Afghanistan it ceased to be a regiona international significance. Its ever-wid ever-increasing scientific configuration especially ancient history and pre-histor optimism. In earlier historiography " probabilities as they were based on suc numismatics, and such kindred discipline symbolism, etc. Thus archaeology bec examining ancient cultures which have c written records become profuse enoug problems come into focus when we find century before Christ in Sri Lanka C subcontinent about the same period. Be contained in the Egyptian heiroglyphs undeciphered scripts of other civilization
How can we understand the el culture-bearing being? In the absence of of food production and the rise ofvillage did civilization manifest itself monume) finally, why and how did these ancient c end? A serious hindrance to a compreh course, the incomplete state of the archaeological record to be fully compl contextis to demand the impossible. Ther of record, the archaeologist's role be combination of the scholar and the engin physics and mathematics when such can b of insight and imagination with a scientil past in the light of new findings. Scien ever-growing. It is a ‘self-correcting sy Humanist Frame Final truths do not be a changing vision of the heavens in astron

haeological studyitselfis extended to Asia, and the French. With the archaeological anian tableland which includes Persia and l preoccupation and begins to acquire 2ning perspective was, paralleled by an which made it reconstruct our history, y with a greater degree of exactitude and here was much room for speculative 1 sources as literary evidence, epigraphy, 's as philology, indology and iconographic ame progressively a reliable means of eased to be, on the basis of artifacts until sh to be meaningful. But then certain i that the lithic records cease by the 3rd r with the Asokan inscriptions in the yond these and the recorded evidence as and Mesopotamian cuneiform and the s lies pre-history.
mergence of man as a tool-making and records, how can we understand the origin communities leading to urban living? How htally in art, thought and religion? And ivilizations without exception come to an ensive understanding of man's past is of archaeological record. To expect the ete, in a well-preserved condition and in e beingnopossibility of such completeness comes challenging. "He has to be the eer, the man of languages and the man of efound." In addition he has to be aman icbent of mind to revise his image of the ific truths are provisional, tentative and tem, as Julian Huxley observes in The long to this world. In as much as we have omy so does our investigations in all fields
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of inquiry grow with the advance of accordingly it inheres in this quality o methodologies and techniques to comm
Archaeology in its mature phase, pro An Australian who went to Oxford as knowledge of pre-historic Europe in hisD was followed by The Danube in Pre-his remarkable statement about the aims, Childe would be remembered for his c synthesis of our knowledge of pre-history His, Man Makes Himself (1936) and Wh broad generalisations and his views of the history. The assemblage of facts and it intelligible, it is necessary that we view ti other words, there is the need for a hyp sciences, humanities and philosophies or explain the decline and disappearance of sort of "bourgeois democratic economy, New Lig he Most Ancient East. I he abandoned his hypothesis in the lightc by Wheeler's excavations on the sames illustrates how archaeology has been c discipline. He being aware of the limitati his Social Revolution(1951)"In favourab considerable evidence for framing a fa picture, not only of technology but also society..."
Sri Lanka is indeed a small country. at the southern tip of the Sub-continent c sq. miles and a population of about sixtee culture through archaeology, she has n Muslims, who constitute a segment of th participating at this gathering to comm country. Its antiquarian and archaeologic
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science. Archaeology is no exception; f refining, modifying and developing its und credence for its conclusions.
duced such a man in Vere Gordon Childe. a post-graduate student summarised the lawn of European Civilization (1925). This story (1929). In these works he makes a methods and limitations of archaeology. lever hypothetical attempts at a general as disclosed by archaeological excavations. at Happened In History (1942), portray his neolothic and urban revolutions inhuman leas to fall in place, and to make them hem with a mental frame of reference. In othesis, a theory or perspective as in the religion. Accordingly, Childe attempted to the Indus civilization, conceiving it as some with a Marxist flavour. (Gordon Childe. ind. 1934). But true to the scientific spirit offresh evidence that were brought to light ite in 1950. This is just an instance which leveloping over the years as a scientific ons of archaeology, takes up this aspect in le circumstances, archaeologycan provide irly adequate, though always incomplete of the whole economy of a pre-historic
As an island it nestles in the Indian Ocean fIndia, with an area of a little over 25,000 n million. Yet, by its contribution to world lade herself a great nation. Hence the Le Sri Lankan nation take great felicity in
elOrate 10,೩SQಯ್ಯಿಯs
alpursuit which is really anterior to 1890,

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and its officialandsystematic contributic of Archaeology and the numerous indivic the dimunitive geographic magnitude ar
This country, by its archaeological imaginative interpretations of her arc evidence, epigraphy and numismatics co by evaluating historiography in this cou have been singularly fortunate in ol Department of Archaeology, since its scholarship and dedication. These men v ancient heritage a living reality, there understand our past as archaeology else civilizations.
Before archaeology beganin allseriol knowledge of the ancients on the writte the Jewish, and Graeco-Roman historia can take legitimate pride in the fact, that a little over a millenium in the sixth c continued to record the history of the Sas cultural life of the country up to the pres of history which is sustained by the chr Culavamsa. These literary sources have il much more, it even turned out to be determining chronology in the study of th
Long before the dawn of science a explanation of Man's origin, his world an and legends woven around natural phen the course of which arose their heroes ar supernatural. But when they are bleache truth remains. And it is around such truth churned the mind of our ancestors to ev philology, Indology and orientalismreve archaeology, epigraphy and numismati
22 S.P.C. 90683

nto this field of inquiry by the Department ual contributions have really compensated d the physical invariants of Sri Lanka.
surveys, excavations, conservations and by haeological finds, aided by her literary ntinues to make noteworthy contributions ntry. For a small country such as ours, we ir archaeological undertakings, as the inception had men of industry, calibre, with distinction and beauty have made our by making a significant contribution „to where has rendered with respect to other
usness, antiquarians in Europe, based their n records of the Biblical traditions and of ns, travellers and geographers. Sri Lanka it put down in writing its oral traditions of entury A.D. in the Mahavamsa, and has ana (Buddh. Church), her rulers and of the ent time. Thus we have a conscious sense onicles; Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and the lumined the country's ancient history, and : a source of reference, particularly in e ancient history of even the subcontinent.
ld human awakening which demanded an d his destiny, man resorted to mythologies mena, historic events and personalities in d heroines endowed with an aroma of the l of the supernatural flavour, the kernel of s that poetic fancy and literary imagination lve oür traditions. This is whata study of l, and are either confirmed or modified by s. And this cruntry's archaeologists and
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those who are lured by it due to aesth consider it a boon that they are fortified which quite contrary to derisive aspersio under the surveillance of scientific and cr
The recorded history of the Sinhalal country with the advent of Vijaya and his the Mahavamsaversion. And according to coincides with the parinibbana of the pertaining to the passing away of the Buc scholars by some sixty years. In this con Malalasekera in his doctoral dissertation, Indian epigraphy, particularly to the Kl furnished very strong evidence that th Bimbisara and Ajatasattu at 554 B.C. thu digression is not irrelevant to archaeologi Pali Chronicles and their usefulness to ( identify persons and places have made th perspective of epics and chronicles which in historic time of events that had been h ancients to commit to memory before the invented need not puzzle us, as the Vedic form post-1500 B.C. continued to be oral printed editions of the Vedas, we are ap century were corrected from oral recitat "They were found not only to repeat, but were able on the basis of their memory to editions?
Despite this plea in defence of oral (oral) literary evidence it is fair indeed 1 sources as they have their own limitations a variety of reasons. Men have, many acquired. These prejudices and predilec eliminated altogether. Hence he may eva through biased eyes even though he mayb
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tic or humanistic considerations should in their activities by the Pali Chronicles, ls have proved to be an invaluable guide itical scholarship.
ranch of the Vedic Aryans begins in this seven hundred followers in 543 B.C, on the orthodox traditionalist view this event Buddha. This Sri Lankan chronology ldha was held to be incorrect by Western nection, it is interesting to note, that Dr. draws our attention to the researches in laravela Ins. found at Orissa which has e Buddha was a contemporary of both is supporting the Mahavamsa date." This cal investigation, as a critical study of the letermine chronologies of events and to e writers of ancient history to revise their came to be recorded at a particular point eld orally for millenia. This ability of the : art of writing and writing materials were hymns after they reached their composite ly handed down up to 1500 A.D.; and the »rised* towards as late as the nineteenth ions of the vedas by the native students. repeat with the proper accents and who point out even the misprints in the printed
traditions which now constitute recorded o expect them to be confirmed by other . Men often fail to tell the whole truth for prejudices with which they are born or ions can be minimised perhaps, but not luate and record the events he witnesses e a good observer and a man of rectitude.

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Or he may base his account on hearsaye of time during which interpolations occ again is another difficulty. Languages acquire new meanings and develop ver meantby those words. Early historiograp to discern these obstacles that impede a of the past as we see them in retrospect.
It wasbecomingincreasingly appare of our antiquity, excavations had to be ur to satiate the aesthetic consideration oft seller, but to provide answers to many ql is not the purpose of this monograph to ti certainly entranced by the vistas tha understanding of the past. How the interpretations have induced insightful r how its contribution to our cultura understanding and goodwill are certainly
The knowledge of man's ancestryhis religious beliefs and culture had been Even today, despite tremendous progres mass media and the general improveme most men and women remain impervio unresponsive to their imaginative interp archaeology in a professional sense to interpretits finding academically from wil sciences and the humanities, archaeolog techniques and methodologies has assl Hence as a science, it should be consi psychology and sociology, archaeology a forcefulness and social recognition bec diligence and ingenuity, incisive insight inched its way to influence, modify an contribution of world archaeology, Sri Delving into our past through archaeol

idence passed on orally over along period ur to embellish such accounts. Language themselves evolve, and the same words I many nuances which were not originally hers, annalysts and chroniclers were unable ind sometimes obscure our understanding
nt, that in order to advance our knowledge dertaken-excavations not to fill museums he artist, or to fill the coffers of the antique lestions regarding man in ancient times. It race the history of archaeology. But we are at archaeology discloses to enrich our archaeological discoveries and their eflections into our historic perspective and l history has generated international
matters that invite our attention.
A
of his artifacts, his art and architecture, of h a privilege in the past, of a leisured class. s in universal literacy, communication and 2nt of living conditions and an awareness, us to the findings of archaeology and are retations. Most of us are not committed to be involved in it technically or even to hatever the perspective. Compared to most y, like psychology, by taking over modern med the image of a scientific discipline. dered a baby science. As in the case of cquired a great respectahility, intellectual ause of the role of her pioneers. By their s and imaginative sweep, archaeology has d recast man's Weltanschauung. To this Lanka has made its worthy contribution. ogy or into the mode of existence of our
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pre-historic ancestors through palaeo-ar truth of the commonality, omeness and t Realisation of this fact is not a mere importance to human survival.This is part when men around the world Seem to hav basis of politics, economics, race, religion because he has forgotten his past and hi. and abroad has enabled us, we believe, tc
All intellectual investigations in the and technology, philosophy and religion civilization as we know them is neither th a single country, nation or people; and endeavour of human labour. In recent til only for the acquisition of our material cl disciplines and scholarship not excluding the gradual and sustained effort of builc Europe has not always been the master, a explorations, research and study bear wi valley civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egyp sea infusing one another and perhaps thr the growth of the Graeco-Roman civili vitality, it reaches a high point in the Sar Spain, leading to the rebirth of learning modern era. Such a unitary picture in the today, appeal to reasonable minds' vaus on viable scientific techniques which are archaeological development in this co tradition, has progressed to make its understanding.
Unlike the cultural life of a superstructure', which is always in a state morestable, abiding and to a greatextent ( "The first step towards understanding of of its geography, Wheeler. "° While ev
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chaeology, drives home the indisputable le universality of man as a single species. academic speculation but of practical icularly relevant today, especially at a time e lost their equanimity, ostensibly on the , language and what not, but in actual fact origins. Archaeology both in Sri Lanka » retrace our avenues to antiquity.
related fields of art and literature, science reveal the larger truth, that culture and le creation nor the exclusive monopoly of that it is the collective and continuous mes, we have been looking to Europe not ulture but also for most of our intellectual the scientific discipline of archaeology. In ling the fabric of culture and civilization und we the pupil. Archaeological surveys, tness to this fact. We find, how the river t, China and India inter-linked by land and ough Minoan Crete and Anatolia lead to zation. After a brief spell of suspended acenic civilization of Baghdad, Sicily and or Renaissance in Europe heralding the birth and growth of culture and civilization e, archaeological investigations are based verifiable. For well over a hundred years, untry, mainly under western scientific own contribution to world culture and
people as reflected in the “ideological of flux, its geophysical reality is relatively letermine the course of its cultural history. nation's past is to understand something ery fresh impulse that sprouted on the

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sub-continent in the sphere of religion, found their reflection in the culturallife O these elements of culture to evolve in an or
Most cultural ingredients that go to con
Lankans had their genesis in the north oft had been for millenia exposed to the rava around 1,500 B.C., continued unabated. T sixth century B.C.; then by the Greeks in passes swept the partially Hellenised Scytl by the Parthians. Later, probably towarc descended the Kushans. The Ephtalites followed them from Central Asia, archae and sword Taxila and its monasteries'. Th into North India. Muslim thrust into Ind and the Punjab in 711 A.D., followed by Delhi sultanate. And the Moghuls inaugu in 1526.' Thus it is meaningfully clear, W in their advanced phase of growth anc civilization could not develop to a consum critics, archaeologists, andThistoriographe of the cultural aspects of our life, which h; India began to grow and seek expressioni the invaders' arms.
"The whole country was ours unt assertion of the Vaeddhas-believed to be With the arrival of the ancestors of the pre the sixth century B.C., the destiny of the Sil at least culturally with North India. And maintain, on the basis of linguistic affinity along with Avesta Aryans north of the Indo-European people. Archaeological ir as philology, mythology and literary tradi with epigraphic and numismatic evidence to a wider circle of humanity. This line ( depth of understanding has been further

language, literary and artistic traditions f this country, yet our insularity enabled ientation best suited to our native genius. stitute the ethos of the majority of Sri he subcontinent. This part of India which ges of invading hordes since the Aryans they were followed by the Persians in the the fourth century. Down her mountain hians in the second century B.C. followed ls the first century of the Christian era or White Huns and Yuh-We-chis who ological excavations reveal 11 put to fire is was not to be the end of alien intrusion ia begins with the Arab invasion of Sind Afghans and Turks who established the rate their rule after the battle of Panipat hy most of the elements of culture which i development would reach heights of mate degree of efflorescence in India. Art rs have drawn our attention to how most ad their rudimentary beginnings in North in the new habitat of Sri Lanka, away from
il the Sinhalese came" was the proud
the "authochthonous people of this land. sent-day Sinhalese in this country, around halabranch of the Vedic Aryans is linked, the Vedic Aryans are, in turn, Indologist and a common mythology and literature, Hindu Kush, a branch of the still larger vestigations corroborated by studies such cions and coming down to still later times. impart abroader vision to us as belonging f thought towards a breath of vision and invigorated by some of the exciting finds
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in the centres of ancient civilizations. T differences amongpeople and accentuate beneath the thin veneer of nomenclatul ethnic and linguistic grounds, howeve discernment and analysis, yet have no su the Hittites (a people whose civilization uncertain ethnic origin speaking an cuneiform.'Sotoo were the elusive Hurri Plains from the Armenian hills in the midd a language of Caucasian origin also writte from Egypt to Morocco have adopted a Se of the Latin and the Arabic languages extended far beyond the limits of the race Semitic people of Lebanon sharing a com different religions. Sumtotal of human act and talents which the sociologists call 'cul Whatever survives of material culture, co. capital in a mysterious way persistingir reminiscent of their kinship with mankinc dress, art forms and other cultural traits C ethnic peculiarities, are now part of á coi by revealing these flunctuating contours down the differences and focus our atte Results of field surveys in archaeological of a wide variety, ranging from lithic reco wall painting, items of domestic and hou coins of various materials. Reflecting ont the historian, theaesthete and humanisth the lives of the ancient people which ma which linked our ancestors to one anothe
Sri Lanka, in South-East Asia, separ occupies an enviable position, where its g of historic forces such as religion, philosop and economic organisation to develop in sinuosities of Hindustan and still retain it
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These discoveries, seem to dissipate the the common links. One begins to feel, that re and classificatory jargon on religious, r, imperative they may be for academic bstantial basis in reality. We stumble on flourished in the third millenium B.C.) of Indo-European language written in ians; who descended to the Mesopotamian |le of the third millenia B.C. and who spoke en in cuneiform. The non-Semitic people. :mitic language - Arabic.15"The examples show that the use of a language may be to which it originally belonged;" and the mon language and away of life yet profess ivities composed of values, attitudes, skills ture', the economists call human capital'. me down to us as artifacts, but the "human l the "collective unconcious of people is lat large. Much of the words, food habits, of the Sri Lankan society which were once O heritage." Archaeological studies, in man's cultural history tend to narrow ntion of being a part of a larger whole. expeditions have brought to light artifacts rds, sculptural and architectural remains, sehold utility and coming to recent times, hese desultory finds the archaeologistand ave succeeded in imaginatively delineating ke us feel that consanguinity and kinship r as it did, should bind us, - their progeny.
ated from the mainland by the Palk Strait, eography has favoured the parallelogram bhy, language, arts and letters, political life its new ambience reflecting the cultural s distinct uniqueness. In a way, Sri Lanka

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constitutes, as observed by Ananda K. Co which we could still view some strands regrettably disappeared from the land of
Some perceptive minds'' delving : perspective of aesthetes and humanists ha in South-East Asia and England in Eu. positions in Asia and Europe have impart of these regions. Both these island natio the subcontinent, have yet indelibly impri with a remarkable flavour to make th European cultures respectively.
Archaeology in this country, un propinquity to the people's ancient lore language, and their arts and literature, inextricably bound up with the very text sentiments. ώ
Buddhism, as a dominant force, whi in the land of the Buddha. The traditio contained in the Canon, which had bee parampara (succession of elders), and fir Council presided over by Moggaliputtati in the third century B.C. And it was in thi the Canon, came to be committed to w accessibility; thereby Sri Lanka assumed world. Besides the Canon there was commentarial work, which were brought a Attakathas coming down from the time understanding of the Canon made the sa the Teachings of the Mastero Conseque became the radiating centre of Buddhist monks and scholars from India, China, Bl such distinguished scholar was Buddhag century during the reign of Srinivasao H

omaraswamy, a window on India, through of ancient Indian heritage which have their birth.
into our past heritage, purely from the ve observed an analogy between Sri Lanka rope, where their respective geographic ed to them a singularity in the cultural life ls though cultural replicas of Europe and assed their response to the cultural stimuli. emselves distinct from the Indian and
like anywhere else, because of its close ; and traditions, their ancestral faith and is not something cold and objective, but ure of their thoughts and feelings - their
Ah
ch it was in Asokan times has ceased to be ns of the Theravada, the orthodox form n handed down orally by the Theravada tally affirmed and sanctioned by the Third ssa, was brought to this island by Mahinda scountry, that in the history of Buddhism, Triting, thus ensuring its safety and ready international significance in the Buddhist an enormous corpus of Attakathas - or ulong by Mahinda. The importance of these of the Buddha and as imperative for an ingha treasure them as an integral part of ntly, Mahavihara in Anuradhapura, which intellectual life came to be frequented by rma, Thailand and other Asian lands. One hosa who reached this country in the fifth is encyclopaedic exegesis of the Canon as
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Visuddhi-magga (Path to Purity) and hi. constitute salientlandmarks in Buddhist
country further in the Buddhist world.' found a place in ancient Ceylon, making vigour and zeal of some of its exponents, captivate the mood of the Sinhalamind. I of Theravada Buddhism was too great th
Austre simplicity of the Buddha's ti Noble Eight-fold Path which influenced influenced their political and socio-econ in their arts and letters.
Though the origin of the Moon Ston to a meaningful phase only in Sri Lankai case of the evolution of the stupa or cei invasions of India never permitted the original impulses of art and thought of ea in Sri Lanka. And when Anuradhapura o invasions the confusion that ensued over-ornamented art in the post-Anura symbolism of the moonstone, during th lost both in the sentiments of the votar craftsmen. Those colossal, yet aesthe monuments, the stupaorceitiyas soaring in memory of the Buddha and the Dham in magnitude and style anywhere in the have revealed a prolific number of Bud Central Asia, most of them being of Mah critics, aesthetes and humanists (such a Rowland and Jawaharlal Nehru) have e Buddha images of Sri Lanka which by th are evocative in their impact. The Buddl Toluvila Buddha are two of many such exa latter was removed on the recommendal Mr. H. C. P. Bell' and today lies at the
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great commentary, the Samantapasadika tudies, which enhanced the prestige of this
Heretical thoughts (Vaitulya Adahas) too, Abhayagiri vihara its centre. Despite the and occasional royal patronage, it failed to )edication to Mahavihara as the repository en, as now, for deviation from its path.
achings, of the four Noble Truths and the the religious life of the early settlers also mic life. This in turn came to be reflected
c is traced to India, it progressively evolves in the Anuradhapura period. So too is the tiya and the Buddha image* Aggressive much-needed peace and calm for these irly Buddhism to develop in India as it did too came to be besieged by South Indian came to be reflected as a florid and dhapura period. The significance of the he Polonnaruwa period it is believed, was ies of the Buddha and in the skill of the :tically pleasing and spiritually sublime skywards, constructed by agrateful people ma were never to be equalled or excelled Buddhist world. Archaeological surveys ilha statues of immense size in India and lyanic or Hellenic influence. Yet most art s Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Benjamin pressed their admiration for some of the eir technical dexterity and supple artistry la image at Outer Circular Road, and the mples which have attracted attention. The ion of the Archaeological Commissioner Colombo Museum grounds. Of the many

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art treasure this country has inherited, ti one of the finest achievements of the an canons of art, is worthy of being classed b which are considered tour de force. Its. its monumental calm, it reveals no sign of it, we should remember, that he precede dated the fifth century. And he had to pl which as a mediumis not soamenable tot sculpture beside the beauty of the l communicate to mankind. Seated in the nirvanic bliss, the Toluvila Buddha is exp of inexplicable beauty - a beauty austre convey without the gorgeous trappings o
Pali, the canonical language of The century was invigorated in the literary ti and flexible use of the most subtle metap him in his many works a language which Structure....... and capable of expressing conceivedlo As other elements of cultu too developed in comparative peace in certain, what the exact origin of this l 'Dipabhasa','Though it is enriched by P know if it was derived from these classic the group of languages referred to as ". hundred years, the "language of the land' modification and development to be rich for Venerable Mahinda to discourse init Commentaries that he had brought alo matters of particular importance such language of Mahinda and the appar understood and the Swiftness with whic become transparently clear when one po Sarva Manusa Ma Praja'*While rap: smothered the earlier religions and lang Sinhalese in their sequestered insularity

he Toluvila Buddha, should be considered cient Sinhalese and undoubtedly from any 2side such creations of the sculptor's chisel hould be the result of much labour, but in labour. Whoever the sculptor who chisled d Michelangelo by nearly 900 years as it is y his chisel on gneies (metamorphic rock) he sculptor's chisel as marble would. Greek human form has nothing to convey or samadhi mudra, in the 'absolute calm of ressive not only of vimukti-liberation, but
and benign, which only a sculptor could fpainting and music.
ravada Buddhism, especially after the fifth radition of this country for the expression physical thoughts. "Buddhagosa left behind in vocabulary, flexible in its use, elegant in all ideas that the human mind had then re, the language of the early Aryan settlers their island home. We do not know for anguage was. Mahavamsa refers to it as aliand at later times by Sanskrit, we do not al languages or even began as a dialect of Magadhi”. In any case, for nearly three among the Aryan settlers evolved through enough by the time of Devanampiyatissa of such abstract matter as contained in the ng from the Council at Pataliputra. Many
as, the origin of Sinhala language; the 2nt ease with which his preaching was h it spread over the whole island should inders on the Asokan (Kalinga) roch edict acious invasions overwhelmed and even uages of North India, the language of the had an untrammelled evolution to reach
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literary heights. With the introduction increase in the frequency of cultural c infusion of Pali and Sanskrit the Dipa Sinhala literary tradition. The Buddha people in their own language. "Mahinda preaching in the "language of the lanc Commentaries on the Pitakas...”
As in the case of religion, languag the early settlers displayed a resilience in after their conversion to Buddhism, as s in their artistic tradition, with one d subservient to the Buddha and the Dhal their attempts to interpret the works of Vedic lore and the epics. The interpreta for their interpretation was the sar interpretation of Man and Horse's H Anuradhapura” is a classic example. His survivals in art and architecture was altog enormous knowledge and understanding and his familiarity with Indian iconograp this different perspective, which was s. architecture could be studied for their in beyond and viewed in the whole ens perspective besides entailed even the na were originally found. This approach fin Signifi f the Sinhala M Lankatilaka Polonnaruwa; and the Bud prolific ourput. One is overwhelmed by h to detail, persuasive logic and his interp and swept off their feet. But on re-read and ask the question: How much of th history of our country have an archaeolo it gathers momentum would become i rectification of other sources on which h called for.
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of Buddhism, there was undoubtedly an intacts with India. With the consequent hasa' developed to a point to usher in a ad instructed the sangha to preach to the gave the lead to this tendency, not only by ', but more so by translating into it the
and the literary tradition, the proပ္ဗူးy of their nostalgia for the Vedic deities even ome of these themes came to be depicted fference - that these deities were now nma. Cultrual historians and art critics in art of the early period found recourse to tions varied, but the source of inspiration ne. For instance, Dr. Paranavitana's ead, - near Tissavasa, Issurumuniya in attempts at an interpretation of our ancient ether different from his predecessors. His of Indology, the epics, philology, epigraphy hy and our literary traditions determined ynthetic and holistic. Although art and trinsic beauty as the aesthetes do, he went emble in which they were located, his ural-physical environments in which they is its best expression in his studies of, The C Man and Horse's Head T isavasa: dha Image, just to mention a few of his sknowledge, perceptive insight, attention 'etative skill. The readers are fascinated ng, one's reason begins to re-assert itself se brilliant monographson the cultural ical basis? Archaeological perspective as perious; on the basis of its evidence a therto history had been written would be

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The imaginative forcefulness a writings tend to subdue the critical an identification of the Man and Horse's H6 Agni and the Tisavava on which the Man of the bounties of these deities symbolisin as these two factors of water and sunsh settlers. This ingenuity of Paranavitana i reaches a highpoint in his The Significan Asia). He selects the three famous Mc namely the ones identified as those of M of Queen's pavilion. He maintains that th to shrines which housed the Buddha in significance of the moonstone was lostins approach he views every motif in the cor symbolically, the main categories of the l eye to the image of the Buddha himselfbe down on the moonstone calling upon, as have to step across it to reach him. The productions to fascinate the reader not c they tend to heighten the devotee's rel patriotism. An archaeologists role has to exploration, survey and excavation he sl reconstruct our history. At this stage, q fluctuating contours of archaeology and there is no fenced frontier, and the dig discoveries is precisely he who sees them them: if he has not the power of synthe calling".'
Though archaeology was the main a was his forte and his knowledge of such writing of history was prodigious and wit store of knowledge he came to dominat this land from ancient times to almost th sixteenth century. Even a cursory glance by him shows his capacity for field wo

ld the tolstoyan sweep of Paranavitana's i analytical faculty of the readers. His ad' with the Vedic deities as Parjanya and s gaze is fixed as the visible manifestation grain and warmthis remarkably appealing ine are indispensable to the agricultural in his synthetic approach at interpretation ce of the Sinhalese Moonstones’. (Artibus )on Stones of the Anuradhapura period, ahasena's palace, of Thuparama and that ey had always been placed at the entrance lage. And he further maintains, that the ubsequent times. In addition to his general centric circles of the moonstone to imply Buddha's teaching and guides the reader's yond the three steps, from where he looks it were, the attention of the devotees who re is much in Paranavitana's intellectual Inly on aesthetic consideration but also as igious feelings and excite one's sense of be synthetic; from the laborious work of hould imaginatively interpret the finds to uite naturally one begins to observe the history. "Between archaeology and history ger who will best observe and record his as historical material and rightly appraise sis and interpretation he has mistaken his
area of interest of Paranavitana, epigraphy kindred subjects as are necessary for the h his ability to retrieve from his immense e history, especially the cultural history of le beginnings of European actitities in the
of the Annual Reports of the Department
rk; this work in addition to, perhaps the
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unavoidable paper work of the Depar productions in which he brought to bea) individualised stylistic verve. In the same have believed the older historians” stance on fresh lines, today, new findings by the to look askance at some of his interpret entrance those who came in contact with t. a variety of books, Prof. Paranavitana arguments in support of a theory, often readers.' Thus he brought lustre to t University of Ceylon, where he held the acknowledgement of his contribution to a this great savant, some of the younger ge the spirit of scientific and critical inquiry, of his methodologies. This spirit of objec tribute to his intellectual tradition.
In our perspective of the contributions international understanding, we are fort tradition which continues to retain Archaeological studies in this country lur of our past. Noteworthy contributions, bei been made by individuals who were not ( of Archaeology. Out of this combine Department has emerged a worthy image
EPIGRAPHY
Another rich and decisive source for the S inscriptions that were inscribed on stone a free from the limitations of literary sour grounds of the material artifacts. Sri Lank material ranging from the brahmi inscrip times constitute another supplementa reconstruction of this country's pasto In and emending the versions contained ino
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ment was punctuated by his academic his wide-ranging scholarship in a highly way as he shattered our complacency to on our ancient history by making us think Department of Archaeology is beginning ations. His captivating writing tended to nem."With the informationgathered from is in a position to marshall numerous creating a majestic vision in front of his he Department of Archaeology and the Chair of Archaeology. Yet despite the rchaeology and history, and reverence for neration of historians,* following him in have begun to dispute the validity of some tive inquiry should be considered a great
of Sri Lankanarchaeology to culture and unate to be heirs to a rich and enduring a sense of discovery and excitement. ed men of wide interest to the immediacy ng the result of sustained scholarship, have officially connected with the Department effort of outside scholars and of the of this country's past.
tudy of History is Epigraphy: the study of nd metal (copper) plates. Inscriptions are ces and hesitant speculations on stylistic l, which has a prolific store of epigraphical ions of the third century B.C. to modern ry and more reliable source for the act epigraphy, in many ways by correcting ur literary records, and in establishing the

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identity and chronology of archaeological our understanding of early history. The val - underestimated in philological investigat characters and language, its grammar and centuries. These inscriptions, as well as historical significance, are also interestir number of words to the known vacabularl with grammatical forms not forthcoming regarding important points in the phonet has undergone during the course of the obscure point in the evolution of the Sinh
As these inscriptions come down exceptionally fortunate to seek recourse t ancient heritage. The earliest inscr Devanampiyatissa (247-207 B.C.) who w B.C.) during whose reign Mahinda The monarch introduced Buddhism to this isla of which well over 1,000 are from the th inscriptions have been edited and p commencing in 1904. Though most of the are brief, dedicatory or donative they information. In the hands of the disc thought and aided to some extent by information from inscription in the recons Ceylon constitute a very valuable source taxation, land tenure and administration. the social order and the everyday life of th of ancient place names. Above all, they a the Chronicles, because, over and over ag the literary sources*
Besides the lithic records, H. C. P. B alluded to the information contained in and institutions, mainly to the Sangha) wh alia their importance to trace the evolutio1

finds has brought about a refinement in le of our epigraphical treasure cannot be ions to trace the evolution of Sinhala usage as they evolved over twenty three the others which are not of particular g in another respect. They add a large 7 of the old Sinhalese language, supply us , in other documents, give information c changes which the Sinhalese language centuries, and also elucidate many an alese script".
to us from pre-Christian times, we are ) epigraphy as a dependable source to an iptions are contemporaneous with as a contemporary of Asoka (c 274-232 ra, as special emissary of the Mauryan nd. These inscriptions number over 2,500 ird to the first century B.C.'" All these ublished in the Epigraphia Zeylanica pre-Christian inscriptions of this country have proved to be a fruitful source of 2rning archaeologist, who by inferential other sources is able to extract much struction of our past. "The inscriptions of of information on dynastic succession, They enable us to form abroad picture of le people. They are an invaluable source are the best evidence of the reliability of ain, they corroborate statements made in
ell, at the commencement of this century annas (Royal land grants to indivuduals ich were engraved on copper plates. Inter 1 of Sinhala characters and language from
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a philological point of view is emphasis
It is in recognition of epigraphy as a the Archaeological Department came to German scholars P. Golschmidt and sub the study of the inscriptions of this land. on these studies was published as, An epigraphical study was continued Wickremasinghe who brought out the Senarat Paranavitana who succeeded hi undertaking of Epigraphia Zeylanica, p which besides being a landmark in th contribution to archaeology itself. It h historian, philologist and grammarian language between the period from th amazing knowledge of Indclogy and p oriental languages, epigraphy became hi bewildering interpretation of ancienth cite just one instance, his thesis, that th finally substantiated by epigraphic evid
NUMISMATICS
Alongside other evidence such as numismatics turned out to yield a wider chronology and economics; reflecting t international relations and commercia setting. Coins of various types and classh in Anuradhapura, Sigiri, Polonnaruwa modern period after the fifteenth cent from India, China, Rome and Muslim l these, the largest hoards were Romar cultural and perhaps diplomatic relatio wide and varied parts of India confirms region. Wheeler in his most significant South India stumbledonaprolificamou
270

do
valuable source of history, that even before be constituted that, from 1875 to 1879, the sequently Edward Muller were engaged in The preliminary report that was submitted ient Inscripti f Ceylon (1881). This with distinction by Dr.D. M. de Z. irst issue of Epigraphia Zeylanica in 1904. mas epigraphist, in addition to his editorial roduced his two volumes on Sigiri Graffiti le history of epigraphy, is a monumental has become a source of reference, to the . By this work he recreated the Sinhala e eighth to the tenth centuries. With his hilology and the incisive understanding of sforte. Hence, he was able to come out with istory contratry to all traditional views. To e Kalinga dynasty came from Malaysia was
2IՈCC
literary, epigraphic and archaeological, ange of information, especially valuable for he physical extent of territorial dominions, l connections in a known spatiotemporal lave been found in the course of excavations
and elsewhere. Unlike the coins of the ury, these coins have reached this country ands in the early period of our history. Of coins, which is evidence of commercial, ns. Large collections of Roman coins from the Roman connections in the South Asian dig at Arikamedu, close to Pondichchery in nt of coins and Romanceramics of immense

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variety and volume. This corroborates Pli the island. This is further corroborated Mahavamsa of Bhatika Abhaya sending work on numismatics in this counrty was
and Currency (Col. 1924).
The patterns of culture, their in civilizing forces despite occasional regres aggressions appear as a continuous and c in portraying this resiliency of the humar makes a worthy contribution to our cultur myopic, narrow and chauvinistic streaks C are, what they are - Aryan, Sinhala, Bud they owe their cultural origins to the s Christian or Islamic faiths owe much in communities of Christian and Muslim antiquarian interest at its present stage C of archaeology, we are, beholden to the Britain for having inaugurated it officially the Archaeological Commissioner's Dep,
As every cultural and politic reverberations on this island, so was the The first archaeological survey of Inc Cunningham as the Director-Genera encouragement of Lord Curzon, the archaeological heritage of India she wal mainly responsible in getting John M Cambridge in 1902 to head the Archaeol two decades later in 1890 archaeology in H. C. P. Bell as the head of this Departr country was thus, subsequent to and - experiment as both countries were under
History is, especially favourable to th to avoid the mistakes of the formative ye

ny's reference to Roman connections with y the reference in the commentary to the 2nvoys to Rome.' One of the pioneering
that of H.W. Codrington, - Ceylon Coins
teractions and the heights they reach as sions caused by internal decay or external ollective process in the story of man. It is adventure that archaeology, in our view, al tradition, thereby enablingus to obviate n life. Majority of the people of Sri Lanka ihist or Dravidian, Hindu, Tamil because ubcontinent. And those who profess the their cultural elements to the still wider fraternities. Similarly, in our pursuit of f development as the scientific discipline West, mainly, though not exclusively to and institutionalising its activities through artment since 1890.
al activity on the subcontinent had its genesis and development of archaeology. dia commenced in 1871, with General l of Archaeology.' With the active Viceroy, who valued the marvellous s destined to make headway and he was arshall, a young classical scholar from ogical Department in that country. Nearly in official sense begins in this country with nent. Archaeological development in this perhaps not uninfluenced by the Indian
the same imperial rule.
ose who arrive late; so Sri Lankawas able ars of Indian archaeology. John Marshall
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had, "taken office at an early age and techniques were in a rudimentary sta; Mortimer Wheeler who assumed contro monumental contributions he made te intellectual pursuit benefited this discipli His archaeological survey, excavation a imparted to cultural history what may be man's past. Further, his training of young by rousing the governments, universiti appreciation of archaeology, coupled wit Pakistan, Persia, England and elsewherei archaeological insight. Acumen and acL pursued in this country since Bell owes a West whose spade and brush brought to silenced by the ravages of time.
Some of these pioneers such as W David Schlumberger in France had to journalistic pleadings, go on the air, and and to kindle interest in archaeplogy. T there is no resonance with what has discoveries. Except the negligible lot o considerations the bulk of mankind rema (Mohenjodaro). This nonchalance to a Human geography of every country, hen correspondingly the prevailing mood, thc reference undergo changes. Without ex occupy the sites of ancient civilisations su and the Indus valley and in the Graeco-R of their forefathers, evolved or adopted in ethos. Soitiswith the people of Iranianta Asian republics and Anatolia or Asia civilizations. We may multiply these consideration to be borne in mind is, despite its scientific techniques and me finds, is unable to move the thoughts and
272

at aPeriod when modern archaeological ge." The memorable achievements of l of archaeology in India in 1944 and the p archaeology to make it a respectable ne everywhere including our own country. ind presentation of his research findings : termed an "archaeological perspective of men in its modern ideas and methods and es and the educated public to a proper h his amazing extent of field workin India, invigorated archaeology and enlivened our uteness with which archaeological work is great deal to such great pioneers from the light the great civilizations which had been
"heeler and Gordon Childe in Britain and lobby, make speeches and even resort to appear on T.V. screen to gain recognition his is understable, as among most people been brought to light by archaeological f aesthetes who are motivated by artistic ins impervious to the "mound of the dead' rchaeology is not without a basis in fact. ce of the entire world continues to change; oughts and aspirations, values and frame of ception, the present-day inhabitants who lchas in Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Yangtze oman empire have renounced the religions lew languages and are moved by a different ableland of Persia, Afghanistan, the Central -Minor which were the seats of ancient illustrations without end. But the main that archaeology, as an academic pursuit thodologies which impart credence to its feelings of the people exceptin an academic

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sense. Its valid and imaginative claims appealing to the intellectual apprehensic these respective lands remain unin 'archaeological perspective', rendered p interpreted the findings of archaeology precisely because the Sri Lankan situatic in this country is something alive, mean the thoughts and feelings of the peopl population of Sri Lanka who are Sin (Dhamma) of the Tathagatha. Here is ac on the part of government or even at non interestinarchaeology is superfluous. Fo and its pioneers, in this country too, men set such bodies in motion." One such in Ceylon, in the activities of which, Dr.G Wijesekera, two of the eminent cultural T. Devendera, to whom archaeology was such societies are not essential as in o generations of the early settlers of this lai - Theravada Buddhism, their language cultural tradition despite this land havin, war and colonization in the long history millenia. No wonder, the ancient monum years and those artifacts brought to light hundred years of survey, excavation and sacred primarily to the Sinhala Buddhist While the intellectual elite and most pec archaeology, people of this land are liv contrast between Sri Lankans and the re reviewing archaeological progress in this the Sri Lankans, particularly among the relive their past. Hence, the archaeolo under a separate department has beel religious reverence. Archaeology, eithel into the past or as a systematised and dis numismatics and a study of art and archit
23 S.P.C. 90683

and "models' of the past are undoubtedly in of the elite. But the life of the people of fluenced by what may be called the ossible by the ingenuity of those who have from many parts of the world. And it is on is altogether different that archaeology ingful and constitutes and integral part of e - at least of the major segment of the halese and adherents of the Teachings puntry where, unlike anywhere else, efforts -governmental levels to stimulate people's lowing the western tradition, its humanists of scholarship and learning in all sincerity stitution was the Archaeological Society of unapala Malalasekera and Dr.Nandadeva historians participated, along with Mr. D. a passion and joy of life. Though useful, ther lands, as majority of the successive ld tenaciously clung to their ancestral faith and love of the main elements of their g been the victim of rapacious aggression, of this country of nearly two and a half ents that survive for well over two thousand by the archaeologist's spade by well over a conservation and every inch of this land is s of this land and equally to all Buddhists. ple of the world are talking and writing of ing it. Consideration of this piquancy of st is vital for a meaningful appreciation in country. Penchant for archaeology among Sinhala Buddhists make them nostalgically gical operations since its commencement h viewed by the Sinhala Buddhists with as an intellectual trait to have a glimpse ciplined investigation aided by epigraphy, ecture of ancient times makes the cultural
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awareness of our past something vital, fi to the majority of the people of this c edifying.The understanding between the with the past has hardly a parallel anyw priests' and ordinary citizens who with and maintenance of archaeological s enshrined in their hearts as an integral has not been digging up things, but peop inquiry seems to fulfill a cherished hope sense, archaeology is a science that must Thus archaeology in this country, is no sentiments of the people, hence, follow
reference to this country as Dhammadip
Henry Charles Purvis Bell, who Department around Anuradhapura in J subjects which inspired those who follow he drew our attention, besides other mat of which became subjects of inexhaustib. successors have been expanding what h would demand revision of our older vie Recent excavations' conducted in th Anuradhapura by the Archaeological evidence ofan"Iron-and-Horse"usingciv of legendary Vijaya and his Aryan settl advanced civilization in this coun“ sy to a B.C. This conclusion, it has been report based on what the excavations brought fossilised bones of horses. Radio carbor dating of these artifacts.
The discovery of Radio-Carbon da milestone in the development of archaeo man and the acceptance of a system of pre-Libby days the most exciting resulto from pre-historic times cannow be accura
274

sh and living. As such in a religious sense, untry, archaeological work is something people and archaeology and this resonance here. Instances are recorded of Buddhist religious ardour work in the preservation tes. Archaeological sense is something art of their psyche. For them, archaeology e. This state of affairs in the context of our of Mortimer Wheeler'"In a simple direct be lived, must be seasoned with humanity." t divorced from, but grounded upon the ing the Pali chronicles they reiterate the a.
commenced operations on behalf of the uly 1890, set his mind on a vast array of red. It was in his First Report (1890) that ters to Sigiriya and Toluvila Buddha, both le interest to a wide range of studies. His e explored, striking new pathways which ws relating to the history of this country. e inner citadel of the ancient city of Department, have produced conclusive ilization nearly 300 years before the arrival ars. This pushes back the frontiers of an bout the beginning of the first millenium ed by Dr.Saddhamangala Karunaratne, is to light of pottery, iron implements and technique employed has determined the
ing based on C-14, is the most important ogy since the discovery of the antiquity of ges. To the archaeologist trained in the Carbon-14 dating is the fact that artifacts ely dated. If the Three-Age technological

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system produced, set in motion to mal discipline with a relative chronology, "historical science' with a chronology w speculative probabilities to hopeful cel within range of our ultimate goal - the In the context of this possibility to arrive
Department of Archaeology of this coul well for the Department as it conclud country and embarks on a promising Se clear, that from now on, Archaeology w held by literary evidence as the main so history. Dr. Siran Deraniyagala, who further findings would follow in the cour: years ofSri Lankan historiography, the P on them were the primary, if not the excl a much more accurate, if not a reliable which was added numismatics as anothe the island story. Scientific orientat international recognition to it as a scient has, gone a long way to push the fronti legendary beginnings of the sixth cen substantially to confirm, revise or re archaeology as an empirically verifiable along with our ancient literary and understanding of the past and link us b
civilizations of the world.
Archaeology in this country has be joined this Department right from the b twenty two years by Edward Ayerton, w worked in the "land of the Pharaos' with Exploration Fund. Hence he was familial in his, Methods and Aims of Archaeolo in good stead in continuing to add to the aliberal education and a scientific traditi would require a full knowledge of hist

e archaeological investigation a scientific he Libby revolution made archaeology a nich enabled history writing to move from tainities. It has, undoubtedly brought us 'f hi O f dates به شمس-، at accurate dating, the recent finding of the itry, relating to pre-Vijayan period, augurs }s the 100th Year of Archaeology in this cond Century. It is becoming increasingly ill take pride of place, which hitherto was urce for the reconstruction of our ancient lirects these operations, is sanguine, that se of the excavations. During the formative alichronicles, and a literary tradition based usive source for history writing; then came source of evidence, namely epigraphy to rancillary source for the reconstruction of ion of archaeology has today, brought ific discipline. And Sri Lankan archaeology ers of the history of this land beyond the tury. Its official excavations have added cant the claims of other sources. With : source, historiography is on terra firma, epigraphic traditions to deepen our 7 a still wider perspective with the ancient
enfortunate in the type of personnel who eginning. Bell was succeeded after nearly ho before coming over to this country had W. M. Flinders Petrie and at the Egyptian with the instructions of Petrie as contained y (1904). Petrie's instructions stood him : traditions of Bell, of making archaeology
on:"..... A complete archaeological training bry and art. a fair use of languages and a
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working famillarity with many sciences. has acquired his present position and pov to open the mind to produce that type o highest result of education......"
Before the premature and unfort published as a Sessional Paper (No. XII) besides incorporating his findings, evin trend of thought to broad-base and scientific methodologies in surveys, exca Hocart who succeeded Ayerton publishe read classics and pursued the study of me. field-work with Pitt Rivers (1827-1900) contribution to archaeology in this count Journal of Science (Sec. G), which he edi realised the importance of architecture construct imaginatively, basing his studie the evolution of building styles in anciel most popular branch of archaeology. important part of its history, but apart th: Thus Hocart's arrival at the Departme perceptive insight into the importance of archaeologist's endeavour to reconstruct Paranavitana who came to be recruited a which fructified in his mature years in architectural considerations in viewing ti
From the size and complexity of the their ground plans and literary reference maintained that these buildings presupp craftsmanshipbut also planning and orga on long experience and knowledge. On
ancients, one realises the harmonious ble their traditions and religious aroma. He understanding of our ancient monument our historic monuments may be studied
276

Archaeology - the knowledge of how man ers-is one of the widest studies, bestfitted wide interests and toleration which is the
unate demise of Ayerton, his Report was of 1914) under his own name. This report es a concern in consonance with Petrie’s ystematise archaeology in keeping with vations and perspectives. Arthur Maurice d the First Memoir (1924). Hocart having ital sciences was engaged in archaeological in some Pacific islands before he made his ry. His studied contribution to the Ceylon ted, are suggestive reading even today. He and in some of his writings he tried to s of the local situation - of the sequence on ht Lanka. Architecture has long been the
"The buildings of every nation are an at has been neglected by all historians.' nt proved to be extremely useful as his architecture as an essential element in the our past fell on receptive minds. Senarat s an epigraphist grasped Hocart's message some of his finest treatises relating to he past.
'ery few surviving buildings, inferring from 's to their superstructures, it can be safely Iose not only a long tradition of skill and nising the varied skills and expertise based closer scrutiny of the architecture of our Inding of art and architecture and both with ice a synthetic approach to seek a holistic by Paranavitana is inteligible” Though Ortheirintrinsic value per se, as aesthetes

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do, they undoubtedly reflect the ethos of artistic element of a given edifice is r organically made to harmonise even witl which it emerges. Perhaps, the architect, directed the builder, the sculptor and the an emotion in order to elevate the spirit of The interpretative skill of Paranavitana o unity reaches a point of exquisite beauty literary, epigraphic and archaeologica expression in his evaluation of Man and Moon Stones' both at Anuradhapura Polonnaruwa Such a frame of refere: architecture especially in his mature pl despite the original elements that th subsequent infusion from the subcontine ceases to be a mere mechanical extensio functional aspects of art and architecture settlers embodied into them their accumu artistry, one could discern the uninterrup the people of this country, even though th as in the large-scale features of our cultu traces as distinctively Amaravati, Pallava, perhaps academically desirable, but cer appreciation of the Sri Lankan cultural h
Retracing the contributions of those Archaeology in this country, mention sho his excavation and survey experience Polonnaruwa, as they have a resemblanc cover. By his time, the Department of emulate and adopt the scientific techi archaeology elsewhere. So the appointm personnel in 1949 was a long overdue me Ceylon, following most European univer
inted Dr. S P
acknowledgement and justification of

the time. Hence every architectural and lot only meaningfully inter-related, but h the physical, natural environment from the artist and the landscapist delibrately painter to drive home an idea, and induce those who approached these monuments. if the ancient monuments in their organic on the firm basis of his knowledge of his l sources. This method finds eloquent Horse's Head"; "Significance of Sinhala and Lankatilaka (Jewel of Lanka) at nce permeates his evaluation of art and nase. Viewed thus, Sri Lankan culture, 2 early settlers brought along and the nt remains particularly native in form and n of India. Taking into consideration, the and the manifold ways by which the early lated traditions and beliefs through skilful ited native lineaments that are peculiar to he original impulses can be traced to India ural life. Excessive categorisation of these , Gupta and the Pala schools may be useful, tainly would becloud our unconditioned istory.
: who served the Department and thereby uld be made of A. H. Longhurst, who with in South India found in the remains at e to South Indian features, a good area to Archaeology in this country had come to hiques and systematic methodologies of ent of a scientifically - qualified (chemist) asure. Eventually, when the University of sities, created a chair for archaeology and its professor, it was indeed an academic
the achievements of the Department of
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Archaeology in Sri Lanka. As he impres Department of which he was the commi centre of learning. Collective efforts of and art critics, humanists and cultural his by making it pleasing and meaningful to
What were once great civilization that were once lively towns with their settlements. Our understanding of t archaeology, based onlingering oral tradi systematic surveys and excavations and r artifacts such as, pottery, tools, relics off and beast, the archaeologist attempted t and link them to known history, which mankind from the beginning. The signific inquiry was, the tendency to regard artif primary foundation for the reconstructio archaeological evidence to literary eviden of this discipline.'
Prior to the commencement of historiography in this country, as elsew literary activity, and in the absence of arc backheavily on the legendary beginningo But since 1890, this trend began to chang. came to be organised and centrally dire And with more protective legislation the invigorated. Consequently, the tremendo as contained in the Annual Reports prog basis of our history. The unearthed art intellectually alert, generated a prodigiou the life of our ancient society. Now it is pc the antiquarian and speculative stages ar degree of sophistication which is, as in all archaeology, with over a 100 years of acti by weaving her own cultural strands in
278

2d his personality on archaeology and the sioner (1940-1956) he added lustre to our is Department and of the many aesthetes orians, have animated the country's annals inderstand our past.
were reduced to silent mounds of rubble alaces and temples, bazaars and human he past was, before the beginnings of ions and fascinating literary records. With lethodological arrangements of desultory nerary rites and fossilised remains of man ) fit them into their proper order in time enlarged and clarified our knowledge of ant role of archaeology in this direction of acts rather than literary testimony as the n of the historical past. The superiority of ce had been proclaimed by many pioneers
archaeology and its official beginnings, here, had been conveived as essentially haeological evidence historians had to fall foiviliation as contained in our chronicles. , as archaeological activity from that year :ted by the Department of Archaeology.
scope of archaeology was enlarged and us output of the Departmental field work essively strengthened the archaeological facts, and the vistas it held out to the s volume of writing on various aspects of ssible for the historian to venture beyond d to handle these primary sources with a sciences still being improved. Sri Lankan ity, has made a remarkable contribution ) the tapestry of world civilization and

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humanism. If humanism has infused into th vision, then this country's archaeologic humanism a sense of intellectual curiosity, looks forward to the future of the past'wit

earchaeological perspective a breath of al activity has, certainly imparted to good taste and love of humankind, and h hope and optimism.
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NOTES
1. Constructing Alternative World Futures. - Louis
2. Methods and Aims in Archaeology (1904) - Flinde
3. The Humanist Frame -J.huxley - George Allen &
4. Seventy Years of Ceylon Archaeology - D.T. Devel
5. Ep. Zey.; i. pp. 155. foll.
6. The Pali Literature of Ceylon. Lond, 1928. Ch 1. p.
7. Cf. JRAS-CB. 1918. pp. 547-3 and Cey. Antiq. and )
8. Heritage of India. Max Muller. Oxford 1892. Ch. iv
9. Op. cit. Max Muller. Ch. iv.
10.The Cultural Heritage of Pakistan. ва. By S.M.Ikr
11.Wheeler - Flames Over Persepolis, 1968. Lond. Vi
12.kram. Op. cit. pp. 23-27.
13. Anc. Cey. - Parker 1909. Lond.
14. The Ancient Near-East. P. R. S. Moorey. Ashmol.
15. Ibid Ch.2, pp. 35-36,
16.Oriental and Linguistic Studies. - William D. Whit
280

Beres and Henry R. Tang. Camb. Mass. 1977.
i Petrie.
Jnwin. 1961. Lond. pp. 1348.
dra. Artibus Asiae. Vol. 22. Nos. 1 and 2. 1959 pp.23-40.
it. Reg. July 1922 pp. 66-7.
am and P. Spear. pp 19-20. Oxford. 1955.
le Sec. relating to Ghandara civilization.
an Museum. 1987. Oxford.
ey. N.Y. 1873. Ch. vii. p. 231.

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17. Muslims of Sri Lanka. Ba. M. A. M. Shukri. Col. 1986 pp. “
18. Medieval Sinhala Art. - AKCoomaraswamy.
19. The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa. - B.C. Law. Calcutta. 1
20, dentified as Mahanama, who succeeded Upatissa. Malalas
21. Cey. Antiq. and Lit. Reg Vol. 1. pt i. p. 2.
22. (ii) The significance of the Sinhala Moonstones. Artibus Asi
(ii) The Stupas of Ceylon. - S. Paranavitana. - (iii) The Buddha Image. - D.T. Devendra.
23. Op, cit. Paranavitana.
24.A.S.C.; A.R. Feb-Mar 1so
25. Malalasekera. Op. cit. p. 103.
26. Mv. ch. 1. v 23.
27. For more on this vide; Introduction to Sidat-Sarigara. By Ja
28. cited by S. Radhakrishnan in the course of his Convocation
Vocational Writings. - 1956. Delhi.
29. Malalasekera. Op. cit. pp. 73-74.
30. Pre-Buddhistic Religious Beliefs in Ceylon. - S. Paranavitan
31. Artibus Asia. vol. xvi.
32 Sir Leonard Woolley 1880-1960. Digging Up the Past.

79-80.
1923. pp. 48-60.
ekera. Op. cit, pp. 88-101.
lae - S. Paranavitana;
ames de Alwis.
Address to the Saugar University in Occasional Speeches and
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33.Some Reflections on Prof. Paramavitama’s Contributio wol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1970.
34.(i) Ceylon and Malaysia: A study of Prof. Paranavitan
H. Gunawardena. A Paper read before Cey. Studies Sem (ii) Dr.K.. Indrapala, JCBRAS. New Series. Volviii. pt. i. (iii) Dr. Sirima Kiribamuna. Op. cit, pp. 76 - 92
3S.Writings on Ceylon Epigraphy. - A Bibliographical Gui July 1966-April 1967. pp. 171-207.
36. A.S.C., A.R. 1934, p. 19. and S. Paranawitana -The Hist
37. C. W. Nicholas. A Concise History of Ceylon. Uty. of C
38The Story of Ceylon Archaeology. - D.T. Devendra. Col
39. C.W. Nicholas. Op. cit. p. 15.
40. H.C. P.Bell. A.S.C.; A.R.Report on the Kegalle Dist1.
41.Ep. Zey1 vol. v, part iii.p. 440 ff.
42-Civilization of the Early Anuradhapura Period. - S.Parar
43-Mortimer Wheeler - Adventurer in Archaeology - By Ja 230-261.
44. Mortimer Wheeler - Adventurer in Archaeology - By Jai
45. The Story of Ceylon Archaeology. - D.T. Devendra - Co
46. Op. cit. D. T. Devendra.
282

o History. - Sirima Kiribamuna. -The Cey. Journ. of Humanities.
research on the relations between the Two Countries. - R. A. L. ar... Uty. of Cey. March 1969. 62. pp 125-140.
.H. A.I. Goonetilleke. The Ceylon Hist. Journal. vol.x. Nos. 1-4.
of Ins. in Ceylon. Buddhist Vol.9 New Series. No.6 - Oct. 1938.
yion 1961.
1969.
904. p. 68.
avitana. - A Concise History of Ceylon. Col. 1961. pp 164-165.
ueta Hawkes. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Lond. 1982 - ch. 9. pp.
età Hawkes. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Lond. ch.9.p.231.
1969. Vide: the Preface by G. P. Malalasekera.

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47. Archaeology fromthe Earth. 1954. Constitutes his instruc
1951.
48. Sunday observer - Sri Lanka. 3.12.1989. p.1.
49. The Origins and Growth of Archaeology. - Glyn Daniel. A
50. Ор. cit. - Glyn Daniel. N. Y. 1971. p. 129.
51. Art and Architecture of Ceylon. - Dr. S. Paranavitana. - A
52. Op. cit. Artibus Asiae and Op. cit. Cey. Hist. Journal unde
53. An Introduction to Historical Thought. - B. A. Haddock. L

tion book in field archaeology, based on his Rhind lectures of
ppollo Ed. N.Y.1971. pp. 226-267.
Pub. of Arts Council of Ceylon.
r: The Art and Architecture of The Polonnaruwa Period.
ond. 1980., ch5.
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Page 293
THE BRAHM INSCRIPTIONS A
OF PURANC HINDUSM
B
S. K. Sit
Hinduismasitisunderstood today embod their way through centuries of its develop primitive Yaksa-Naga cults, the Vedic an is often described as the cult of nature or worship, where the Yaksas were deified a accommodated and assimilated in Hindu spoken of upon occasion as Yaksa (Coom of this very nature one could even see a co: regarding the exact nature and relationsh. cults. However, it should be rememberec to be identified as malevolent beings inac revolved around the divinity of Cobra. Wit like Indra, Agni found a prominent place i Hinduism witnessed the emergence of Tr and other cults associated with them as sl faded into the background. Thereafter w sacrificial altar assumed significance. This of the Puranic Gods and the syncretism. above into their dominion was accelerate Christ and continued for about the same
The above cults and practices have a the Pre-Buddhist times as well. This is qui Pali literature and the Brahmi inscription Buddhism into the Island in the middle of was centered around Buddhism. The ear the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa whicl became the source books for the history this, the Pali chronicles which remain the too throw less light on this aspect. Nev began to appear around the same time

S A SOURCE FOR THE STUDY
IN ANCIENT SRI LANKA
ampalam
esvarious cults and practices which found ment. The most important cults are the the Puranic cults. The Yaksa cult which animism, in fact depicts the early form of s devas (Gods). The Yaksa cult was later sm. Every Hindu deity, even Buddha, is araswamy Ananda 1971:36-37). Because nfusion in the Palichronicles of Sri Lanka p between the Yaksa cult and the Hindu that in later times only the Yaksas came lespised manner. The Naga cult however, h sacrifice playing a pivotal role, the Gods 1 the Vedicpantheon. The rise of Puranic imurtis, namely Siva, Visnu and Brahma preme beings, thereby the Vedic deities orship around the Temple, in place of a post-vedicphenomena of the emergence and assimilation of the cults mentioned d in about the first four centuries before period even after Christ as well in India.
lso found their way into Sri Lanka during ite evident from the study of the earliest s of Sri Lanka. With the introduction of the 3rd century B.C., the literary activity liest Pali chronicles of Sri Lanka namely were centered on Theravada Buddhism of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. As a result of main sources for the study of Hinduism. rtheless, the Brahmi inscriptions which as Buddhism in Sri Lanka record the
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donations of caves to the Sangham Fortunately the names of these donor These names when they are of reli, (Paranavitana, S. 1970). Unfortunately are evident because the very nature and restricted and confined to Buddhism ( Paranavitana (1929:320) who himselfw religious beliefs of Sri Lanka obser introduction of a new religion for the pe the changed atmosphere, those found iu taken as evidence for the Pre-Buddhist 1 when correlated with other evidences fro throw welcome light on the Pre-Buddhi The aim of the present paper is to study t on the basis of the Brahmi inscriptions published by Paranavitana (1970). Ho inscriptions number unless indicated oth
Paranavitana (1929:327) while sumn opined that while the vast majority of the the most intellectual among the people p Pali chrnicles enumerate the Yaksa cults while the Naga cultis enumerated in the only in a solitary reference, that is to K donations could be made only by the pers. these donations reflect the patronage by titles occurring in the epigraphs confirm Some of them had the title Raja Gamani. status. The form aya could be read as Ay in the southern part of Tamil Nadu an Dravidian Avvai Abbe and finally Abi, ladies with respect (Sitrampalam, S. K. 19 titles such as Parumakas, Gahapatis/Gapi the first two were the backbone of the rura land owning merchant class (Karunatila donors. Though Paranavitana (1970) has
286

tly by the new converts to Buddhism. ave been preserved in these inscriptions. pus nature are of non-Buddhist origin. o further details of the religious practices ope of these sources have been very much ly. Referring to the Brahmi inscriptions, apioneerin the study of the Pre-Buddhist d that as it takes sometime after the ple to adopt personal names suggestive of the earliest Buddhist inscriptions may be ligious conditions. Perhaps, these names n both literary and Archaeological sources it religious beliefs particularly Hinduism. le Puranic phase of Hinduism in Sri Lanka which are mostly of Pre-Christian in date, wever, it should also be noted that the erwise are from Paranavitana (1970).
narising the Pre-Buddhist religious beliefs people were the followers of Yaksa cults, rofessed Brahmanism. Unfortunately the only and not the Naga cults. Conversely, rahmiinscriptions, the Yaksa cult figures bera, the King of Yaksas. As the cave ns who could afford it, it is very likely that the affluent class of both the sexes. !| he affluent nature of the donors as well. hile others AyalAbiindicating their royal indicative of the line of chieftains ruling Abi as having originally derived from sed as an honorific mode of address to 0). However the personages bearing the and Gamikas dominated the list. While dministration, the lastonewas awealthy , P. V. B. 1986). “Bata', too figures as dered this formas “Lord’itis very likely

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that it is a reference to Barata/Baratavar
lived in the southern Pandyan country of Seneviratne, S. 1985). The other importa names of the Puranic Gods/Goddess by I both male and female sexes referred to U
The important feature found in these as“Deva” “pala “Gutta “rakhita'idata” di of a particular deity. The word 'deva' whil deity occurs alone in about 23 epigraphs four epigraphs. Banerjee (1966 : 70) que opines that this is a reference to 'Siva'. Ho reference to Gods in general. Suffixes"Gu used to denote "protection by aparticular meaning of 'given by the God'. Both Dasa respectively. Butiagain referred to a pers God and Anubuti indicated a person whi inscriptions also show that in a few cases : profess the same cult (111,494,582). Ins and the son professing different cults ($ presence of the names of the Naga and th the same inscriptions (166,328,972,984).
The word "Yaksa' though does not a the King of Yaksas, figures in two epigr epithet of Kubera appears in a solitary inst to as Vessanvanna, as having his abode un the reign of Pandukabhaya in the 4th ce1 references in the Pali chronicles to the Ya have been taken as a synonyms of Kubera Naga occurs in nearly eighty inscriptions and Nagamita are the forms mentioned in - 210 B.C.) in whose reign Buddhism was named Mahanaga. He was also the heir ap B.C.), Khalatha Naga (109-103 B.C.) Co Naga (7 - 19 B.C.) are some other names

a maritime mercantile community who Tamil Nadu (Sitrampalam, S. K. 1980: nt element of these donors is the use of nonks (teras) and the lay worshippers of lasakas and Upasikas respectively (Fig.1).
donations is also the use of suffixes such na’ ‘dasa” “mita” and “buti” after the name e occurring after the name of aparticular with its feminine form Devi' in another oting from the early Buddhist literature wever Paranavitana (1970) took this as a ta' 'rakhita' and 'Pala' seem to have been god”. Data and dina were used to give the and Mita indicated 'servant' and 'friend' on who owed his existence to aparticular o experienced the grace of God. These at least the two generations continued to tances are also not wanting for the father 14). There are also evidences for the e Vedic and the Puranic cults in one and
ppear in the epigraphs Kubira (Kubera), aphs (94, 489) and Vaisravana, another ance(9). This God Vaisravanais referred der the banyan tree as far back as during ntury B.C. (M.V. x: 89). Moreover, the ksas such as Kalasodara and Dhaneswara (Paranavitana, S. 1929: 315). The word (Paranawitana, S. 1970). Naga. Nagadata hese epigraphs. DevanampiyaTissa (250 introduced in Sri Lanka had a brother, parent to the throne. Thulatha Naga (119. ra Naga (62 - 50 B.C.) and Mahadathika of the Kings of the Pre-christian period
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whose names included the 'Naga' suffix.
The names of the Gods of the Vedic Indra occurs as Ida (902) with suffixes inf and Idarakhita (641). The form Surind (1970) as a reference to Indra, the King (660 c), Agidata (724, 727, 773)Agibuti ( figures in these records. The name V Varunadata (2) and Varunaguta’ (411 reference to Kala (Yama) (376,782, 1119, God) appears as Suri (having the followin, 751). Soma (188) Somadata (975) Somad the forms in which Soma (Moon God) ap the Vedic Gods seems to have been Mita the epigraphs mentioning the Vedic Go deva” and "Mita_pala”. The performanc following phrases such as "Bata-Yaga-d (1171). The performances of sacrific Pandukabhaya (M.V. X: 90).
There are about 33 inscriptions w Brahmana caste. While 22 specially refe 11 other epigraphs indicate their Brahma (33) is the son of Brhaspati, Gadiya (727 (99) is a composer of Vedic hymns and K Brahmins. Since teaching and educa Paranavitanawould even consider the ter as a reference to Brahmins. Brahmanical literary sources as well (M.V. X: 70; SM in ancient Sri Lanka as it was in India. Ref. from the time of Vijaya (Hettiarachchy," references of this nature occur in these professions of the Brahmins are also mer Gotras of the Brahmanical caste too figui 205, 632), Varsagana (1003), Potimasa ( Vatsa (601) and Atreya (545). Even som

pantheon figure in about fifty inscriptions. rms such as Idabuti" (925) Idaguta’ (542) a (119) has been taken by Paranavitana of the Devas. Agii (435, 789, 885) Agideva 099) are the forms in which the God Agni aruna occurs, in two epigraphs only as ). The form "Kada” has been taken as a 1220) by Paranawitana(1970). Surya (Sun gforms), Suri (454, 812) andSuriguta (701, eva (24,523, 1003) andSomaliya (140) are pears here. However, the most popular of (Mitra) whose name occurs in nearly half is with the following forms, Mita', 'Mita es of sacrifices is also indicated by the ataha (92) and “Parumaka Yaka dataha’ es also alluded to during the time of
hich suggest that the donors were of the r to Bananas' (Brahmins), the names of nical origin (Table.1). For instance Kacila ) is the father of sage Visvamitra, Ataka apila (803) is a common name among the ion were in the hands of Brahmins, ms such as Acariya and Aciriya (604, 803) eachers and Pandits are mentioned in the P:418). Purohita was an important office rences to this institution have been found C. 1972: 109-110,130,174). However, no inscriptions. Nevertheless various other tioned in them. (Table II) The important 2 in these records. They are Kausika (48, 4), Parasara (604) Gautama (486, 656), ; of the teras were of Brahmanical origin
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(228, 1194). Brahmanical village is also (Paranavitana, S. 1970: 12) Interesting existence of a dwelling for the Bral (Sotthisala) where the Brahmins recited time of KingPandukabhaya (M.V.x:102), (M.V. xix:37) and a shrine belonging to a even alluded to during the reign of Devar are confirmed by the references in the li inscriptions do not suggest any evidel Brahmanical caste system as an instituti V. B. 1986).
Of the Puranic cults, the most im Siva. The name of Lord Siva occurs in si has been used here singly, with prefixess such as 'butiya' and guta' (Table II). I Ganikas, Gahapatis, Batas, teras and lay Siva figure as the donors of these cav “Sivanagara’ (which means the town of Si sources also mention the use of name Si sons of Panduvasudeva who succeeded V x:29). Even Devanampiya Tissa's father says that the ruling princes of Kalyanian of Kakavanna Tissa (in the 2nd century 1959: 148-149).
At this juncture, it is relevant to ta “Maheja” “Puradeva’’ ‘Vyadhadeva” and sources. The Shrine of Maheja although Pandukabhaya as Mahejaghara (M.V. x : upto the time of Devanampiya Tissa, (M monastery buildings established around 307). It is probable that the Pali chronic which means the "Great God' with Y interchangeable. Puradeva' occurs f Dutthagamani (161 - 137 B.C..) (M.
24 S.P.C. 90683

indicated by the term 'Brahmanayagama' ly enough Mahavamsa too refers to the mins (Brahmana-Vatthum) and a hall Mantras (Sotthivacana) dating back to the The village ofa Brahmin Tivakka/Tavakka nother Brahmin Diyavasa (MBv:137) are ampiyatissa. Thus, inscriptional evidences terary sources as well. Nevertheless these nce for the prevalence of the four fold bn in ancient Sri Lanka (Karunatillake, P.
portant is the evidence for the worship of xty nine inscriptions (Table I). This name chas "Maha""cuda"'kala"and with suffixes
Besides the royal personages Parumakas, worshippers of Buddhism having the name
es. There is also a solitary reference to va) in these epigraphs (796a). The literary va by the Royalty as well. For, one of the ijayabore the name Girikanda Siva (M.V. was Muta Siva (M.V.xi: 1). Dhatuvamsa d Seru (Seruvilla) dating back to the time BC) had the name Siva (Paranavitana, S.
ke note of the reference to the shrines of
Kammaraideva' found in the literary occurs for the first time during the time of 90), seems to have continued its existence .V. xvii: 30) till it got lost in the Buddhist the Thuparama (Paranavitana, S. 1929: lers confused the epithet "Mahesa' of Siva aksa Maheja, as linguistically sa, ja are or the first time during the reign of V. xxv : 87) as the guardian deity of
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Anuradhapura. Most likely this is a refe period, the Temple of Siva as Nagarisaw has been located within the capital. ) mentions a Temple of the guardian
“Puradeviyokoil’’ (Ariyapala, M.B. 1968: Isvara' (Siva) Temple in the city of Kotte - 1467 B.C.) (Reynolds, C.H.B. 1970: 28 Nagarisa' is also confirmed by the epig 1953: 76). The form Visa deva' occurs i has translated this as a reference to a pe: Ellawala (1969: 158) had taken this to m
Pandukabhaya is said to have settle western gate of the city (M.V.x: 89). H thisformas Vyadhideva”. Referringto Vy this is a reference to the hill God of the ab of him was brought to Sri Lanka by the firs it is probable that God Siva is here mea referred to in Mahabaharata as having before Arjuna who performed a severe 1920: 109). It is also very likely that the P. about the nature of these cults have Vyadhadeva. For, Banyan tree whic (Vessanvanna). Incidentally, it is also of Palmyrah tree in Mahavamsa immediatel Moreover, Patanjali refers to Siva in a co as Siva-Vaisravana (Banerjee, J. N. 1966
స్టేళ్ల స్థ ? . . . , : i : i) : i : The abode of Sivalike that of Vaisr. referred to as Al- Kelu - Kadavul meani abode (Vidyananthan, S. 1954: 126). The to be situated in Mount Kailasa, the aboc form as Vyadhideva mentioned above, w could be a reference to the Vaidyanatha cures the diseases'. At present we are Kammara-deva who has been identified
290

rence to a Siva Temple. For, in the later hich again is synonymous with "Puradeva' Wedieval text named Sadharmalankara deity of the city of Anuradhapura as 192). Salalihini Sandesa too refers to a luring the reign of Parakramabahu I (1412 6). That the god Siva was worshipped as aph found at Devundra (Paranavitana,S. h three epigraphs (Table I). Paranavitana rson who honours all the Gods. Perhaps, ean Siva, the highest God.
:d 'Vyadhadeva' in a Palmyrah tree in the owever, Malalasekara (1928) would treat ladhadeva, Parker (1909: 177) opined that origines of South India and the knowledge it comers in very early times. Nevertheless, unt by the term 'Vyadhadeva'. For, he is assumed the form of a Kiratha (hunter) penance to obtain his grace (Keith, K. B. aliwriters, who had little or no knowledge confused Palmyrah tree, the abode of :h again is the abode of Vaisravana interest to take note of the reference to y following the reference to a Banyan tree. impound sense along with the Vaisravana
74).
. . . باشد .۵ من بم : - : ه به هر ۳ دی و ; : 豪豊** > ェ巻き辞き霧”を芸;至発装 空を歪き 。 y w ? تم : ; ? بیج... ھو ، تمہ ہو۔ ::سمي 8 قي: تج جي یخ کی
avana is also a Banyan tree. Siva, in fact is ng the God having the Banyan tree as his : city of Kubera, which is Alakais believed le of Siva. If one takes the reading of this hich means the "Lord of diseases' it again 'form of Siva, which means "the lord who in the dark about the nature of the God as the God of Blacksmiths or Industries

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(Rahula W. 1956 : 40). He appears
Devanampiya Tissa MBV:84). The suffix" would class him with the Puranic Godsme said beyond this at present.
There are also references to the val forms such as Nadika and Vasaba/Vahab: recounted here that both Nandi and Nand | Lanka, namely the Punch-marked coi Nandipada also occurs as a symbol in the s the name Nadika (498) is referred to. It in aking by the name of Vasabha, who reign Siva namely Kailasa’ is referred to as mentioned here as a name of a cave, it is ve of the tradition of Siva's mountain abode Mahavamsa shows the prevalence of Pre-Buddhisttimes (Rahula,W. 1956:41). of the earliest visits of lord Buddha to the I. deity at Sumanakuta Sarachandra, (1966 instance of an original mountain deity bei guardian (Sumano Deviyo) of the sacredf deity could be identified with 'Siva' altho with Kala (Yama) (Paranavitana, S. 1957 also referred to as Kala/Mahakala in the l
Althoughno names suggestive oftl found in the Brahmi inscriptions, there evidence to this effect. The occurrence O time of Pandukhabaya (M.V. x : 102) ha (Paranavitana, S. 1929). However, ther female figurines discovered in many p prevalence of this cult also (Deraniyagala Perhaps, it should be added here that the of the earlyphase of this cult, for duringth of the formless almighty in the form of all that only later with the addition of arghac

for the first time during the reign of Deva appended withKamara although ntioned above, however nothing could be
hana (vehicle) of Siva as indicated by the a (Table II) both mean a “Bull’. It may be ipada are found in the earliest coins of Sri ns (Codrington, H.W. 1924 : 16-20). ame inscription where a person who bore hay be recounted here that there was also ed during 2nd century A.D. The abode of Kelasa’ (1025) (Table I). Although it is ry likely that this indicates the prevalence as Kailasa. However, the evidence from the cult of the mountain during the This is referred to in connection with one sland (M.V.1). Referring to this mountain : 4-5) opined that "we probably have an ing converted to Buddhism and made the ootprint”. Perhapsthis original mountain ugh Paranavitana had lately equated him ). It is also of interest to note that Siva is iterature (Williams, M. 1963:277).
he prevalence of the linga cult have been are however both literary and sculptural f the name 'Sivikasala' dating back to the ld been taken as a reference to this cult e are terra cotta objects along with the arts of the island which testify to the , P.E.P. 1960: 61; Deraniyagala, S. 1972). so called Phallic symbols are the survivals is phase these represented only the symbol imp of wood, clay and stone. It is believed or base to these, was this form rendered as
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representing the male and the (Subramaniampillai, G. 1948).
The worship of the mother Goddes as Macaka (Minakshi) Mahambika (A) Kadi (Kali) (Table I). These may be tal Paranavitana would derive the form Ma is synonymous with Minakshi, consort resemble that of a fish'. Finally it may associated with Mount Kailasa. Now it is mentioned in the Mahavamsa such as V2 in the Royal precincts and Pacchimaraj western gate of the city as that of Vyadh: to these female deities. Since the shrine that of Vyahadeva (Siva) it is very likel alluded to in this form. In the context of Ancient Sri Lanka one could reasonabl (Valavamukhi) was also worshipped at these Goddesses as bestowers of prosperi etc. Understandably enough the montho. for the worship of Ganesa and the mare
The references in these inscriptions t (Skanda), Kumara (Kumara), Guda (Guh six mothers who nurtured him), Visaka ( (Swamidatta) and Vela (Vela) could be ta cult of Skanda/Muruga (Table I). Vela : mean Muruga himself for he is also a h Muruga cult. In fact what is described excavations (Begley,V. 1981 Fig. 16a (Godakumbura, C.E. 1968: 104) may be reported from Kantarodai excavatio Incidentally Adichchanallur, an extensiv Pomparippu urn burial site shares many ( the prevalence of the Muruga cult. Simi the earliest Megalithic pottery of Anurad
292

emale organs of the human body
is also evident from the use of forms such lbika) Duga (Durga) Guraya (Gauri and en as references to Siva's consort Parvati. aka from Sanskrit Matyaksi' which again of Siva, which means that "whose eyes also be remembered that Parvati, is also also relevant to state the important Yaksis davamukhi (M.V.x: 86) who was installed ni (M.V. x : 89) who had the shrine at the deva. This shows the importance attached of Pacchimarajini is mentioned along with that it is Parvati, consort of Siva who is che worship of elephant headed Ganesa in yassume that the mare-headed Goddess this time. For, Skandapurana mentions ty, givers of male issues to issueless women f Maghatoo figures as an important month faced Goddesses (Dange,S.A.: 1983).
o the names of God Skanda such as Kadali a), Kita/Kati/Kritika (Kartikeya) after the Visakha) Mahasena (Mahasena) Samidata ken as an evidence for the existence of the he shortened form of Velan could either older of Vel (lance) or the priests of the as an iron blade from the Pomparippu
77) and a Spear blade from Pinwewa aken to represent a Vel. A Spear was also ls (pers. comm. Selwaratnam, T. P.). urn burial site in Tamil Nadu with which ommon traits also has shown evidence for urly Vel also occurs as a graffiti symbol in apura (Deraniyagala, S. 1972: 123 No.23).

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In this context it is pertinent to say
Cittaraja who were visible in bodily form Yaksa Kala Vela on the east side of the ci of the Abhaya tank (M.V. x: 84-88). T were housed in the two Temples at two di With regard to Kalavela who, is not know. :306) it may be said that it is a compone1 have noted earlier is a shortened form of black seems to have been used in a derog surprisingly Vattagamani (89 - 77 B.C “Mahakala Sihalla' by the Jains (M.V. XXxi be an allusion to the God Vela by the worship. If this is so it is also a sheer coin the name of the God Skanda, had the re. Devas (M.V.xxxvii: 40) destroyed this sh century A.D. Paranavitana (1929: 303-3 Jataka would prefer an identification of who is also as one of his name suggests N Cittaraja. The other important element festival with this God. In fact this festiv Karttika is one of the Pre-Buddhist festiv 120). However, it may be stated that the Y with the God Muruga/Kartikeya. Like young, handsome and pleasing to the mi had been associated with Muruga fron 157-188).
It is also now relevant to say somethi Candanagama who hailed from Rohana places are not referred to in the Brahm Tivakka figure in the lime light in conne Anuradhapura and later the planting oft (M.V. xix:54-55). This in fact reflects th religion is Pre-Buddhist in origin and th areas. The persistence of the old tradition form of worship followed at Kataragamaa

omething about the Yaksa Kala Vela and
Pandukabhaya is said to have settled the y and the Yaksa Cittaraja at the lower end is shows that the statues of these Yaksas fferent places in the city of Anuradhapura. from other sources (Paranavitana,S. 1929 t of two words Kala and Vela Vela as we Velan. The form Kala which again means tory sense to qualify this Yaksa Vela. Not ..) of Sri Lanka was also nicknamed as i:44). It is very likely that Kala could then chronicler who had no sympathy for this cidence, that the king Mahasena who bore putation as the destroyer of the shrines of ine of Vela at Anuradhapura in the fourth 04) however, quoting from Kurudhamma Cittaraja with Kama, Hindu God of Love Manobhava' which means "mind born' like of this cult is the association of Karttika al of lights which occurs in the month of als of Sri Lanka (Hettiarachchy, T. 1972: 'aksa Cittarajashares many common traits the word Cittaraja, Muruga also means nd/heart. Moreover the Karttika festival n ancient times (Clothey, F.W. 1982 :
ng about the Ksatriyas of Kajaragama and (M.V. xix : 54-55). However, both the i records. Both along with the Brahmin ction with the planting of the Bo-tree at he Bo saplings in their respective villages ; recognition given to these people whose ; entry of Buddhism into their respective of the Muruga-Vallicult and the archaic re reminiscent of a similar type of worship
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mentioned in the Sangam literature. Th the Muruga cult. Sangam literature also known as Kurunci (Vidyananthan, S. confirmed by the three inscriptions refer Murugan worshipped in and around K (688) a hillock which is close to Kata Kumara also figures in the inscriptions about twelve miles southeast and northe the epigraph at Mandagala even mentic Kumara. With regard to the origin of the postulated that it could eitherbe a deriva which means the village of Karthikeya a (Arunachalam, P. 1924). At this junctu Brahmi inscriptions of the first century A conversion to Buddhism after having gi 1945). These have been found at Kiu Kataragamaandat Magama (Tissamahar, miles from Kataragama. The inscription a part that he became a convert to Buddhis beliefs in his village. However, it should a
(the term which is) often used in the Pal (M.V. xxi:34).
There is a solitary reference to Gan Paranavitana who deciphered this inscript this as the cave of the corporation given to to take this form Gana as reference tc especially a Gana with one tusk attended at Kantaka Cetiya at Mihintale also, shows in Ancient Sri Lanka (Ellawala, H. 1969 datable to the middle of the 1st century BC even takes back its origin to Pre-christian
The prevalence of the cult of Brah epigraphs is also evident from the occurre
I). Interestingly enough even Bamanagan
294

e however, tend to associate this site with ssociates Muruga with a mountain region 54: 115-125). This inference is further ng to Kumarawhich is a synonym ofTamil aragama. The inscription at Avatigama gama mentions a tera named Kumara. t Kottamuhela (572) and Mangala (582) 1st of Yala respectively (Table I). In fact is two generations of the worshippers of word Kajaragama/Kataragamait has been on from Karthikeyagama or Kathiragama ld the village of divine glory respectively e, it is pertinent to take note of the two .D. left by Uparaja Naga referring to his ven up his false belief (Paranavitana, S. indi which is about twelve miles from ama) his royal seat which is also about ten tMagama seems to be a confession on his m with the purpose of destroying the false lso be noted that the word "false belief is i chronicles while referring to Hinduism
(Ganesa) in these epigraphs (Table I). ion as "Ganesalene Sagasa' has rendered he Sangha. However, it is more plausible Gana/Ganesa. The friezes of Ganas, by other Ganas holding different objects ihat the worship of Ganesa was prevalent : 159). However, the figure of Ganesa occurring in the coins of the Indo-Greeks imes in India (Narain, A. K. 1988).
na, who is referred to as Bama in these ce of this form in eight epigraphs (Table is referred to in one of these epigraphs

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(1037). However, numerically speaking was popular in Ancient Sri Lanka.
The name Visnu, however occ Nevertheless, the reference to this cult ( (M.V. vii :5). For, Mahavamsa says tha Vijaya handed down the guardianship of Blue lotus (Uppalavannasa). Geiger who with Visnu. However, the form Utpala I). Kana, another form of Visnu is refe Though Paranavitana (1970) derived this a derivation of Tamil Kannan who was l; S. 1954: 128). The influence of the Pandukabhaya (Mendis, G.C. 1956) legeı of this cult in Ancient Sri Lanka as well.
The other forms of Krsna such as inscription respectively (Table I). Ther another form of Visnu in these epigrap Ellawala (1969: 159-160) quoting from a from north central province published by deciphered by him as “Bata-Vasudeva ler this cult also in Ancient Sri Lanka, altho inscription in this volume. Finally Ellawa known to the people of Sri Lanka too. reference is made to Vasudevayatana. Ta the grand father of Pandukabhaya b "Vasudeva' occurs along with the clan na brother of Visnu foundaplace only in one also meant the same occurs in six epigra with the Palmyrah palm. Banerjee (1 shaped capital of Baladeva) as denotingt Sangam Literature too Baladeva is refer palmyrah palm as his flag (Vidyanantha (tortoise incarnation of Visnu) also figur

next to Siva it was the cult of Visnu which
urs as yinu in two epigraphs (Table I). :ould be found even in the time of Vijaya t Saka (Indra) at the time of the arrival of Lanka to the god whose colour is that of a translated Mahavamsa had identified him occurs as Upala in these epigraphs (Table irred to in eighteen epigraphs (Table I). form from Sanskrit Krsna it could even be ater identified with Visnu (Vidyananthan, stories of Krsna in the make up of the nds is again an evidence for the Knowledge
Gopala and Narayana occur in a single
e is no reference to the cult of Vasudeva
hs published by Paranavitana. However,
un inscription found at Valakumuvava cave
Paranavitana earlier and which has been
le' convincingly argues for the presence of
lugh Paranavitana has failed to include this
lasays that in the later period this cult was
for in the Dhammasangani Atthakatha
ntalisingly enough, one of the earlierkings,
ore the name 'Panduvasudeva' where
me Pandu. While Baladeva or Balarama,
epigraph (Table I) the form'Naguli' which
phs (Table I). In India he was associated
66) even includes taladhvaja (palmyrah
he worship of Visnu in North India. In the
ed to as a bearer of a plough who had the n, S. 1954 : 133-134). Rama and Kurma e in these epigraphs (Table I).
295

Page 304
Visnu's consort'Sri' also had her fo of this name in these epigraphs. In one i of “Sri” is referred to as Laci (Table I) 'Sripaliya' and Sriguta' in these epigra Sanskrit “Sri” with Tamil Tiru, which he Padma) another name of Laksmi occurs is also pertinent to remember that the standing on a lotus in the ancient coi (Codrington 1924: 26-31). The Yaksi Abhayagiri and Jetavanarama (Paranavi early representations of the Goddess La the names of the Kings such as Siri T. 1972:63).
The fact that the people of Pre-Bu Hindu way of life is perhaps evident fro proper names. The following naksatras. Bharani, Krittika, Rohini, Punarvasu, Pu Svati, Visakha, Anuradha, Mula, Asadha and Revati. Of these Pusya and its synol and fifty inscriptions respectively taken to all the other Naksatra namesput together still not quite certain as to what the author to five hundred families of heretical belief (M. x : 100). Pandukabhaya seems to hav (ascetics (M.V. x: 96) and monastery fo house for the Ajivakas. (M.V., x : 101-10 occur along with the dwellings for the BI then ascetics be equated with the Rsis? Tl as Isiguta (174) and Isi-rakita (614). Wit Banerjee (1966: 91-92) sees their link wi However, Paribhajakas are even referred (M.V. vii : 6; viii : 24). Saddharmalanka living in Rohana even during the mediev, Baruna (1986) however, opines that Siva and the wandering ascetics.
296

lowers as it is evident from the occurrence scription Goddess “Laksmi” another name The form 'Sri' however occurs as 'Sri' hs (Table I). Paranavitana even equates has read as Tiri (Table I). Paduma (Skt. n two places in these records (Table I). It Goddess Laksmi has been depicted as is usually designated as Laksmi plaques figures having lotuses in hand found at tana, S. 1971 : Pl. 5) may be taken as the smi. The word Sri/Siri was also added to Naga, Siri Sangabodhi (Hettiarachchy,
ddhist Sri Lanka were accustomed to the m the references to astral names used as are found in these inscriptions. They are sya, Aslesa, Magha, Uttara, Hasta, Citra, , Uttarasadha, Abhijit, Sravana, Sravistha nym Tissa occurring in about seventy five gether far outnumber in their occurrence (Paranavitana, S. 1970: CXXIV). We are of the Mahavamsa meant by his reference (Michaditthikula) livingin Anuradhapura e constructed buildings for the Sramanas the Paribhajakas (Parivrajakas) and the ). It is also of interest to note that these ahmins, Sotthisala and Sivikasala. Could e Rsis are referred to in these inscriptions regard to the Paribhajakas and Aivakas h the Pasupathas (a sect of the Siva cult). oin the Vijaya and Panduvasudevastories
a refers to Saivite Paribhajakas (ascetics) l times (Ariyapala, M.D. 1966: 183-185).
was the highest deity to the Paribhajakas

Page 305
The above study indicates that a larg in the Dry Zone districts only. For, thes Lanka. The presence of suitable rock responsible for the creation of these ca their dripledges. The absence of inscript district of Vavuniya and in the wetzone be explained this way. Nevertheless it Buddhism did not mean the end of PreLanka. Instead oferadicating them, it ha assimilated them too. Hindu Gods establishments. In short, the folk religio Hindu heritage, though in a different g. this paper a study of the non-Brahmis above has been avoided for want of spac
Grateful thanks are due to Prof. V Kanagaratne, Department of English valuable suggestions. A special word of Senior Lecturer in the Departemt of C attached to this paper.
2s S.P.C. 90683

e number of Brahmiinscriptions are found e were the areas of early settlements in Sri formations was no doubt the only factor ves and later the inditing of inscriptions in tions in the northern districts excluding the districts of Kalutara, Galle and Matara may should also be stated that the coming of Buddhist beliefs especially Hinduism in Sri ad accommodated them to a certain degree became part and parcel of Buddhist n of the Buddhists perhaps bespeak the old arb. Finally, we would like to state that in ymbols occurring in the epigraphs quoted ce. This may form a separate paper......
. Sivasamy, Dept. of Sanskrit and Mr. A.J.
for going through this paper and making thankis also due to Mr.S.T.B. Rajeswaran, jeography for the preparation of the map
297

Page 306
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Ariyapala, M.D. 1968 Society in Medieval Ceylon (Colom
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Banerjee, J.N. 1966 Puranic and Tantic Religion (Calcutt
Barua, D.M. 1986 Coyotectures (Second edition) (Del
Begley, V.1981 Excavations of Iron Age burials at Pompar
Clothey, F.W. 1982 "Chronometry, Cosmology and the fest Glenn, E. (ed) Religious Festivals in South India and Sri
Codrington, H.W. 1924 Cydon coins and currency (Colom
Coomaraswamy Ananda, K 1971 Yaksas (Delhi) -
Dange, S.A. 1983 The birth of Ganapati' in Datta, B. Shau Felicitation volumcpp. 1-7 (Baroda).
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1960The Maradanmaduwe-Tabbova
Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1961 Some new records of the Tabbo part 1 pp. 249-271.
Deraniyagala, S. 1972a The Citadel of Anuradhapura 196:
162.
Deraniyagala, S. 1972b The Age of the Terracotta objects pp. 164-165.
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ppu in Ancient Ceylon, No.4, PP. 52-95
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ma, U.C. and Vyas, N.J. (ed)Aruna Bharati, Professor A.N. ani
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. Excavations in the Gegige Area. Ancient Ceylon No.2 pp. 48
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Blawala, H. 1969Social History of Early Ceylon (Colombo
tiarachchy, T, 1972 History of Kingship in Ceylon (Color
Karunatillaka, P.V.B. 1986Early SriLankan Society-Some Journal of the Humanities Vol. DXNos.1 & 2 pp. 103-143.
Kith A.B. 1920History of Sanskrit Literature (Oxford)
MBv. Mahabodhivamsa 1891 (Ed) Strong, A.S. (PTS) lon
Mv. Mahavamsa 1960 Ed. & Trans. Geiger, W. Colombo
Malalasekera, GP. 1928The Pali Literature of Ceylon (Long
Mendis, G.C. 1956 The Mahabharata kegends in the Mahava
Narain, AK 1978'On the earliest Ganesa'in Leelananda Prel
(e)Senarat Paranavitana Felicitation yolume (Leiden) pp. 1
Paranavitana,S. 1929 Pre-Buddhist Religious beliefs in Ceylo
Paranavitana,S.1945 Brahmi inscriptions in Sinhalese Verse'
Franvitana.S. 1953The Shrine of Upulvan at Devundra(cc
Paranavitanas, 1957The God of Adam's Peak (Switzerland)
Paranavitana,S. 1959 History of Ceylonvol.II Part II (Colombo)
Paranavitana.S. 1970 Inscriptions of Ceylon (Colombo)
Paranavitana.S. 1971 Art of the Ancient Sinhalese (Colombo)

bo)
eflections on Caste, Social groups and Ranking in the Sri Lanka
lon
msa'J.R.A.S. (C.B.) N.S. Vol. Vpp. 81-84.
matillake, KarthigesuIndrapala and.J.E. Van Louuizende leeuw 42-144.
in, J.R.A.S. (CB) vol. xxxi No. 82 pp. 302-32
J.R.A.S. (CB) Vol.xxxvi Part IIpp.58-66.
lombo)
299

Page 308
Parker,H. 1909Ancient Ceylon (Lond.)
Rahula, W. 1956 History of Buddhism in Ceylon (Colombo)
Reynolds, C.H.B. 1970 AnAnthology of Sinhalese Literatur
SMP. Sanantapasadika 1915 (Ed) Ekanayake, U.P. Historic
Sarachandra, E.R. 1966.The Folk Drama of Ceylon (Colont
Seneviratne, S. 1985 The Baratas - A case study of commun and Sumanasekara Banda S.L. (ed) Fetschrift 198SamCS
Sitrampalam, S.K. 1980The Mcgalithic Culture of Sri Lank
Subramaniampillai, G. 1948Trec Worship and Ophiolatry.(
Vidyananthan,S... 1954 Tamila Sapu (Kumpakonanro
Williams, Monier 1963 Sanskrit English Dictiona
300

(Lond.)
all introductions wol. I (Colombo)
lo)
ty integration in Early Historic Sri Lanka. Amarasinghe, A.R.B. hervathasan Rutnam Colombo UNESCO pp. 49-56.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Poona, Poona.
Annamalai)

Page 309

MI NSCRIPTIONS WITH THE
S OF BRAHMINS PURANC
ODS /GODDESSES AND THE
NON - BRAHM SYMBOLS
ܠ
(for details, see table - 1)
tr" ) ! - f - 3e **-M
30

Page 310
KEY TO T
Sri Lanka is divided into 2
Anuradhapura (An) , Badulla (B) ,
(G), Gampaha (Ga), Hambantota (,
(Ka), Kegalle (Ke), Kilinochchi
Matale (Me) , Matara (Ma) , Monar
Eliya (N) , Polonnaruva (P), Putta
(T), Vavniya (V), However the Bl
Brahmins, Puranic Gods and Goddes
districts.
AMP
Banana-Atimataka Bata (1) 545. Kongala (5)44
(7)53
Bamana origin (6) 40
Gotama tera
( 2 ) 486. Kaliode Parum Gahapati Siva (849 (3) 518. Bambaragastalava Terra Upasaka Siva (5) 4 ( 4 ) 478. Damana Y Upsik Upasika Siva (9)4l (3) 1178. Bambaragastalava
tera Siva Paru
(5) 431. Rajagala (10) 4
(5) 449. (11) 4
(5) 450. "
302

ABLE 1.
HE FIGURE I
5 districts. They are Amparai(A),
Batticaloa (Ba), Colombo (C) , Galle
H), Jaffna (J), Kalutara (K), Kandy
(Ki), Kurunagala (Ku), Mannar (M),
agala (Mo), Mullatuvu (Mu), Nuvara
alam (Pu), Ratnapura (R), Trincomalee
ahmi inscriptions with the names of
sses are found only in the following
ARA (A)
Siva Parumaka Kana
3. Rajagala (12)531. Viharegala
7. Veheragalkanda (12).532. "
2.Niyandavaragala
- ACiriya)
aka Nadika - ) Kana 8. Kudurgals Acariya) nadika (13)748. Mavaragala 57. Rajagala (1907*oo a Sami-data Gapati-Naguli (Baladeva) 7. Miyunguna - (14)421.Tisnaulakema
Vihara (2) 484. Kaliode
aka Vela Asa tera Siri
77.Uhapitagalge (12) 529. Viharegala
03. Omunagala (12) 535.

Page 311
Asiya Siva (6) 401 Niyandavaragale
Bamana
(1) 67. Rajakirikanda
-Mihintale
(2) 124. Handagala Vihara
(3)242 Ritigala
AndyaKanda
(1) 1.11.1. Mihintale
Bamana Kosika
(4) 205. Yangala
Badata-Bamana
(5) 228.Maha Alagamuva
Parumaka Bamana
(2) 1136. Handagala
Bamana origin
Parumaka Potimasaha
(1) 24, Mihintale
Kosika (Kausika)
( 6 ) 98, Ruvanvalisaya
Gapati (7) 99. Radagama Gapati kacili (1) 33. Mihintale
Gapati-Visa (9)413. Miyu
Upasika Kan
9)415.Mi. (9)415 Mಣ್ಣ
9) 420.
Gahapati-Cl
(5)215.Maha
Upasika-Siv (2)1.137.Hಣ್ಣ
(5)1156. Ala symb
Bata Siva
(3) 243. Rit Andiy
Nadika (Nar
(10) 148. Bre
Parumaka Na
(10) 153. Bra
(1) 166. Nat
●
has
(5)233a. Ma
(5) 233b. "
Parumaka Vi
(8) 88. Vess
Bata Visade
(12) 1.36.Va)

ka Uppasika-Uppala (utpala)
nguna-Vehara (15) 475.Vadinagala
a(Krisna) Ati Acariya Gamani Paduma
nguna (16) 494. Navalar Kulam
ass
sym. 29, 30
RA(An)
da Siva Parumaka Guda/Guha
Alagamuva (2)1138. Handagala
(2) 1140.
dagalla ika Kati-Kita
laha Uššej Kita
gaಖ್ಖva (1) 4. Mihintale
o
P Kati
(15) 193.Kesavakanda
器
九 da Parumaka Vella
ndhi) (2)1125. Handagala
uhmanayagana Upasika Visaka
dika (1) 5. Mihintale
hmanayagama Gana (Ganesa)
:tukanda (16) 201. Vanasimhavihara
symb. 14 Bama (Brahma)
ha-Alaga"uva (3)268. Ritigala
Wevalitanna sym.l,
19, 21, 21a,21b.
sa-deva
-Ritigala .269)3( محب۔ ایسی ہسے s
;ag1T1 Vevalitanna Syn.
22,23, 24.
va
Laskunu Garmika Bama
VSV
(17) l17. Rasmakava
303

Page 312
Siva
(6) 98. Ruvanvalisaya Symbo. 1 & 22
(8) 1120.Vessagiri
(9) 1149. Avukana
Aya Siva (1)29. Mi hintale
Parumaka-Siva
(10)152. Brahmanayagama (10) 153.
Gamika Siva (1) 40. Mihintale (Gamika Kuda Siva (10)161c. Brahmanayagama
Raja-Siva (1) 756. Olagamgala (1) 757
Bamana
(l) 577. Mandagala (1)589. Mandagala
304
(1) 3
Upasi
(13)1
Parum
(3)264
(3)266
Parum
(8) 91.
Bata K
(14) 19
Siva-A
(1)757

l
.Mihintale
a Kadi(Kali)
Parumaka Bama
(2)130 Handagala Vihara
18. вillavegala Kanagama(Krsna) ka-Kadali-Skanda(1)14-Mihintale
·. Ritiaala
a Ulipota
eا
ka Kumara Vessagiri
umara
0. Kuttikulama
LLA (B)
Ya .Olagamgala
TOTA (H)
Siva
.Situlpavuva
KOrav,
(1) 15. "
Abi Kuna
(1) 18.Mihintale
Rajah Kana (18)111. Occappukallu Parumaka Narayana (19) 171. Galkandegama Upasika Rama (1)31.Mihintale
(10)159. Brahmanayagama Parumaka Naguli(Baladeva) (3) 260. Ritigala Upasika-Upala (Utpala)
(1) 40. Mihintale
Bama/Brahma
2)758. oda Raia( (မြံဒိဋ္ဌိ°ိုဒိုးဝှိုဦး J
Kumara (Skanda)
(6)575. Kottadamuhela

Page 313
Bamana Vaca (Vatsa)
(2) 601. Situlpavuva
Bamana Gotama (Gautama)
(2)656. Situlpavuva
DekundaraVaVa
Bamana origin
Kosika (Kausiiki Gotra)
(2)632. Situlpavuva
Koravakgala
Acariya Parasarisa (Parasara Gotra)
(2)604. Situlpavuva
Siva
(2)608. Situlpavuva
(2) 660.
Dekundaravava.
Bamana
(1) 812. Molagoda (2)814. Bambaragala
Bamana origin
(2)624,
(2)625,
Gahapa (3)679,
(4)685,
Tera-S:
(2)608,
Bata-S:
(2) 626,
(2)633,
Parumal
(5) 667
Gamika
(1)578
Sata Vi (2) 118 Upasik (2)606
KAN DI
Paruma
(3)808
Gamani

Situlpavuya Gapiti Kumara
Koravakgala
(1)582 Mandagala
tera kumara
i-Siva (7)688. Avagatiyava
Magul-Maha-Vil Kana(Krisna)
(2)651.Situlpavuva Akasaeetuta Dekundara VaVa
Va. Gamika kana Situl pavuva (8)690.Modaragalia
Va.
Bata Kana Situlpavuva u-mioravakgala (8) 689.Modaragalla
Gamika Kana ca-Nadika (1)581.Mandagala , Gonagala
vasaba(vrsabhajo Mandagala (9) 705. Yangala ahaba(Vrsabha) Siri
8 (2)643. Situlpavuva
0. Situlpavuva Koravakgala
a-Guraya(Gauri)
Laci-Laksmi
. Situl pavuva
(10)179. Dematagala
Y (Ka)
ka Siva Upasaka Kumara }. DulValla (4)807. Vegiri-devale
ALA (Ke)
Siva Gamika-Siva
305

Page 314
(1) 803. Divela
Siva
(2) 796a. Yatahalena
Vehera
Bamana
(l) 1045. Diyabatta
Vihara
(2)1194. Ranagiramada
Bamana Vasakini
(3) 1003. Sasseruva
Bamana origin Parumaka Vahiti
(4) 1202. kaduruvava
Siva
(5) 1201. Karagasvava
Parumaka Siva
(l)1044. Diyabatta
Vihara
Gamika Siva
(6)952. Rangirivihara (7)966. Kombuva
(8)970. Dagama (13) 914. Nuwarakanda
306
(2)
(2)
(2)
Aya
(3)
(2)
(2)

'92. Yatahalene Vihara(4) 797. Atugoda
"93. "
"96. " "Visakha-Suvisakha
(5) 787. Ambepussa
-Siva
786. Lenagala Parumaka-Rama 792. Yatahalena Vihara
795. 魏 ( 6 ) 805. Ambalakanda
NAGALA (Ku)
a-Siva Gamika Kana 001. Sasseruva (13) 914. Nuvarakanda lka-Vasaba(Vrsabha) (13)916. " 262. Ranagiriamada Aciriya Kana maka (4)991. Kaduruvava sa-deva) Paduma (Padma) 53. Rangiri Vihara (3) 1013.sasseruva sa(Kailasa) Parumaka GOpala SLSSSLSSSSSSSS baUaKa - GO9aLa 1025. Gallena-Vihar
Sym. 2&6. f4)990. Kaduruvava maka Visaka Upasaka *urုင္လ{#= 889. Delvita (5)984. Karagasvava
nagara Ponika Batanaguli(Baladeva)
1037. Terava-Mayilaia)911..nataane
akaVinu- (Vishnu) Gamika nacquli ––– Gamlka nagul 1217. Terava-Mayilays).972 Dagama
1218. Upasaka Naguli
ka Upala(Utpala) (15)Talapiti vava vihara
921. Nuvarakanda
(Padma)

Page 315
ベ
(1) 733. Valaellugoda Kanda
Upasaka-Siva Kana-KrS. (9)906.Viharegama (13)913. Upasika-Siva (2) 962. Ranagiramada
MAY WALE
Parumaka Bamana Tera-Siv
(1) 838. Dambulla 91)941. D
Siva Upasika
(2) 821. Aluvihare (3) 823. Ganegedera Vihara (1)855.D (4) 873. Piduragala Machaka
Upasika-Siva (l)857.D (1) 853. Dambulla
Upasaka (5) 1185.
MONARAGA Bamana origin Upasika Gadika (2)755.F
1) 727.Valaellugoda Kanda
Gamika-Vasa
SiWia. gutta (3)744.Ւ

Nuvarakanda
(Me)
a. Parumaka-Kadi(Kali)
ambulla (6)867. Sigiriya
Gamika Vela
Macaka(Matsyakshi) (7)880. Nilagama
Bama (Brahma)
ambulla (6)870. Sigiriya
Upasika Rama ( 1) 843. Damboulla
ambulla Parumaka-Naguli (Baladeva)
(6)869. Sigiriya Dagu (Durga) Parumaka Sri-Tiiri Enderangala (8)819. Neluvakanda
(6)868. Sigiriya
LA (Mo) Siva Bata Kumara ahata-atu-hela(4) 710. Galkotuva
Okkampitiya
ba Abi (Ut ) uddama (5)761. Balahurukanda
307

Page 316
Parumaka Bamana
(1) 296. Kandegama Kanda
Siva
(2) 301.Mutugalla
Aya-Siva (2) 304. Mutugalla
Vejha Bamana Gobutiya
(1)1059. Piccandiyava
Aciriya Samana Gobutiya
(1)1060. Piccandiyava
Bamana
(1)1065. Piccandiyava Bamana origin
Amate Vahitimataha
(2)1231. Paramakanda
Aya/Maha Siva (1)768. Kirimakulgolla
308
PUI
Sivi
(1).
(3).
(1)
(1).

NNARUVA (P)
ka-Siva
309. Mutugalla
pati-Siva
282. Dimbulagala:
Namalipokuna
a-Siva
313.Mutugalla
maka Kumara
321. Lunuwarana
gala.
TALAM (Pu)
a bhuti
L059. Piccandiyava
Jmaka Siva
1097. Virandagoda
1233. Piccandiyava
sym. 35.
Ya-Sivabutiya 1067. Piccandiyava
NAPURA (R)
ika-Siva
780. Galpaya
Abi-Upala (Utpala) (3) 272. Dimbulagala:
Maravidiya
Upasika Sri (paliya)
(2) 316. Mtugalla
Upasika Upaliya (Utpala) (2) 303.Mutugalla
Bata-Siva buti
(4) 1069. Mullegama
Kumara
(1)1062. Piccandiyava
Mahasena
(l) 1064. Piccandiyava
Gamika Vasaba (Vrsabha)
(3) 781a. Bambaragala

Page 317
Siva
(1) 333. Erupotana
Sym. 12
Parumaka-Nadika (Siva)
(1) 328. Erupotana
(2)322.Mahakaccatkodi
T RNOO M7
Parunak
(1) 1171
VAVUN
Gapati
(3)356.
(3)357.

LEE (T)
a Vahaba (Vrsabha)
Seruvavilla
YA (V)
Visakha Parumaka Bama- (Brahma)
Periyapuliyan (4)373.Vedikkinari-mala
kulan
Rama
(3) 347. Periyapuliyan
kulam.
309

Page 318


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