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LATIN SYNTAX
SNMPLIFIED
EY
R. C. MAHADEVA RAYAN
FIRST EDITION
I937.
All Rights Reserved. Price Re. I-25.

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R, C. MAHADEVARAYAN
(Tennis Champion, St. Patrick's College, 1936) Author of:-
"Flowers From The Garden of Charles Lamb "Milton Without Tears' "Latin Syntax Simplified".
 

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AUTHORS PREFACE.
My principal object in publi Shing Lua, tin Syntax Simplifoi ed , i s t o pro vide for the boys a book1 et Wh i Ch shall cover all that ils ne cessary for acquiring a fairly sound knowledge in Latin. It may perhaps be said that there is already a super abund- ance of Lat in books . Many of
the se books though excellent ج C Ontain much super fluous de tail W hi C h ab S Orbo S time .
It is hoped, therefore, that pupils will find this booklet Very useful especially as an aid t o memory . It is Writt en in sim— ple English embo dying the Out - look and methods of modern Latin and covering all that is necessary for the higher classes. From this point , I believe , my treat - ment Will be found suffic i ently full for pupils of all classes.

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Recent Appreciations.
I he artily commend the indu Stry and thoroughness of Mr. R. C. Mahadeva Rayan in compiling this e di ti on of Jua, t in Synt a X Simplified. For a School-boy effort it is surprisingly systematic and naturally echoes the Work of the mor e exp er i en c e di pract it ioners . It will sa we much time and Worry for students e Sp e cially thos e who ha V e t o “make up Latin as a new section for a.rny publi C e Xa.m . upt O a.nd in — cluding the Matric .
(Sgd.) T. M. F. LONG, O.M.I., M.A., (Cantab)”
(Rector). St. Patrick's College,
Ja, f'f'na . 16ー2・1957・

I went through the book "Latin Syntax Simplified' by Mr. R. C. Mahade V a Rayan While it W a S in manus cript form. Though I C Ould n O t make a crit i Cal Study of the book for Want of time, I saw enough of it to be impressed by it . I think it qui t e a prais e - Worthy effort, all the more s o , c ons i dering that it is the Work of a student . It is Well up to the Matriculation Standard and Should pro V e Very useful t o Student s r e ading for the Matri— culation Examination.
(Sgd.) V. THURAISAMYPILLAI, B.A. (Hons.) Londo
Examiner in Latin and Greek at Departmental Examinations.
St. Patrick’s College,
J af f'na , l8-2-1937.

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“The Romans Would never ha Ve found time to conquer the World if they had been obliged first to learn Latin' and the pupils in Our S C hO O Il S W Ould ne V er find time t o study Other Subject s unle SS e conomical methods Of Study — ing Luat in ar e plia, c ed at the ir di Sp OS al . Thi S Small book compiled by Mr . Maha de V a Rayan and containing the anat Omy of the language ser ves this purp Ose ad– mirably and Will Suit the requirements of the large majority of our pupils who woo the Latin Muse for the purpo S e of quali – fying in the Cambridge Senior and Matriculation Examinations and rarely for intellectual enj Oyment.
(Sgd.) S. U. SOMASEGARAM, B.A. (Hons.)
Teacher's Diploma (Lond.)
Inspector of Schools.
Jaff'na,
25-2-37.

VI.
I do not pretend to have care
fully gone through the Latin Syntax Simplified of Mr. R. C. MahadevaRayan, but from the bird’s-eye view of the manuscripts I have had, it appears to be systematically airranged, and therefore it will be of
Sure aid to students to ke ep Luatin Syntax rules in memory. It will be
particularly useful foro purp OS es of ' Revision Work', and this work of a young man like Mr. MahadevaRay an des er Ves COmmendation and en C Ouragement.
(Sgd.) A. CUMARASWAMY, M.A. (Lond.)
Dip. in Ed. (Lond.) Bar-at-Law,
(Principal).
Hindu College, vJaffna,

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I skipped over the pages of th notes prepared by Mr. R. C. MahadevaRayan as an aid to the study of Latin. His venture de serves enC Ouragement. V,,
(Sgd.) V. VEERASINGHAM, B.A. (Lond.)
(Principal).
Manipay Hindu College, daffna. l-5-l937.

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This little book by Mr. R. C. Mahadeva Rayan is intended for the benefit of those students who have. not access to Bradley, or Ramsay or the Tutorial publications or to the course fournished by the School of Simplified Study. C. Bryans in his Latin Prose based on Caesar gives a recipe, a part Of Which
US - ܗܝ " If you are Wishful to be pat in The curious art of Writing Latin, ” Tis a good plan by heart to know Some Livy and much Cicero; Nor Cicero slight for he is free From turgid phrase Ology.........
It would have added considerably to the value of the book (this improvement could be effected while the book is in pritn) had the examples been chos en from Caesar Oir Cicero amddully indi Cated, as in good old Kennedy” s Primer.
As an aid to memory the contents of this little book, Compiled with great care, are to be commended.
(Sgd.) T. IsAAC TAMBYAH, D.D., Bar-at-Law.
Penang House,
Jaffna, l8-2-1937.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Order of words Final Clauses Consecutive Clauses Temporal Clauses
Conditional Clauses
Concessive Clauses Causal & Explanatory Clauses... Comparative Clauses Oratio Obliqua Accusative & Infinitive Accusative
Genitive
Dative
Ablative
Apposition
Time
Place
Space a Adjectives & Adverbs Participles
Pronouns
The Verb
Tenses . . . &M 8 Commands & Prohibitions Questions O Special Verbal Constructions Space for additional notes

SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE.
Syntax teaches how Sentences are made.
ORDER OF WORDS.
The usual order of words in a Latin sentence is :-
Subject with its attribute.
Indirect object.
Direct object.
Ablative.
. Adverb.
6. Verb. The attribute usually precedes the substantive.
The order in Latin however is liable to be changed for the sake of emphasising Some word in the sentence. For all words but the subject, the beginning is the em. phatic position; for the subject, the end.
e.g. There are many slaves in the meadow.
Sunt in prato multi servi.
ANALYSIS OF THE LATIN SENTENCE.
A simple sentence is one which generally consists of a single subject and a single predicate.
e.g. Wise men are the happiest.
Sapientes sunt beatissimi.
A compound sentence may consist of different clauses :-(1) Substantival or noun, (2) Adjectival, (3) Adverbial.

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(1) Substantival: e.g. He said that he was a king.
Se regem esse dixit. Cicero, who was consul. Cicero, qui consul fuit. I did this to please you. Hoc feci ut tibi placerem, N. B. The adverbia clauses are divided into seven
(2) Adjectival : e. g.
(3) Adverbial : e. g.
classes :-
.
2. Consecutive, , 3. Temporal, s 4. Conditional, , 5. Concessive, , 6. Causal, 7. Comparative, ,
Final, those which denote a purpose
result
time supposition contrast
reaSO Or Cal Se comparison.
FINAL CLAUSES.
A final clause or clause of purpose is one that expresses the purpose or end of the action of the principal sentence ; its verb is always in the subjunctive, introduced usually by ut when positive and ne when nega -
tive,
N. B. Never use the infinitive to express purpose
in Latin.
The English final infinitive (to do, to go-) is expressed in Latin in many ways.
e.g. He sent men to kill Marcus= 1. Misit homines ut Marcium occiderent.
2. qui Marcum occiderent.
3. 99 ad Marcum occidendum.
4. y Marcum occisuros (very rare) 5. 99 9 y Marcum occidendi causa.
6. yy Marci occidendi causa
7. s Marcum occisum.

I (a) Ut final : when “that” = in order that, e. g. I go home that I may see my mother.
Domum eo ut matrem videam. (b) Ne final, when negative; when 'that'=in order that, and followed by not or any negative word.
e.g. I shall go away that I may not see Cicero.
A bibo, ne Ciceronem videam. When a second or third negative final clause is added neve or neu is used instead of neque.
e.g. I did this to avoid displeasing you, or injuring your friends.
Hoc feci, ne tibi displicerem neve amicis tuis noCeren.
N. 13. “That no one' = ne quis
"That no' ... = ne ullus “That never” = Ne unquam. “That nothing”= Ne quid (c) Qui final, when the subject of the final clause is the same as the subject or object of the principal verb.
e.g. He sent soldiers to fortify the camp.
Milites misit qui castra munirent. (d) Quo final, when thę final clause contains an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree. Here quo== by which ; this is equivalent to ut eo=that by this (means).
e.g. He ran so that he might reach home more quickly.
Cucurrit quo domum celerius perveniret. II (a) The supine in -um, to express purpose after verbs of motion.
e.g. They send me to complain of these wrongs.
Me has injurias questum mittunt. III The gerund or the gerundive : (a) Causa or gratia == “for the sake of”, with the genitive, causa or gratia always coming last
e.g. I go to the city for the sake of seeing thy brother.

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Ad urbem eo meum fratrem videndi causa. (b) Ad with the accusative : e.g. They were ready to storm the town.
Parati erant ad oppidum oppugnandum (c) The dative of purpose :
e.g. Decemvirs created for the purpose of writing the laws. a
Decemviri legibus scribendis creati.
Put the verb in the final clause in the subjunctive, always remembering the sequence of tenses.
Sequence of Tenses.
Primary Tenses Historic Tenses Present Imperfect Future simple Pluperfect Future perfect Perfect without have
Perfect with "have". Note. The imperative is also a primary tense. , If the verb in the principal clause is in a primary tense, the verb in the final clause will be in the present subjunctive. If the verb in the principal clause is in a historic tense, the subordinate verb will be in the imperfect subjunctive.
N. B. 1. For final clauses either the present or the imperfect subjunctive only is to be used.
Ut meaning as, when, or how takes an Indicative.
Hou are you ? e. g. Ut Valles ?
CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.
A consecutive clause is one that expresses the consequence or result of the action of the principal sentence; its verb is always in the subjunctive.
A consecutive clause is often preceded by a demonstrative adverb meaning “So”-tam, sic, adeo, ita, or a

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demonstrative adjective such as tot = so many ; tantus= so great; talis=such, etc.
1. Consecutive Ut, affirmative.
e g. Nobody is so powerful as to be able to perform everything.
Nemo tam potens est ut omnia efficere possit.
N. B. Ut is sometimes written “uti” in which case it must be distinguished from the infinitive of utor.
The double ut :
Tantum abest, “so far from”, is always used impersonally, and is followed by two ut - clauses.
e.g. So far are we from admiring our own works, that Demosthenes himself does not satisfy us.
Tantum abest ut nostra miremur ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes.
2. Ut Non, negative.
A negative consequence is expressed by ‘ut non’, and never by 'ne'.
e.g. I have so lived that I consider I was not born in Wall,
Ita vixi ut non frustra me natum existimem.
That no one == ut nemo That no === ut nullus That never = ut nunquam
That nothing = ut nihil 3. Consecutive “qui” is used after :-
(1) Dignus (worthy), indignus (unworthy), aptus, idoneus (fit), when followed by a clause, to translate the English infinitive.
e.g. He is worthy (fit) to command.
w Dignus (aptus) est qui imperet.
(2) Quamqui, or quam ut, when a clause follows a comparative.
e.g. Caesar is too great a genius to be compared with Labienus.
Caesar majore ingenio est quam qui (or ut) cum Labieno comparetur.

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(3) Is=kind of. e.g. I am not the man to do this.
Non is sum qui hoc faciam.
(4) Sunt qui meaning ‘there are some'.
e.g. There ate some who say (or some say) that Caesar is dead.
Sunt qui dicant Caesarem mortuum esse.
(5) Solus & Unus when used with sum. e.g. You are the only man whom we all may
obey.
Solus es cui omnes pareamus. (6) Negative & Interrogative clauses qui may
take the place of uit with the following words : — tam, adeo, sic, and even tantus.
e.g. No one is so Savage that he can do this,
Nemo adeo ferus est qui haec faciat. (7) Nemo est quin= everybody. e.g. All the world believes me.
Nemo est quin mihi credat. (8) Quis est qui ? e.g. Who is so rash as to deny this ?
Quis tam praeceps est qui hoc neget ? (9), Neminem habeo qui. W e.g. I have no one to give me apples.
Neminem habeo qui mihi poma det. (10) Reperiuntur qui = there are certain people who ,
e.g. There are certain people who always speak foolish things.
Reperiuntur qui semper stulta loquantur, (11) Quotusquisque est qui -- how rarely is there anyone.
e.g. How rarely is there anyone who asks wise hings ! w
Quotusquisque est qui prudentia interroget !

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(12) Non multum abfuit quin or haud procul afùit quin = almost == was very near.
e.g. They were not far from outraging our ambassadors.
Legatos nostros haud procul afuit quin violarent.
Tenses of the Subjunctive.
The imperfect subjunctive denotes a continuous state or action or contemporaneous time in the past.
The perfect subjunctive represents simply a fact in the past.
The future subjunctive is the participle in-rus combined with the right tense of the verb 'sun'. This must therefore be used where the result denoted by the consecutive clause is a future one.
e.g. We were so frightened that we shall never fight again.
Adeo territi sumus ut nunquam posthac pugnaturi simus. ----
N. B. The pluperfect subjunctive is not to be
used in consecutive clauses. محسسسسسسسس
Rule. If the verb in the consecutive clause implies continuance or contemporaneous time in the past, use the imperfect subjunctive. If it denotes a single fact or one looked on as now completed, use the perfect subJunctive.
The following verbs and phrases are followed by ut. It follows == Sequitur ut. The next thing is= Proximum est ut. It happens by chance = Casu accidit ut. Hence it happen'; - = lta fit ut (lit. thus it happens). How happens it Qui fit ut. It is possible= Fieri potest ut (lit. it can happen that) It is impossible = Nullo modo fieri potest ut (lit. it
cannot happen that).
It remains= Reliquum est ut or restat ut. So far from=Tantum abest ut-ut.

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I will not allow myself to=Non committam ut.
He succeeded in == Effecit ut. He contrived not to== Effecit ne.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES.
Temporal clauses are those which define the time when anything has happened, is happening, or will happen.
They are introduced in Latin and English by various temporal conjunctions.
Conjunctions used in a purely temporal sense are followed by the indicative. But the verb is put in the subjunctive, (a) when it is in oratio obliqua (b) when some other idea than that of time (e.g. purpose) is introduced. g
Note. Quum is an exception. Also dum in the sense of while.
QUUM (1) = when. (a) In primary tenses takes the indicative. e.g. I will pay it back when I can.
Quum potero reddam. (b) In historic tenses, takes the subjunctive. e.g. When they learnt this, they intended to retreat Quae quum cognoscerent, se recipere in animo habebant. *
(2) =Since, or although. Always use the subjunctive. (3) - Whenever, as often as, i. e. is equal to quoties i. e. quum frequentative.
(a) The English present is expressed by the perfectu indicative in Latin.
e.g. Whenever anyone laughs here, he uses this language.
Quum quisque hic risit, haec loquitur.

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(b) The English perfect is expressed by the pluperfect indicative in Latin.
e.g. Whenever he saw anyone hanging back, he made a point of rebuking.
Quum quemque cessare viderat verbis castigabat. Note. (1) The same construction is used with siquando, ubi, ut quisque, and the relative qui, quicunque. (2) All other words for when, such as postquam, ubi, quando, ut, simulac, quandocumque, quotiens, cum primum etc. take the indicative.
(3) When you wish to show that the event in the temporal clause occurred at exactly the same time as the principal verb, you may use quum with the indicative in any tense.
e.g. At the very moment when you were there, I was at home.
Quum tu ibi eras, tum ego domi eram. (4) The verb in a clause introduced by antequam or priusquam is indicative when mere sequence of events is denoted ; but it is subjunctive if the action expressed by the clause is purposely anticipated or purposely awaited.
... e. g. Nor was that position abandoned before an end was made of fighting.
Nec prius ille est relictus locus quam finis est pugnandi factus.
The Romans rushed in before the gates could be shut.
Romanus priusquam fores obicerentur ir upit. DUM (1) = while is followed by the historic present indicative when used of past events.
e.g. While this was going on, the ambassadors departed.
Dum haec geruntur, legati discesserunt Dum, donec, quoad, quamdiu, (while, so long as), take the indicative.
(2) = Until

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(a) If notion of mere time prevails- Indicative. e.g. Milo was in the Senate until the Senate was dismissed. --۷
Milo in senatu fuit dum (or quoad) senatus dimis“SUS e St.
(b) If idea of expecting or waiting for something comes in, - the subjunctive.
e.g. Wait till Caeso become consul or dictator. Expectate dum consul aut dictator fiat Caeso. (3) =So long as in the sense of "provided that", “if” is followed by the subjunctive ; ne and the subiunctive for the negative.
e.g. Let them hate so long as they fear.
OJderint, dum metuant. N. B. Cum followed by tum meanin g “not only , ... but also', generally has the verb in the indicative,
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.
Conditional clauses are those which are introduced by the Latin and English conjunctions si, “if”, nisi, “unless”, etc.
MOOD :
(1) If the verb in the principal clause is in the indicative or imperative mood, the verb in the si clause will be in the indicative.
e.g. If you say this you are wrong.
Si hoc dicis, erras. If you wish to depart, depart. Si abire vis, abi. (2) If the verb in the principal clause is in the subjunctive mood, the verb in the si-clause will be also in the subjunctive.
e.g. If you were to say this, you would be wrong.
Si hoc dicas, erres.
TENSE after si.
(1) If there are two futures, one of which depends -on the other previously happening, the future which
must first happen is put in the future perfect.

e.g. If you do this you will be punished.
Si hoc feceris, poenas dabis.
(2) If a command regards the future, as most commands do, the future must be used with si. e- g. Come tomorrow if you can.
Veni cras si poter is. Note. This future is especially common with volo and possum.
(3) Remember also the idiomatic use of the Latin pluperfect indicative with si to express repetition or frequency; it corresponds with the imperfect in the principal clause.
e.g. If he saw that anyone was hanging back, he would correct him.
- Si quem cessare viderat, eum castigabat.
(4) The imperfeet subjunctive represents continuous action in the past; sometimes it extends up to the present moment. The pluperfect subjunctive denotes Simply past time.
e.g. Had the soldier been brave, the general would have been praising him.
Si miles fortis esset, dux eum laudaret. If the soldier had been brave, the general would have praised him.
Si miles fortis fuisset, dux eum laudavisset. (5) The present or perfect subjunctive is used when the statements are thought of as possible, more or less probable.
e.g. If the soldier were brave, the general would praise him.
Si miles fortis sit, dux eum laudet. When the condition is represented as one that is not fulfilled in the present, the imperfect subjunctive is used.
e.g. Democritus would be laughing, if he were upon earth.
Democritus rideret, si foret in terris.

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With the modal verbs possum, debeo, oportet, etc. and gerundives, (to express duty, possibility and obligation), the indicative is regularly used in the principal clause even when the si clause is in the subjunctive.
e.g. In case the enemy should come, what would you do?
Quid, si hostes veniant, facturi estis ? Caution : If (= whether) after verbs of asking
generally introduces a dependent question, not a conditional clause.
Remember that si is never used in Latin as an interrogative particle.
e.g. He asked him if he was well. Ex eo quaesivit num valeret. Nisi, si non, sin, si minus, sive, seu. The rules for mood and tense are the same as those for “si”.
Nisi or Ni = if not and is to be used when if not=* unless, i. e. when the negative refers to be the whole clause.
e.g. He will die if he fails to call in a physician.
Morietur, si medicum non adhibuerit. Si non=== if not, and is used when the negative modifies a single word.
e.g. To live with some hopes, if not the highest.
Cum spe, si non optima, at aliqua tamen vi
Were. . ܚ
Sin = “but if”, and is used to introduce a fresh si clause contrary in sense to the one already expressed or implied.
e.g. If the moon is bright, they leave their houses but if it is at all dim, they stay at home.
Si luna clara est, domo exeunt, sin obscurior, domi manent.
Si minus=but if not, and is used to introduce a fresh negative if clause contrary to the one already expressed or implied.

e.g. If he does this, I shall be glad; if he does not shall take it quietly.
Si haec fecerit, gaudebo, si minus aequo animo feram.
Sive, Seu, though translated by ‘whether” “or” are never used as interrogatives as identical with utrum, an.
They introduce two or more alternative conditions, between which the speaker makes no choice.
e.g. You will get well whether you call in a physician or mo.
Sive adhibueris medicum, sive non adhibueris, convalesces.
Caution : Great care must be taken to distinguish sive... sive : seu ... seu, from utrum...an and aut... aut. (a) Sive ..sive, introduce conditional clauses. e.g. Whether he reads or writes, he wastes no time. Seu legit, seu scribit, nihil temporis terit. (b) Utrum... an, introduce interrogative clauses. e g. I do not know whether he is reading or writing.
Nescio utrum legat an scribat. (c) Aut ... aut, introduce co-ordinate clauses. e.g. He is reading or writing.
Aut legit aut scribit.
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES.
Concessive clauses are those adverbial clauses which are introduced in English by although, even if, etc.
Rule : Concessive clauses have their verb (a) in the indicative, if what is conceded is admitted as a fact. (b) in the subjunctive if what is conceded is admitted for the sake of argument.
e.g. Although he is clever, he has been deceived.
Quanquam callidus est, tamen deceptus est. Although he overcame all, yet he is dear to all.

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Quamvis omnes superaret, omnibus. tamen Caru S eSt.
Note : (1) Quamvis, (= quam vis= as you will), licet, qui, quum and ut always take the subjunctive.
(2) Quanquam and tam etsi (although) always take the indicative except of course in oratio obliqua.
Etsi & etiamsi may be used with either according to mea ning.
Qui (quae. quod, etc.) is sometimes used with the subjunctive when qui is equivalent to quamvis is, etc.
e.g. Although Caesar had made no preparations, he
did not despair.
Caesar, qui nihil providisset, tamen non desperavit.
CAUSAL E EXPLANATORY CLAUSES.
- A causal clause is one which gives a reason for the statement made in the principal sentence.
Causal clauses have their verb :- (a) In the indicative when an actual reason for a fact is given, and quod, quia, quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, quatenus, siquidem etc., being used with the indicative. .
e.g., They are silent because they fear danger.
Tacent quia periculum metuunt. (b) - In the subjunctive when the reason is not actu - al but only a suggested (ne.
e.g. Socrates was accused on the ground that he corrupted the youth.
Socrates accusatus est quod juventutem corrumperet. To express a rejected reason, non quo (“not that”) or non quod (“not because”) or non quin (“not but what”) is used with the subjunctive.
Sometimes the reason accepted follows with sed quod and the indicative.

e.g. Not that I am tired of you, or not but what you love me (or, not that you don't) but because I am anxious to depart.
Non quo tui me taedeat or non quin me ames, sed quod abire cupio.
Cum, (since), with a causal clause takes the subjunctive.
e.g. Since these things are so, I ask of Jupiter peace and pardon.
Quae cum ita sint, ab Jove pacem ac veniam peto. Note. (1) \Vith verbs of rejoicing etc. (gra tulor, laudo, gaudeo, doleo), there is no perceptible difference between the infinitive and the quod clause.
e.g. I rejoice because you have returned.
Gaudeo to rediisse = quod rediisti gaudeo.
(2) The quod-clause may be in virtual oratio obliC]ua.
e.g. Since it was, as he said, night, he wished to depart.
Abire voluit, quoniam nox esset.
This use of subjunctive in a quod clause is exceedingly common after words of praising, blaming, accusing, admiring, complaining and wordering.
COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.
Comparative clauses are those which express likeness, agreement, or the opposite, with what is stated, asked, or ordered in the principal clause.
When the comparative clause is meant to state an actual fact, its verb is in the indicative; but when it is. a purely imaginary Compat ison, the verb is in the subjunctive.
In the first case, the commonest words of comparison used are :-
Sicu: (just as), perinde ac (exactly as), aeque
ac (as much as), aliter ac (otherwise than), alius ac (different from), idem ac (the same as).

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In the 2nd case the commonest are :-
Velut, quasi, tanquam (si), ut si, ac si.
e.g. He was punished as he deserved.
Poenas dedit sicut meritus est. I will pretend to be just going out. Assimulabo quasi nunc exean.
N. B. (1) When two adjectives or adverbs are contrasted by the comparative degree followed by quam, Latin often uses the comparative degree with both.
e. g. The pestilence was more alarming than fatal.
Pestilentia minacior fuit quam perniciosior.
(2) After words like alius and idem, than is expressed by atque (or ac which however is never used before a vowel). Sometimes qui is used after idem.
e.g. He is a very different man from what he was.
Longe alius est atque erat. He was the same man that did this.
Idem erat qui hoc fecit.
(3) With tantus (so great) goes quantus (how
great).
e.g. He has as much silver as gold.
Tantum argenti quantum auri habet. With talis (such) goes qualis (of what kind). With tot (so many) goes quot (how many). With tam (so) goes quam (as).
(4) "The more' followed by a comparative.
e.g. The wiser a man is, the happier he is.
Quo sapientior quis est, eo felicior. (literally by how much the wiser a man is, by
so much the happier he is).
ORATIO OBLIQUA.
Oratio Obliqua (indirect speech) is the name given to the form assumed by speeches etc. which are reported, not in the words actually used, but after a verb of say

ing, thinking, questioning or commanding, expressed or understood.
The indicative mood cannot be used in reported speech. Every verb must be either infinitive or subjunctive.
Indirect statements, questions, commands are statements, questions or demands that are the subject of impersonal verbs, or the object of verbs of saying or think
Ing.
Rule. (1) The principal clause of the speech is translated in Latin by the accusative and infinitive. All subordinate clauses have their verbs in the subjunctive, usually in the imperfect or pluperfect tense.
e.g. Caesar said that he would make peace with them, if they gave satisfaction to his allies.
Caesar dixit se pacem cum illis facturum esse si suis sociis satisfacerent.
(2) Indirect questions and commands are put in the subjunctive always.
e.g. He asked him what he was doing.
Rogavit eum quid ageret. All verbs and pronouns and possessive adjectives in oratio obliqua are of the 3rd person.
e. g. Ego, meus, nos, noster, become se, suus ; Tu, tuus, vos, vester become ille, illius, is, ejus etc.
Hic and iste become ille and is. Adverbs require similar chranges, e. g. Hodie becomes illo die
Hic ubi Nunc y jam or tunc. N. B. (a) The following impersonal verbs instead of taking the accusative and infinitive in the main clause, take ut with the subjunctive :-
Restat, abest, accidit, Evenit, contingit, fit, Licet, sequitur and oest, Placet, refert, interest.

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(b) “Or not” in indirect questions is “necne”.
Tenses of the Infinitive.
The present infinitive is used if it refers to some action going on at the same time as the verb of speaking.
The perfect infinitive, if the action denoted by the infinitive occured before the speech.
The future infinitive, when it refers to some action subsequent to the speech.
Tenses of the Subjunctive.
The most usual and regular tenses in the subor dinate clauses will be the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive.
The imperfect will take the place of the present, imperfect and even the future of oratio recta.
The perfect as well as the pluperfect will generally be represented by the pluperfect subjunctive.
Future perfect will be changed into the pluperfect.
ACCUSATIVE & INFINITIVE.
The accusative with the infinitive is especially used after :-
(a) Verbs of thinking, knowing, believing, saying, hearing, feeling, relating (verba sentiendi et declarandi). e.g. We perceive by our senses that fire is hot.
Sentimus calere ignem. (b) Impersonal verbs, such as, it is certain, manifest, true etc. - -
e.g. It is plain that Snow is white.
Manifestum est nivem esse albam.
Rule: (1) In the accusative and infinitive se & suus can only be used when the words they translate stand for the subject of the principal clause.
e.g. The soldier says that he is brave, Miles dixit se esse fortem.

Use eum or illum if the second he is different from the first.
e.g. The king praises the leader; he says that he and his soldiers are brave.
Rex ducem laudat ; dicit eum et milites ejus esse fortes. -
Caution. The English verb say when joined to a negative is translated into Latin by the verb of denial, nego :
NEVER use dico... . . . non, for “say that...... not”. . Use NEGO.
e.g. He says that he has done nothing.
Negat se quidquam fecisse. Tenses of the Infinitive. The tenses of the infinitive are to be construed in relation to that of the main verb; the use of the present, future, or perfect infinitive, implies that its action takes place at the same time as after, or before that of the main verb.
A few verbs like spero (I hope), promitto or polliceor (I promise), juro (I Sweat), minor (I threaten), recipio (I engage or undertake), and similar verbs referring to the future require the future infinitive in Latin with the accusative of the pronoun. e.g. He hopes to come.
Sperat se venturum esse. N. B. (1) The verb esse is frequently omitted in the future infinitive active or in the perfect infinitive passive.
(2) The verb posse is often used in the present infinitive after spero.
e.g. He hopes to be able to do this.
Hoc se facere posse sperat. (3) FORE UT and subjunctive. With active verbs that have no future participle in -rus, and generally with passive verbs, and even as a substitute for the ordinary construction, fore ut with the subjunctive is used.

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. e. g. I hope that Carthage will be destroyed * Spero fore ut deleatur Carthago.
Note: (1) The TENSE of the verb after fore ut depends upon that of the verb of hoping etc. Aftër the present, perfect with have, and ftiture, the present subjunctive is used ; after a past tense, the imperfecti subjunctive.
(2) After simulare (to pretend) the accusatrve of the pronoun must be expressed in Latin.
e.g. He pretends to be mad.
Se furere simulat.
(3) The accusative and infinitive is also used after :-
(a) Certain verbs of commanding and wishing, especially.jubeo, volo, cupio, prohibeo.
(b) Verbs expressing joy, sorrow, indignation, wonder, etc.
e.g. He ordered the soldiers to go away.
Milites abire jussit. I rejoice that you have returned in safety. Te incolumem rediisse gaudeo.
THE CASES OF NOUNS ACCUSATIVE.
(1) Intransitive verbs when compounded with prepositions governing the accusative become transitive.
e. g. Antonius is besieging Mutina.
Antonius Mutinam circumsedet. , (b) Verbs of concealing, asking and teaching take 2 accusatives, one of the person, the other of the thing.
e.g. He asked us our opinion,
Nos sententiam rogavit. (3) The accusative of respect which follows certain
Active verbs, Participles and Adjectives, and is tearis. lated by the sign "with respect to' or, 'as to

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2. g. Broad as to the shoulders.
Latus humeros. (4) Factitive verbs (verbs of making, saying, thinking) have a second accusative in agreement with the object.
e.g. The people declared Cicero consul.
Ciceronem consulem populus declaravit.
(5) The Accusative of Exclamation is used with or without an Interjection.
e.g. Unhappy me Me Miserum
(6) Place to which Motion is directed, is in the accusative.
e. g. I go to Rome.
Romam eo.
(7) The accusative of person is used after the inpersonal verbs:-
Decet atque dedecet Piget, pudet, poenitet, TFaedet, atque miseret.
The last 5 are joined with a genitive of the cause or object of the feeling denoted.
e.g. He feels neither shame nor remorse for his deed.
Eum facti sui neque pudet neque poenitet. (8) The accusative supine is used with verbs implying motion.
e.g. I have come to warn you. V eni te admonitum.
(9) The following prepositions govern an accusative case :-
Ante, apud, ad, adversus, Circum, circa, citra, cis, Contra, erga, extra, infra, Inter, intra, juxta, ob, Penes, pone, post and praeter, Rrope, propter, per, secundum,

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Supra, versus, ultra, trans, And unto these if motion be intended Let in, sub, Super, subter be appended.
GENITIVE.
(1) With the following verbs :-
"After remember, pity, forget The genitive case is properly set.” ’ (2) The genitive of characteristic is used in cases where English inserts words like: mark of, sign of, duty of, property of, characteristic of, part of, nature of, and such phrases as: it is incumbent on ; it is for (the rich etc.); it is not every one who ; any man may ; it demands or requires; it betrays, shows etc.; it belongs to ; it depends upon ; it tends to ; etc.
These are all followed by the infinitive. e.g. It is the duty of a judge to obey the law.
Judicis est legibus parere. This requires great abilities. Ingenii hoc magni est. In the place of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the neuter of the possessive adjective is used.
e. g. It is my part = meum (not mei) est. (3) With the verbs facio, aestimo, habeo (= value) the following words are Commonly used to express the value :-
Magni (of great worth), parvi (of little worth), tanti (worth so much) , quanti (worth so much as), pluris (of greater worth), minoris (of less worth), maximi (of very great worth), minimi (of very little worth), nihili (worth nothing). −
e.g. He bought the gardens for as much as Pythius wished.
Emit hortos tanti, quanti Pythius voluit.

Note. The genitives flocci, nauci, were used in ... the popular speech to express worthlessness, answering to
the English expressions, not worth a straw, a nut etc.
e.g. I don't care a straw for this. Hoc flocci non a estimo. (4). Verbs of accusing, acquitting, condemning such as accusare, arguere, reum facere, condemnare, absolvere, take a genitive defining the charge.
e.g. He taxes him with parricide. Paricidii eum incusat. Note. Instead of the genitive, the ablative with de 1S very common.
e.g. To be condemned for extortion.
De pecuniis repetundis damnari. (5) The punishment stands in the ablative; sometimes in the genitive.
e.g. He was condemned to death.
Capitis, or capite, damnatus est. (6) The impersonal verbs pudet, piget, poenitet, taedet, miseret, take an accusative of the person feeling, and a genitive of what causes the feeling.
e.g. I pity you =Tui me miseret. (7) Verbs and adjectives implying want and fullness, especially egeo, indigeo (Want) impleo (fill) potior (get possession of) plenus (full) often take a genitive.
e.g. Virtue needs very much practice.
Virtus plurimae exercitationis indiget.
(8) Refert and Interest.
Refert (it concerns) and interest (it is important) take a genitive of the person, often with an infinitive or ut clause. But instead of mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, the forms mea. tua, sua, mostra, vestra, which are the ablative feminime of the possessive pronouns are used.
e.g. It is neither of importance... to Caesar nor to us that you should come.
Nec Caesaris nec nostra interest ut venias.

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(9) Similis (like), dissimilis (unlike), are used with the genitive or dative of that with which their substantives are compared. A person is more commonly in the genitive ; a thing is in the genitive or dative i indifferently.
e.g. He was like his father.
Similis erat patris. (10) Partitive genitive is used in speaking of a part of anything.
e. g. None of us = neno nostrum. Much time = multum temporis.
But “all of us” = omnes nos (because all are referred to and not a part).
(11) Genitive of quality is used only for permanent qualities.
e. g. A man of huge body = homo maximi corporis.
(12) The genitive of description can only be used when the noun is qualified by an adjective.
e.g. A fleet of 300 ships.
Classis trecentarum navium. (13) a. Subjective genitive.
e. g. Amor dei = the love of God (i.e. the love which God has for us).
b. Objective genitive.
Amor dei = the love of. God (i. e. the love which we have for God).
(14) Genitive of the possessor or author. e.g. The gardens of Caesar.
Horti Caesaris. N. B. The genitive of NEMO is never neminis but nullius.
Rule. From nemo let me never see
Neminis or nemine. Use nullius, nullo instead of neminis and nemine.

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DATIVE.
1. (a) The following verbs take the dative :—
A dative put with show and give Tell, envy, spare, permit, believe,
Persuade, command, obey ; to these Add threaten, succour, pardon, please, With vacare, displicere, Servire, nubere studere, Heal, favour, hurt, resist and indulgere. N. B. All these verbs must be used impersonally in the passive.
e. g. I am persuaded = mihi persuadetur. (lit. it is. persuaded to me).
Intransitive verbs cannot be used personally in the passive, but they can be used impersonally.
(b) The impersonal verbs accidit, expedit, libet, licet, placet all take a dative of the person.
e.g. It is your pleasure to say this.
Hoc tibi dicere libet. (c) All the compounds of sum, except possum and absum take the dative.
e.g. He took no part in these matters.
His rebus non interfuit. (d) Many verbs compounded with the following prepositions :-
(1) Ad, ab, ante, ex and de
Ob, sub, super, post and prae. (2) And with the abverbs bene, male, satis, take the dative,
(e) Many transitive Latin verbs as metuo, consulo, caveo, prospicio, credo etc. are also used intransitively with a dative in a different sense to that which they bear with the accusative.
e. g. I ask your" opinion = te consulo. I consult your interests = tibi consulo.

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(f) The dative is used not only with verbs but also with adjectives (and even adverbs) to mark the person or the thing affected by the quality which the adjective denotes.
Such are adjectives which signify advantage, likeness, agreeableness, usefulness, fitness, facility etc. (with their opposites).
e. g. A child like his father = Puer patri similis. 2. Special uses of the Dative. (a) Possessive dative : e.g. This lowered my hopes. Hoc mihi spem minuit. (b) Dative of the agent which is used with the gerundive, with passive verbs and participles (in poetry) and with verbal adjectives in —bilis. e. g. This must be done by you.
Hoc tibi non faciendum est. I am understood by no one. Non intellegor ulli. (c) The dative of purpose. e.g. They sent the cavalry as a help to Caesar. Equita tum auxilio Caesari miserunt. (d) Predicative dative. e.g. That matter was a hindrance.
Ea res impedimento erat. N. B. Observe the following phrases :- Receptui canere = to sound the trumpet for retreat. Alimento serere = to Sow for food. Laudi vertere'alicui=to turn to the praise of some
ΟΙΩ6, Vitio vertere alicui = to impute as a fault to Some
ᎤInᎾ. (e) The Ethic Dative. A dative of the personal pronouns used in order to call particular attention to the person indicated.
e.g. Pray tell me what is Celus doing.
Quid mihi Cellus agit.

ABLATIVE.
1. Verbs taking the ablative :— (a) Fungor, frutor, utor (with their compounds), vescor fotior, dignor, glorior and supersedeo.
= Perform, enjoy, use, eat, get possession of, deem worthy, boast, desist from.
e.g. Our soldiers gained the victory.
Nostri victoria potiti sunt. - Note. Of these verbs, potior sometimes takes the genitive.
(b) Verbs of abounding, filling, loading etc., and their opposites, such as, verbs of being without, depriv. ing of, emptying of.
Such verbs are : — Circumfuere, complere, onerare, refercire, cumulare, carere, egere, vacare, orbare, privare, fraudare.
e.g. The dead are free from anxiety and pain.
Mortui cura et dolore carent. Note. Egeo and indigeo govern the genitive also; as also complere, replere.
2. Ablative Absolute. The ablative absolute is a phrase, consisting of a noun in the ablative case and a participle or another noun in agreement with it. No preposition is needed in the translation.
e.g. War having arisen, Caesar set out.
Bello orto, Caesar profectus est. He caught the boy and flogged him. Puerum apprehensum flagellavit. (lit. he flogged the caught boy.) ۔ Therefore whenever possible use the “caught boy' construction by making the participles in Latin agree with either the subject or the object.
Note. (1) The ablative absolute with the past participle can be used only with transitive verbs.

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(2) The past participles of deponent verbs are active in meaning.
3. The ablative is used after :—
(a) The following adjectives :-
Dignus (worthy), indignus (unworthy), contentus (contented with), praeditus (endowed with), extorris (banished), liber (free), fretus (relying on).
(b) Adjectives which signify wanting, fulness, enriching, or depriving
e. g. Full of wine=Vino plenus.
4. Certain nouns, opus (need) and usus (use) take the ablative.
e.g. It require books.
Mihi libris opus est. Note. Free from care=securus. '5. The following prepositions govern the ablative:-
A (ab), absque, coram, de, Palam, clam, cum, ex or e, Sine, tenus, pro, and prae, And unto these if rest at be intended Let in, sub, super, subter, be appended. 6. Ablative of separation is used after verbs. meaning to remove, release, deprive ; with adjectives as, liber (free), solutus (released), and the adverb procul (far from).
e.g. He deprived the city of all food. Omni commeatu urbem privavit. 7. Ablative of price expresses the definite price at which a thing is bought or sold.
e.g. He bought a book for 20 talents.
Librum viginti talentis emit. 8. The ablative of the measure of difference is used with comparatives and superlatives.
e. g. Much taller == multo proeerior.
The sun, is many times larger than the moon. * Sol multis partibus major est quam luna.

Caution: The ablative forms paulo, multo, eo, tanto etc., must never be used with adjectives or adverbs-in the positive degree.
É., g.
A somewhat crowded senate. Senatus paulo frequentior.
9. Ablative of place where and whence.
e. 3.
羲
10.
e. 3.
By land and sea. Terra marique. He returned from Rome. Roma redit. Ablative of origin. Born of a most noble father. Clarissimo patre natus.
Note. The name of an ancestor from whom one descends is regularly preceded by a or ab.
e. 3.
11.
6. 8.
2.
You are descended from that (famous) Cato. Ab illo Catone ortus es. Ablative of instrument. He fought with a sword.
Pugnavit gladio. Ablative of comparison (used after compara
tive adjectives and adverbs and translated by than.)
Յ. Ց.
13.
et. .
14.
i.e. S.
15.
е 8.
Note.
Caesar was greater than Crassus. Caesar major erat Crasso. Ablative of time (when).
He returned in the third year. Rediit tertio anno.
Ablative of respect.
Few in number. Pauci numero. Ablative of manner. He did this of his own accord. Sua sponte hoc fecit.
A substantive used in the ablative to ex
press manner must be accompanied by either (1) the preposition Cum, or (2) an adjective; except (3) in the

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case of a few words, of which the most important are :- Modo (in a way) ; dolo (by fraud) ; silentio (in silence) ; clamore (with a shout); vi (by force); ratione (by reaSon) ; fraude (by fraud) : arte (by art) ; more (in the manner) ; injuria (wrongly) ; concensu (by consent); casu (by chance); jure (rightly). 16. Ablative of cause. e.g. He died of old age.
Senectute mortuus est. 17. Ablative of quality. e.g. An old man with long beard and rough hair. Senex promissa barba, horrenti capillo. 18. Ablative of agent with a or ab.
Caesar was slain by Brutus. Caesar a Bruto interfectus est. 19. Ablative of matter. e. g. Contented with a little. Parvo contentus.
APPOSITION.
When one substantive is added to another to explain some part of its meaning, it is said to be in apposition to it.
e. g. Cassandra the prophetess.
Cassandra vates. Rule. A noun in apposition must be in the same case as the noun to which it refers,
e. g. They made Marius consul.
Marium consulem creaverunt. Note. (1) When an adjective is added to the name of a person, it is necessary in Latin to supply some noun in apposition like : man, king, queen, victor etc.; and the adjective is frequently in the Superlative degree.
e. g. The renowned Alexander.
Alexander, victor clarissimus. The beautiful Tullia. Tullia, puella pulcherrima.

(2) Note the Latin order. First the name, then the noun in apposition and finally the adjective.
(3) Note those idiomatic phrases where a noun. followed by "of" is rendered in Latin by 2 nouns in appo. sition or by an adjective (or participle) and a noun in agreement.
e.g. s. The top (the bottom) of the mountain.
Summus (imus) mons. |臀 beginning of spring.
Primum ver. f The city of Saguntum.
Urbs Saguntum. 17 臀 island of Britain. | Insula Britannia. {မုံ့ဖြိုး the defeat of the Gauls.
Post Gallos victos. How many of you are there ? Quot estis ? N. B. (a) After such words " as urbs, insula etc. apposition is used, not the defining genitive, to express the English 'of', with the proper name.
(b) With the names of towns or countries the Latin adjective is used in place of the possessive genitive, where we use of'.
e. g. The affairs of Rome = Res Romanae. (c) The following adjectives are often used with their substantives to specify certain parts of those substantives and are so translated in English :-
Extremus= the end of infimus or imus = the bottom of medius== the middle of primus == the beginning of reliquus= the rest of summus == the top of.
TIME.
1. Time when = ablative. e.g. He rises at dawn,
Prima luce surgit.

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2. Time how long= accusative. e.g. He lived many years.
Multos annos vixit. For how long past P Often expressed by an ordi. nal adjective in the singular.
e.g. He has been king for the last 20 years.
Annum jam vicessimum regnat. How long before or after P is expressed by :- (a) Either Ablative with post and ante used as adverbs.
(b) Or Accusative, using post and ante as prepositions.
e.g. After 2 years.
Duobus post annis, or, Post duos annos. How long ago P is expressed by the accusative preceded by Abhinc.
e. g. He died 2 years ago.
Abhinc duos annos excessit e vita. Time within which is expressed generally by the ablative, or intra with the accusative.
e.g. Whatever it is, we shall know in 2 days. Quicquid est, biduo sciemus. Age is expressed by the adjective natus-a-um, used with the accusative.
e.g. Thirty years of age.
Natus triginta annos.
PLACE.
1. Place at which (= where ?) anything is done is generally in the ablative.
e.g., The camp is in the valley. Castra in valle sunt: The genitive is used instead of the ablative, for the names of towns and small islands, if the noun is a singular one of the 1st and 2nd declensionG.

e.g. He has lived at Rome, Samos, Athens, Car. thage, Cadiz, Tarentum, Rhodes, Cortona and Tibur. Romae, Sami, Athenis, Carthagine, Gadibus, Tarenti, Rhodi, Cortonae, Tibure (or Tiburi) vixit. Caution. Remember that when in denotes place, it cannot be omitted in Latin (except for towns and small islands, domus and rus) ; but when it refers to time, it must be omitted.
e. g. In the field = in agro. In summer=aestate. 2. Place to which is expressed by ad or in with the accusative, except for towns and small islands, domus and rus, when ad or in is omitted.
e. g. I go to the gate = Ad portam eo.
I go to Rome= Romam eo. I go home = Domum eo. 3. Place from which is expressed by e, ea, a, or ab with the ablative, except for towns and small islands, domus and rus, when the preposition is omitted.
e.g. He set out from the camp.
Ex castris profectus est. He set out from Rome, Roma profectus est.
N. B. 1. Latin connects both nouns closely with the verb of motion.
e.g. He returned to his friends in Africa. In (or ad) Africam ad amicos rediit.
(2) When urbs or oppidum comes before the proper name, the preposition must be used.
e. g. In the city of London == In urbe Londinio.
SPACE.
1. Space covered (how far ?) is in the accusative.
e.g. A trench 200 feet long.
Fossa ducentos pedes longa. 3

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2. Space which lies between (how far off ?) is either in the accusative or in the ablative.
e.g. The winter quarters were two miles distant. Hiberna duobus millibus passuum aberant.
3. Dimension is in the accusative.
e.g. The soldiers threw up a mound 300 feet broad.
Milites aggerem latum pedes trecentos ex
struxerunt.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
GENDER.
When the genders are different, adjectives agree with the masculine rather than with the feminine, and with the feminine rather than with the neuter.
e.g. The king and the queen set out together. Rex reginaque una profecti sunt. Note. (1) If the nouns are not persons but things, the adjective is usually in the plural and agrees in gender with both substantives if they are of the same gender. e.g. Your good faith and dutifulness are to be praised.
Fides tua et pietas laudandae sunt. (2) If the nouns are names of things and of different genders, the adjective is generally in the neuter.
e.g. Kingdoms, honours, riches are frail and fickle things.
Regna, honores, divitiae, caduca et incerta sunt. (3) When the nouns are abstract, the adjective is commonly in the neuter, even if the nouns are of the same gender.
e.g. Good faith and a sense of duty are to be praised.
Fides et pietas laudanda sunt. (4) Sometimes, but more rarely, the adjective agrees in gender and number with the noun nearest itself.

e.g. The sovereignty and chief power were offered to me.
Mihi principatus atque imperium delatum est. (5) When a single adjective is used as the attribute of two or more nouns of different genders, it usually agrees with the one nearest itself.
e.g. He travelled over all lands and seas = Either; Terras omnes et maria perlustravit. C)r : Terras et maria omnia perlustravit. The adjective is sometimes repeated with each notum. Terras omnes et maria omnia perlustravit.
Adjectives used as Substantives. When the substantive is man, woman, or thing, it is often not expressed in Latin by a separate word.
e.g. The good and wise are being banished.
Boni sapientesque (ex) civitate pelluntur.
Hence many adjectives, both singular and plural, masculine and neuter are used precisely as substantives :-
e. g. Adolescens, juvenis (young man) ; amicus, inimicus : aequalis, divites.
Factum (deed), bona (property), multa (much).
Other uses of Adjectives.
In English we join the adjective 'many' with another adjective.
e.g. Many excellent men.
In Latin we say, "many and excellent men." Homńines multi optimique or multi atque optimi homines or multi, iique optimi.
Note, 1. The superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs is often used in Latin to mark merely a high degree of quality.
If a superlative or an emphatic adjective qualifies an antecedent (i.e. a noun followed by a relative clause), that adjective is in Iatin absorbed into the relative clause.

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e.g. I bought the best books he had.
Emi libros quos habuit optimos. (lit. I bought the books which best he had.) I have said this repeatedly. Hoc saepissime dixi. 2. So also the comparative degree is often used in Latin without any direct idea of comparison, to express a considerable, excessive or too great amount. It may then be translated by 'rather', 'somewhat', 'too', or by a simple adjective in the positive degree.
e. g. Saepius= somewhat often.
Asperius = with excessive harshness. Morbus gravior = a Serious illness. 3. The supe lative used with quisque=all or every.
e.g. All good men feel so.
Optimus quisque haec sentit.
(lit. Best each man feels so.) 4. The adjectives solus (unus), primus, ultimus, are joined adverbially with the verb to express “only”, 'first,' 'last', where we should add a relative clause, or an infinitive and make the adjective the main prediCate.
e.g. He was the first to do this or who did this.
Primus haec fecit.
(lit. He first did this). 5. Certain nouns are used with the verb, where in English we should use an adverbial phrase.
e.g. I made this vow in my boyhood or youth or old age.
Hoc puer, or adolescens, or senex, vovit. 6. To express the idea that a person or object possesses a quality in the highest possible degree, use the superlative preçeded by quam and with or without the verb posse.
e. g. As soon as possible ==quam primum. As fast as possible ==quam celerrime.

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Note. He is the bravest man in all the world= Fortis est qualis toto orbe terrarum nemo.
(lit. He is brave such as in the whole world none).
PARTICIPLES,
Participles are verbal adjectives or rather verbs used as adjectives.
The present participle is always active in meaning. e.g. He said this while dying. Haec dixit moriens. The present participle sometimes represents a concessive or though-clause.
e.g. Though we agree (while agreeing) in substance, we differ in words.
Re consentientes, verbis discrepamus. The past participles of all non-deponent verbs are passive in meaning, and those of deponent verbs are active in meaning.
e.g. Amatus = having been loved.
Progressus=having advanced. The past participle is sometimes used as a noun. e. g. The loss of Sicily = Sicilia amissa.
(lit. The lost Sicily.) The future participle in-rus is always active and
has various meanings :
) About to
(a (b) Likely to (c) Intending to (d) Going to (e) Ready to (f) Destined to e.g. He is going to do this. Hoc facturus est.
The Gerund is a verbal noun and Gerundive is a verbal abjective.

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Occasionally the gerundive is used in a similar way as almost the equivalent of a present passive participle.
e.g. Those who took part in the outrage on the ambassadors.
Qui violandis legatis inter fuere.
N. B. (1) Caesar had a bridge made across the river.
Caesar pontem faciendum in Rheno curavit. (2) Esse solvendo== to be able to pay one’s debts.
(3) The following examples will recall some of the more idiomatic uses of the future participle.
(a) He says he would never have done this.
Hoc se unquam facturum fuisse negat.
(b) He replied that the city would never have been taken.
Nunquam futurum fuisse ut urbs caperetur respondit.
(c) I fear that you are never destined to return home.
Vereor ne domum nunquam sis rediturus.
(d) He sent thern away as they were on the point of speaking further.
Plura locuturos dimisit.
(e) They were so terrified that they would have easily delivered up their arms.
Adeo territi sunt ut arma facile tradituri fuerint.
(f) Here I intended to remain.
Hic mansurus fui.
(g) That which is to be, will be.
Fiet, quod futurum est.
PRONOUNS. THE RELATIVE.
The relative pronoun qui, quae, quod, like all other pronouns agrees with its antecedent in gender, and number, but its case is determined by its own clause.

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e.g. The fire which the soldier prepares delights the leader.
Ignis, quem miles parat, ducem delectat.
Note. (1) When an adjective qualifying the antecedent is emphatic, as unus, solus, or is a superlative, it is often attracted to the clause of the relative, agreeing with it in case.
e.g. Should Caesar come with the very strong forces that he has.
Si veniat Caesar cum copiis quas habet firmissimas.
(2) If the relative refers not to a single word but to the whole statement made by a clause, it is neuter and id quod or quae res is used, being in apposition to the clause.
e.g. He wished the day to be wasted, which came to pass.
Diem consumi volebat, id quod est factum. (3) The co-ordinating function of the relative in linking up sentences in continuous prose.
e. g. De qua re certior factus
Quibus auditis Quod cum vidisset Quamobrem Quare etc. Qui frequently stands at the beginning of a Latin sentence, where English idiom requires a personal or demonstrative pronoun with or without and
e.g. On hearing this, Caesar hastens his departure.
Qua re cognita, Caesar proficisci contendit.
Mood of the verb in a relative clause.
The verb in the relative clause is in the subjunctive mood when the clause implies (a) concession (b) cause (c) purpose (d) or result. Otherwise use the indicative.
e.g. Caesar sent the cavalry to resist the enemy's On Set.

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Caesar equitatum qui sustineret hostium impetum missit.
Here qui = in order that.
PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS,
The personal pronoun is usually expressed only by the verb ending, but is sometimes added for emphasis.
e.g. I expelled kings, you are bringing in tyrants. Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis, Note. 1. Nos is often used for ego, and noster for meus, but vos is not used for tu, nor vester for tuus. 2. Nostri, vestri, are called objective genitives ; e. g. Mindful of us = memor nostri. Nostrum, vestrum are called partitive genitives, because they are used after words which express a part.
e. g. One of us == unus nostrum. The reflexive pronoun se, sese, sui, sibi, as also the possessive suus in a simple sentence refers to the subject of the principal verb and are to be used only for the third person.
For the 1st and 2nd persons, me (memet), te (temet) are used reflexively with ipse.
e.g. The thief defends himself with a weapon.
Fur telo se defendit. Is it that you despise yourself ? An temet ipse contemnis ? In the accusative and infinitive Construction se, suus, refer to the subject of the principai verb.
e.g. He says that he saw this. Ait se haec vidisse. In adjectival clauses, se generally refers to the subject of the verb in its own clause.
e. g. He objected to praise the soldiers who had surrendered themselves and all that belonged to them to the enemy.

Milites, qui se suaque omnia hosti tradiderunt, laudare noluit. "
In all other subordinate clauses, se generally refers to the subject, not of its own, but of the principal clause.
e. g. Cicero had contrived that Curius should betray to him the designs of Catiline.
Cicero effecerat, ut Curius consilia Catilina e sibi proderet.
Note. Sometimes, and i constantly with inter, se supplies the place of the reciprocal pronoun.
e.g. They would look stealthily at each other,
Furtin inter se aspiciebant. Very common uses of se and suus are : -- Sua sponte= of his own accord. Secum habere = to keep to oneself. Fiducia sui = self-confidence. Per se, propter se, pro se quisque = each in turn. Sui compos=master of himself, his reason. Quantum in se fuit = to the utmost of his power. Idem=the same. With ac or atque or better qui, it expresses the same as.
It may often be translated at the same time, also. e.g. He is the same as he has been always.
Idem est qui semper fuit. I, a brave man and also a philosopher. Ego vir fortis, idemque philosophus. (1) Alius=another (of any number), different. To express “different from, or to”, alius ac or atque is used.
e.g. Fortune, kind now to me, now to another.
Fortuna nunc mihi, nunc alii benigna. He is of a different disposition to you.
• Alio ac tu est ingenio, 争 (2) Alius, alius, repeated in 2 clauses mean : one4 . . . . . another.

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Alii, alii (plural) mean : some......others. e.g. It is one thing to speak evil, another to accuse.
Aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare. Some praise Caesar, others Cicero. Alii Caesarem laudant, alii Ciceronem. (3) Alius repeated in different cases in the same sentence, answers to a common use of the English “dif. ferent', 'various'.
e.g. Some think one thing, some another.
Alii alia sentiunt. (4) When used as a predicate in separate clauses, a repeated alius marks an essential difference.
e.g. He says one thing and does something else.
Aliud loquitur, aliud facit. (5) Sometimes a repeated alius (or of 2 persons, alter) supplies the place of the reciprocal "each other'.
e.g. All of us began to look at each other. O mines alius alium intuebamur. Alter, the one, the other (of two), the second. e.g. One of the consuls won glory at home, the -other in war.
Consulem alter domi, alter militiae famam sibi para vit.
Ceteri, reliquus = the rest. - Reliqui is opposed to the “mass”, those who remain after many have been deducted.
Ceteri as contrasted with somae one or more already named, or indicated.
THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Of the indefinite pronouns quis, siquis, numquis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, the most definite is guidam and the least so is quis.
Quis, any, (qui when used as an adjective i. e. attached to a substantive) cannot begin a sentence; they often follow si, nisi, num, ne, quo, quanto.

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e.g. if any one does so, he will be punished.
Si quis ita fecerit, poenas dabit. Does anybody feel anger towards infants 2 Numquis irascitur infantibus ? Therefore quis can never stand first in a sentence except in an interrogative sentence.
A more emphatic “any” is quisquam (substantive), ullus (adjective).
These are used after :- (a) A negative particle (nec, vix, etc.) e.g. This I say and no one denies it.
Haec aio, nec quisquam negat. (b). Verbs of denying, forbidding, preventing. e.g. They refuse to obey any one's command.
Negant se cujusquam imperio esse obtemperaturOS.
(c) A question implying a negative. e.g. Not any due honour (is given) to the plough.
Non ullus aratro dignus honos. (d) Si, where the negative sense of “any” is emphasized.
e. g. Either no man was wise, or, if any, Cato was. Aut nemo aut, si quisquam Cato sapiens fuit. (e) Compârisons. e.g. The bightness of the sun is more intense than that of any fire.
Solis candor illustrior est quam ullius ignis. An y=anyone or anything you please, any you like, = quivis or quilibet. بار
e.g. Any man can put forth any report of anybody. Quivis homo potest quemvis de quolibet ru
morem proferre. Note. O tivis expresses a more deliberate, quilibet a more blind or capricious choice.
Quisque, each, any, or everyone, is often used? with se and suus. It is very rarely used in the plurral in prose.

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e.g. Let them have each for himself, what is his OW, I).
Sibi quisque habeant quod suum est.
N. B. (1) In the neuter quidque is substantival, quodque adjectival,
(2) With superlatives it expresses "all" or "every".
e.g. These are the views of all god men (or every good man).
Haec optimus quisque sentit. (3) It also distributes Ordinal Numbers. e.g. A census of all Sicily is taken every fifth year. Quinto quoque anno Sicilia tota censetur. Uterque, each (of two), both, can be used with
the genitive of pronouns ; but with substantives it agrees in case.
e.g. Both father and mother.
Uterque parens. Uter, which (of two) is interrogative. e.g., Which is the better ?
Uter melior. Note. Utri, plural, is used for 'which of 2 parties, and utrique for “both parties’ so alieri —alteri, one party, the other party.
Ambo = both. It is used of two individuals as forming one whole; "both together'.
e.g. One or both.
Alter ambove. -. Singuli (-, -ae, —a) is only used in the plural and has 2 main uses.
(a) A distributive numeral, "one apiece', 'one each'. e.g. Let them go out each with one set of garmentS.
Cum singulis vesti mentis exeant.
(b) As opposed to universi, "the mass', 'all', looked on as forming one class, singuli denotes ‘individuals,’ 'one by one'.

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e.g. While we feel affection for individual Romans, we loathe the nation.
Romanos singulos diligimus, universos aversamur.
Some : Aliquis= Some one or some, as opposed to no one O Ole
e.g. lf you wish to be somebody.
Si vis esse aliquis. (2) Quisbian = some one, is not so often used and 1S Vaguer.
e.g. Some one will say.
Dicet quispiam. (3) "Some' when used in an emphatic and yet indefinite sense is often sunt qui, erant qui, with the subJunctive.
e. g. Some say -- Sunt qui dicant. (4) Nonnulli=some, few, more than one, as opposed to 'one' or "none".
e.g. I have known several men.
Nonnullos cognovi. (5) Quidam = a certain one (known, but not named). e.g. I was born on a certain day.
Die quodam natus sum. (6) Nescio quis (qui) = some one or other (I know not who) used as a single word with the indicative.
e. g. An obscure person called Brutus.
Brutus nescio quis. The phrases nescio quid, nescio quo modo, quo pacto, (also quodam modo) are used where there is anything expressed that is not easily defined or accounted for.
e.g. There is something (which I cannot define) in my mind and feelings. W
I nest nescio quid in animo ac sensu meo. Quicunque, quisquis (substantive) “who-ever” is followed by a dependent verb in the indicative ; by a subjunctive only when required on other grounds.

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e.g. Tomorrow you may say whatever you like.
Cras tibi quodcumque voles dicere licebit.
THE VERB.
THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB.
When 2 or more n puns are united as the subject, the verb is usually in the plural.
If the persons of a composite subject are different, the verb agrees with the 1st person, rather than the 2nd and with the 2nd rather than the 3rd.
e.g. If you and Tullia are well, I and Cicero are well.
Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus.
Note. When several subjects are united, the verb is sometimes found in the singular, agreeing with one only. -
e.g. Both you and your father are present.
Et tu ades et pater tuus.
After disjunctive conjunctions neque (nee). .. neque ; aut... aut etc., either construction may be used.
e.g. Neither you nor your brother were present. - Neque tu neque frater tuus adfuistis.
Or neque tu adfuisti, neque frater tuus.
MODAL VERBS.
Modal verbs are those verbs which cannot as a rule stand by themselves or make full sense without the infinitive with which they are joined.
Such are verbs of : -
(a) Possibility or the reverse e. g. Possum, nequeo etc. (b) Beginning or ceasing. e.g. Coepi, incipio, desino, desisto etc.

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(c) Habit, continuance, hastening. e. g. Soleo, assuesco, pergo, festino etc.
(d) Duty.
e. g. Debeo.
(e) Many verbs of wish, purpose, aim, endeav
our etc.
e. g. Volo, nolo, malo, cupio, aludeo, statuo. When a finite verb of this kind is combined with the infinitive, the nominative, not the accusative is used in the predicate.
e.g. I am anxious to become a citizen of Rome.
Civis Romanus fieri cupio. Note. 1. With passive verbs sentiendi et d2clarandi, such as videor (I seem), dicor (I am said), and similar verbs, the impersonal construction 'it seems', 'it is said', is not used in Latin.
Use instead of "it is said that Cicero was consul", "Cicero is said to have been consul'.
Cicero dicitur consul fuisse. 2. Verbs of purposing and resolving and many others are used with the infinitive and the nominative case, only when the subject of both verbs is the same.
e.g. Caesar determined to become consul.
Caesar constituit consul fieri, But :- Caesar determined that Cicero should be made consul =
Caesar constituit ut Cicero consul fieret.
EXCEPTIONS.
(a) The past tense of such longer phrases as, mihi nuntiatum est, memoriae proditum est, and others, is used impersonally and is followed by the accusative and infinitive.
e.g. News was brought to Caesar that the Gauls were at hand.
Caesari nuntiatum est adesse Gallos.

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(b) Videtur can be used impersonally, but means, not "it seems', but "it seems good'.
e.g. It seemed good to me (1 resolved) to do this.
Hoc mihi facere visum est.
(c) The impersonal verbs apparet (not "it seems', but “it is clear”) and constat (it is agreed) are very common, and are followed by the accusative and infinitive.
(d) The accusative is sometimes introduced after volo, even when the subject of both verbs is the same. We may say either, Consul esse vult, (he wishes to be consul) or se consulem esse vult, (it is his wish that he himself should be consul).
THE TENSES.
1. THE PRESENT.
The historical present is often in the best Latin writers intermingled with the past (aorist) tenses; and is even followed as a historic tense by the imperfect subjunctive.
e. g. The consuls suddenly publish (= published) an edict, that the senators were to return to their usual dress.
Subito edicunt consules ut ad suum vestitum senatores redirent.
In describing the past, the conjunction dum, (while) is constantly used with a historical present even when all the surrounding tenses are in past time.
e.g. While the Romans were wasting time, Saguntum was being besieged.
Dum Romani tempus terunt, Saguntum obsidebatu'.
N. B. l. To express "I have been doing a thing for a long time", the Romans said, "I am doing it for a long time already.'
e.g. I have long desired. -
Jam pridem (or diu) cupio.

2. So also they used the imperfect for our "had long been.' .
e. g. Forces which they had long been collecting.
Copiae quas diu comparabant. The imperfect denotes a continuous or incomplete, as opposed to momentary or completed action.
e.g. I had been laughing for four years.
Quattuor annos ridebami. The imperfect often expresses ideas equivalent to:- Began to, proceeded to, continued to, tried to, were in the habit of, used to, vere te ont to.
e.g. When we were boys we used to learn something of this kind.
Haec fere pueri discebamus. The historic infinitive is often used as a substitute for the imperfect, especially when a series of actions is described, and is always joined with the nominative.
e.. g. Caesar was importuning the Aedui for provi= sions; they kept putting off day after day asserting etc.
Caesar Aeduos frumentum... . flagitare ; diem ex die ducere Aedui . . . . dicere etc.
FUTURE PERFECT AND FUTURE.
An English present tense after relatives, or after when, if, as long as, before, etc. is to be translated by a future perfect, when the action expressed by it is still future, but prior to something still more future.
e. g. If I put any question to you, will you not answer ?
Si te rogavero aliquid, nonne respondebis ? When the two actions or states are simultaneous, but still future, the Latin future is used for an English present.
e.g. As long as I am here, I shall love you.
Dum hic ero te amabo. Do this when you please. Facito hoc, ubi voles.

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Sometimes the English perfect is used for the Latin future perfect.
e.g. When I have done this, I shall go to Rome.
Quae quum fecero, Romam ibo. Note. There is also a common use of the future perfect in such phrases as videris, viderint, in the sense of "you, they, must look to it", when the responsibility of giving an opinion is declined or postponed. e.g. I leave this to you-do you decide.
De hac re videris.
COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.
DIRECT COMMAND OR PETITION.
(a) 2nd Person. If positive== Imperative.
If negative = (a) Ne with Per--
fect Subjunctive. (b) Noli with In
finitive. (b) 1st & 3rd Person. If positive= Present Subjunc
tive. If negative = Ne and Present
Subjunctive. e. g. Come to me == Ad me veni.
Do dot come to me = Ne ad me veneris - or
Noli ad me venire. (b) Let us die == Moriamur.
Let him not die = N e moriatur. More Polite : When a person who is your equal is addressed, use a more polite command than the imperative.
Velim scribas= I would have you write
or please write. Fac ut scribas
SU write. Cura ut Be reto t

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When a command is double, and the second part negative, use neu or neve instead of neque before the Second part.
e.g. Let us remain in the city and not depart.
Maneamus in urbe neve discedamus. Do not be angry or leave me. Ne iratus sis neve me reliqueris. Note. 1. For a courteous imperative, the future indicative is often used.
e.g. You will please let me know.
Facies ut sciam. 2. The subjunctive expressing a wish is commonly introduced by utinam (equivalent to, O would that....!
The negative used is ne or non.
(a) The present subjunctive is used of a wish that may yet be realised.
e. g. May I prove a false prophet.
Falsus utinam vates sim.
(b) The imperfet subjunctive expresses a wish that something were otherwise than it is now.
e.g. Would that what I am writing were not true.
Illud utinam ne vere scriberem.
(c) The pluperfect subjunctive expresses a wish that something had been otherwise than it was.
e.g. Would that it had happened otherwise.
Utinam aliter accidisset.
INDIRECT COMMANDS.
Indirect commandls are expressed in Latin by ut (when positive) ne (when negative) with the subjunctive.
The construction is exactly the same as that of Final Sentences,
Exceptions.
Jubeo, veto take present infinitive. A void jubeo .. non, for which imfero...ne, or veto must be used.

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Neu (neve) is used for neque in indirect as in direct commands and final sentences.
e.g. He persuades the soldiers to set out with CaeSaf.
Persuadet militibus ut una cum Caesare proficisCantur.
Note. The verbs moneo, persuadeo, suadeo may introduce either an indirect statement or an indirect command. In the former case, of course, they take ac. cusative and infinitive, and in the latter ut or ne and the subjunctive.
e.g. In the sentence 'I will persuade him that this journey is dangerous', the word 'persuade' introduces a Statement. But in "I will persuade him to abandon this journey' it introduces a command.
QUESTIONS.
DIRECT QUESTIONS.
1.-ne (enclitic) is used in questions that simply ask for information, and to which the answer may be either
yes or no.
e.g. Is Caesar writing
Scribitine Caesar ? Note. Ne is always attached to the emphatic word.
(2) Num expects the answerNO. e.g. Caesar has not reached the camp, has he
Num Caesar ad Castra advenit ?
(3) Nonne expects the answer Y ES.
e.g. Has not Caesar reached the camp P
Surely Caesar has reached the camp. Nonne Caesar ad castra advenit ?
(4) Utrum...an; ne... an ; utrum...annon, are used in double questions.

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e.g., Has Caesar reached the camp or not ?
Utrum Caesar (Caesarne) ad castra advenit
annon ?
Num is occasionally used for utrum, where a negative answer is expected.
N. B. l. For deliberative questions, i. e. for guestions where one asks oneself what is to be done, the present or the imperfect subjunctive is used.
e.g. What am I to do ?
Quid faciam ?
2. 'Or not' in a direct question should be translated by annon.
Other interrogative words are either pronouns or interrogative particles.
The following is a list of interrogative pronouns and particles :-
PRONOUNS :-
Quis ? quisnam ? quid ? quidnam ? = who ? what ?
Quantum ?=how much, followed by partitive genitive.
e. g. Quantum temporis= how much time ?
Qui ? what ? Quot ? how many ? Uter ? which of two ?
Qualis ? of what kind ?
ouantus ? how great 2
quot ? how many ?
quotus 2 one of how many (answer 3rd, 4th etc.)
Num quis, qua, quid ? (subst).
Num qui quae, quodl ? (Adj.)
Ecouis ? any ?
PARTICLES : Ubi ? where ? unde ? whence ? Quo ? whither ?
Cur ? quare ? qua nobrem ? why ? wherefore ? Qui ? how ? (often in the phrase 'ati sit ut’?)
Quam ? how ? (wit li incljective and adverb).
Quomodo ? quemadmodum ? how ? in what man- , ner ?

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Quantum ? quantopere ? how much
Quando ? when ? (never quum) quoties ? who often ?
Quamdiu ? quosque ? how long ? how far ?
Cur non ? quin ? why not ? how not ?
INDIRECT QUESTIONS.
When a direct question becomes the subject or object of a verb, it becomes an indirect question.
Rule. A clause expressing an indirect question in Latin has its verbo in the subjunctive.
e.g. I do not know when they will come.
Nescio quando venturi sint. Note. 1. “Or not” in indirect questions is “necne”. e.g. We will ask whether or not he means to go.
Iturus sit, necne, rogabimus. 2. 'If' and 'whether' are represented in a single indirect question by — ne and num, occasionally by “nonne’. 3. Num in the indirect question does not as in the direct, imply the answer “no”, (but nonne still suggests an affirmative answer).
e.g. Tell me if you have the same opinion as I.
Dic mihi num eadem quae ego sentias. The double use in English of 'if', 'whether', and 'or', must be carefully borne in mind.
Si, sive, seu, aut, vel, must never be used as interrogatives in Latin.
(a) You shall die if (conditional) you do this. Moriere si haec feceris (fut. perf. indic.) (b) I ask if (interrogative) you do this.
Num haec feceris (subjunctive) rogo. (c) He shall go, whether he likes it or no. (alternative condition).
Seu vult seu non vult, ibit. (d) I ask whether he likes it or no (alternative question).
Utrum velit an nolit rogo.

مــ55 سس۔
(e) He is either a wise man or a fool (a disjunctive sentence).
Aut sapiens est aut stultus. (f) I don't know whether he is a wise man or a fool.
Utrum sapiens sit an stultus nescio.
SPECIAL VERBAL CONSTRUCTIONS.
Verba imperandi vel efficiendi = subjunctive.
Rule. “By UT translate infinitive
With ask and wish, command contrive, Allow, forbid, advise and strive; But never be this rule forgot Put NE for UT when there's a not.”
Exception. Volo, juben, veto, conor and sino, always take an infinitive rather than an ut clause.
Note. 1. The sequence of tenses as well as the use of NE in negative clauses will be that of the final clause.
e.g. lic orded in to do nothing.
Mihi ne qui il facerem imperavit. 2. The same verb may be used in two senses, and therefore with two constructions.
It may be used as a verb sentien di vel declarat indi, in which case it will take the accusative and infinitive, or it may be used as a verb imperandi vel efficiendi, in which case it will be followed by an ut or ne clause, e. g. (a) I was pe:'sitt aded that the end was near,
Mihi persu astin est finem adesse. (b) I was persuaded not to do this.
Mihi persuasum est ne hoc facerem.

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The following impersonal verbs instead of taking the accusative and infinitive construction, take UT with the subjunctive :-
“Restat, abest, accidit, Evenít, Contingit, fit, Licet, sequitur and est Placet, refert, interest.” Verbs of fearing takene with the subjunctive, when the meaning is affirmative, ut or ne non when the meaning is negative. •
Such verbs are, timeo, metuo, vereor etc. and the Same construction is used with such phrases as : periculum est, metus est etc.
e.g. (a) I fear that he will come.
Vereor ne veniat. (b) I fear that he will not come.
Vereor ut veniat. Note. The present subjunctive in Latin is used to translate the English future since the verb of fearing it." self points quite sufficiently to the idea of futurity.
Verbs of fearing are sometimes used like recuso and dubito, as modal verbs in close combination with the infinitive.
He is not afraid of dying.
Nec mori temet. N. B. The infinitive is only used when the subject of the two verbs is the same.
e.g. I am afraid to return home. Domum redire timeo.
QUIN.
(a) Verbs of doubting when preceded by a negative or a virtual negative (e. g. vix, aegre, “scarcely”, or questions expecting the answer no, none, nothing) take quin (= qui -- ne == that not, by which not) with the subjunctive. w
e.g. There is no doubt that the case is so.
Non est dubium quin res ita se habeat.

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(b) Quin is sometimes used in the indicative as a direct interrogative and means 'why not'.
e.g. Why do you not give me this ?
Quin hoc mihi das ?
(c) Quin is also used after negative sentences to denote generally that a certain thing never happens without something else happening.
e.g. I never saw him without laughing.
Nunquam eum vidi quin riderem.
(d) Words and phrases followed by quin with the subjunctive are : --
1. All the world (believes), nemo est quin (credat). 2. Not to doubt, non dubitare (quin.) 3. There is no doubt, non est dubium (quin). 4. Who doubts, quis dubitat (quin) 5. It cannot be (it is impossible) but that, fieri non
potest (quin). 6. I cannot refrain from, temperare mihi non
possum (quin). 7. It cannot be denied, negari non potest (quin) 8. To be very near; to be within a very little, minimum abesse ; haud multum abesse (quin). 9. To leave nothing undone to, nihil praetermit
tere (auim). 10. I cannot help, facere non possum (quin). ll. To restrain, to keep back from, retinere, tenere, (after negative words and aegre, vix etc.)
12. What reason is there against ? » quid causae est (quin) ?
QUOMINUS.
Quominus (= ut eo minus=in order that the less, that not, so that not) with the subjunctive is used after verbs of hindering and preventing, whether they are positive or negative.
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Exceptions. Prohibeo and veto prefer an infinitive. e.g. (a) The ships were prevented by the wind from returning into harbour.
Naves vento tenebantur quominus in portum redirent.
(b) You were the cause of our not winning the day.
Per te stetit quominus vinceremus. Note. The sentence on which quominus depends is generally negative or interrogative, but it may be positive. The sentence on which quin depends is always negative or virtually negative.
WITHOUT followed by a clause.
(a) If without refers to something previously happening use nisi with the indicative or the subjunctive.
е 8. You cannot learn without studying.
Discere non potes nisi litteris studiueris. (b) If without refers to something subsequently happening, use quin with the Subjunctive.
e.g. You cannot hurt me without injuring yourself.
Non potes mihi nocere quin tibi ipsi noceas. N. B. "Without' can be translated into Latin in the following ways : " -
1. Sine with the ablative. e.g. Without any doubt.
Sine ulla dubitatione.
2. Nisi. e.g. If he does not call in a physician he will die.
Morietur, nisi medicum adhibuerit.
3. Quin. e.g. I never saw him without laughing.
N11 nn 11am eum vidi quin riderem.

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4. Ablative absolute or caught boy.' e.g. The town was taken without a single man be ing killed.
Ne uno quidem interfecto, urbs capta est. 5. Careo. e.g. He is without wisdom.
Sapientia caret. 6. Absque. e.g. If it were not for you. Absque te foret.
F IN I S.

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ADDITIONAL NOTES.

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