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Gendering Hu
An Annotated on Gender and C
in Armed
Compi BHAWAN (
With a Fo Malathi de Alwis &
International Centr

manitarianism
Bibliography, capacity Building
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led by DGANATHAN
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Gendering Humanitarianism
An Annotated Bibliography "T on Gender and Capacity Building in Armed Conflict
Compiled by Bhawani Loganathan
With a Foreword by Malathi de Alwis & Jennifer Hyndman
International Centre for Ethnic Studies

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Copy right (C) International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Colombo.
Loganathan, Bhawani
Gendering humanitarianism: An Annotated Bibliography on Gender and Capacity Building in Armed Conflict. Compiled by Bhawani Loganathan. Foreword by Malathi de Alwis & Jennifer Hyndman.-Colombo: International Centre for Ethnic Studies, 2000.
xv, l 86 p; index; 22cm. ISBN: 955-580-054-5
i. 0 16 3054 ii. Title
1. Armed conflict 2. Refugees and internally displaced persons 3. Humantarian assistance 4. Women 5. Sri Lanka.
This Bibliography has been published with the kind assistance of Oxfam GB and Ireland.

ΤΟ
yESTERDAY'S VICTIMA
TODAY'S SURVIVOR
TOMORROW'S VICTOR

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Acknowledgement
I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to Malathi de Alwis and Jennifer Hyndman who have helped me in many ways - from the collection of relevant resources to editing my works. Foreword to the subject by them places this compilation in context and perspective. I am grateful to both of them to have initiated this publication.
Accessing unpublished documents had been a difficult task. I recollect with gratitude the timely contributions made by Chandra Kanapathipillai, Indrani Iriyagola, Fr. Rajendran and Simon Harris for having given me their unpublished reports and other information. My special thanks to Saroja , Sivachandran and Vasuki Jayashanker who obliged me, despite the unstable conditions prevailing in their areas. Ms. Judy Peterz and Mr.P..Thambirajah, besides their heavy schedule, were most obliging in responding to my requests for material at short notice. This acknowledgment would be incomplete without a "thank you" to Suvendrini Amaratunge who proofread my works within a very short time period.
Bhawani Loganathan I.C.E.S
October 2000.

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Contents
Foreword by Malathi de Alwis and Jennifer Hyndman Preface
Presentation of Bibliographic Information Acronyms of Humanitarian, Non Governmental
Organisations Map of Sri Lanka
1.0 Gender and the Humanitarian Agenda
1.1 General 1.2 Sri Lanka
2.0 Assisting Women in Conflict
2.1 Violence Against Women
2. l l General 2. Il 2 Sri Lanka
2.2 Women's Health
2.21 General 2.22 Sri Lanka
2.3 Income Generation and Economic
Support 2.3l General 2.32 Sri Lanka
2.4 Social Participation, Leadership
and Peace Building 2.41 General 2.42 Sri Lanka
Index
viii
xiii
xiii
rvi
6S 65 80
84 84 97
123 23 128
158 158 167
187

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ForeWord
Malathi de Alwis & Jennifer Hyndman
This bibliography is the result of a research project, "Capacity Building in Conflict Zones: A Feminist Analysis of Humanitarian Assistance in Sri Lanka," funded by Oxfam, with which we have been involved for the past two years. The project sought to advance, both in theory and practice, the delivery of humanitarian assistance in Sri Lanka while simultaneously analysing the links between gender, conflict and displacement. Our research primarily focused on 'capacity building' conducted by international NGOs and UN agencies to build and sustain institutional capacity among local/national organizations in Sri Lanka. In light of such a broad concern, we decided to narrow our focus by assessing the existing resources and potential for institutional 'capacity building' in three specific areas: (1) the prevention of violence against women and support for those affected; (2) the provision of facilities and information on women's health issues; and (3) the promotion of income security options which serve to stabilize household economies. r
During the course of our research in these three areas we realized that not only was there a paucity of information on these subjects in Sri Lanka, but that much of what had been written on these issues was not well known or well circulated and also frequently inaccessible to those outside the NGO or UN agency which had produced the documents. The latter reality however, was often due to the fact that the confidentiality of the community being studied or evaluated needed to be safeguarded or that the document produced was only for internal circulation. Nevertheless, we frequently found that even those working within an NGO (especially those located in regional offices) were unaware of crucial documents that had been generated by their own organization
viii .

and rarely utilized their organization's library let alone that of another NGOs. We also noticed that documents produced by local and international NGOs were rarely known to or used by local and international scholars and academics, and vice
WCS2.
In order to rectify this situation, we enlisted the help of Bhawani Loganathan who took on the arduous task of compiling and annotating this bibliography with great enthusiasm and dedication. She, along with Malathi de Alwis, scouted out various NGO and UN libraries for documents while Jennifer Hyndman photocopied journal articles in North America and mailed them back to ICES where many of the articles and books cited here are now housed. There must be many other articles, reports and newspaper clippings that the three of us have missed, and we hope the readers of this compilation will call our attention to them so that we can continue to update and expand this bibliography. We trust, nonetheless, that this resource contributes to filling the gap. We are grateful to Oxfam (Great Britain and Ireland) for funding our research project and wish to thank in particular, Acting Country Representative Simon Harris for giving Dr. de Alwis free access to documents at Oxfam and for agreeing to fund this bibliography though it was not originally listed in our budget. To the support staff at ICES, especially Mr Leelaratne and Mr Indraratne, we say a special thank you for the many hours they spent photocopying various articles, reports and even entire books, for us.
bms
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Preface
Women form a large proportion of victims of civil war in Sri Lanka that has extended to the new millennium. Historically, women have played a significant role in war-stricken societies as important agents of social transformation from war to peace. As war widows, heads of households, refugees and the internally displaced they try to seek normalcy within their homes, in their community and the country. As their potentials are trapped within the socio-cultural norms, improvements of work relations by local NGOs face a challenge in terms of rehabilitation, resettlement and peace building from a gender perspective. This is much applicable to the scenario in Sri Lanka.
This bibliography has been compiled from reports, press articles, journals, monographs and online-databases available in Sri Lanka, with the objective of providing a guide for researchers, policy makers, project programmers and community workers who wish to study or are engaged in the following:
Comparison of the extent of humanitarian aid for women in Sri Lanka and in other countries
Available gender-based humanitarian relief in Sri Lanka and the scope for improvements
Assessment of the roles played by local NGOs and international agencies in Sri Lanka
Improvement on work relations between the state and NGOs when providing assistance for rehabilitation, resettlement and peace building through gender perspectives

Though not comprehensive due to a limited time frame and difficulties of access to many un published documents, sincerely hope that this publication will be useful for those working on gender integration in a 'new society' in the aftermath of civil wars.
Bhawani Loganathan I.C.E.S
October 2000.
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Presentation of Bibliographic Information
The citations are arranged under subject headings and sub-headings. The same document is sometimes cited under the various headings. Often it is an added entry of a chapter or section of the document.Indexes to authors and corporate bodies have been included. Title and subject indexes are not included, as the chapters are based upon these.
The following rules are being followed for citation of bibliographic information:
O Names of author/s, humanitarian organisations, women's
organisations, foundations are printed in bold letters.
0 Titles are printed in italics. The same document is sometimes
cited under different headings.
O Titles of periodicals which provide the articles are underlined.
Titles of sources (ie., monographs, reports, seminars which contain chapters or sections) have been given in arial fonts.
Abbreviations used
Vol. = volume, No. = number, Eg: volume 17, number 3 as Vol.17, No.3.
Editor/s as Ed.
Number of pages as P., if unknown as P...
Bibliography as bibl., References as ref. -
Publisher if unknown, is given as Is...n) meaning sine nominee.
Place of publication if unknown, is given as s.l meaning sine loco.
Dates of publication if unknown, are given as 19.
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A cronyms to Humanitarian Non Governmental
Organisations
Affected Women's Forum African Centre for Constructive Resolution
of Disputes Amnesty International Association for the Rehabilitation of
the Disabled Association of Retired Flag Rank Australian Agency for International
Development Australian Charities Australian Community Assistance Scheme Australian Community Resettlement
Programme Canadian International Development Agency Care International Centre for Conflict Resolution Centre for Family Services Centre for Society and Religion Centre for Women's Research Centre for Women and Development Ceylon Refugees and Repatriation Organisation Civil Rights Movement Community Aid Abroad Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies Dry zone Development Foundation European solidarity Towards Equal Participation of People Family Rehabilitation Centre Federation of Institutions for Rural
Management Forut (Norwegian acronym of campaign for
Development and Solidarity)
xiii
AWF
ACCORD AI
ARD AFRO
AUSAID AUSTCARE ACAS
ACRIP CIDA CARE CCR
CFS
CSR CEN WOR CVD CERRO CRM CAA CHA
DDF
EUROSTEP FRC
FRM
FORUT

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German Technical Cooporation Human Development Centre Humanistic Institute for Development
Cooperation Institute for Agriculture and Women. In
Development Institute of Human Rights Intermediate Technology Development
Group International Centre for Ethnic Studies International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights International Centre for Research on Women International Committee of the Red Cross International Council of Voluntary
Agencies International Criminal Court International Federation of Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies International Organization for Migration International Peace Research Association International Rescue Committee International Women's Human Rights
Action Watch Jaffna Diocese of the Church of
South India Lanka Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya Law & Society Trust Mothers' and Daughters' of Sri Lanka Medecins Sans Frontiers Movement for Inter-Racial Justice
& Equality National Youth Services Council
of Sri Lanka Nest
Xiv
GTZ HUDEC
HIVOS
AWD IHR
IT ICES
ICCPR ICRW ICRC
CVA ICC
IFRCRC IOM IPRA IRC
IWIRAW
JDCSI SARVOIDAYA LST
MDSL
MSF
MIRJE
NYSC NEST

Norwegian Agency for Development
Corporation Netherlands Organisation for International
Development Cooperation Organisation For Eelam Refugee Rehabilitation Organisation of Parents and Family
Members of the Disappeared Office of the Commissioner for
Humanitarian Affairs Oxfam Great Britain Pandiankulam-Thunukkai Development
Organisation Peace Brigade International Plan International w Refugee care, Netherlands Refugee Participation Network Relief & Rehabilitation Network Reproductive Health for Refugees Rural Development Foundation Save the Children Fund (Norway) Save the Children Fund (U.K) Self-Help Support Programme
Intercorporation Swiss organization for Development Corporation Seva Lanka Foundation Sinhala Tamil Rural Women's Network Social Economic Development Centre Social & Economic Environmental Developers Sri Lanka Association for Voluntary
Surgical Contraception Sri Lanka Canada Development Fund Sri Lanka Churches Child Care Association Sri Lanka Red Cross Society Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response Support for Afghan Further Education Survivors Associated
XV
NORAD
NOVIB OFERIR
OPFMD
OCHA OXFAM GB
PTIDO
PBI
PI
ZOA
RPN
RRN
RHR
RDF SCF/ Norway SCF/UK
SSP/IC SLF STRAWN SEDEC SEED
SLAVC SLCDF SLCCCA SLRCS SCHR SAFE SA

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Swedish International Development Corporation Swiss Association for International Development Tamil Refugees Relief Organisation Tamil Refugees Organisation The Asia Foundation United Nations Children's Emergency Fund United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural rights United Nations Educational,Social and
Cultural Organization United Nations Development Programme United Nations Division for the
Advancement of Women United Nations Organisation for Project Services United Nations Population Fund United Nations Development Fund for Women United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United States Committee for Refugees US Agency for International Development Vehilihini Development Centre Vehilihini Women's Cirlce Voices of Somali Women for Peace Voluntary Service Organization War-torn Societies Project Women. In Black Women, Law & Development International Women's Action Committee Women's Education & Research Centre World Health Organisation World Food Programme World University Service of Canada World Vision Lanka Y-Gro Limited Young Mens' Christian Association
Xvi
SIDA HELVETAS TRRO
TRO
TAF UNICEF
UNCHS
UNECOSOC
UNESCO UNDP
UNDAW UNOPS UNFPA UNIFEM UNHCR USCR USAID VDC VWC VSWP VSO WSP WIB WLDI WAC WERC WHO WFP WUSC VVL Y-GRO YMCA

SRI LANKA - Districts
Trinęgrrale
ふ
S.
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1.
Gender and the Humanitarian Agenda
1.1 General
1. Africa Rights. Humanitarianism unbound?: Current dilemmas facing multi-mandate relief operations in political emergencies. Discussion Paper No.5. London, November 1994. P.9.
A working paper exploring the role of international relief agencies operating under "political emergencies" often called "complex emergencies". Accordingly, NGOs and UN agencies have become significant "political actors" with their mandates extending beyond the traditional role of safeguarding human rights and peace-building. The paper discusses various situations in Africa and argues that relief organisations largely developed their current mandates during the Cold War era and these mandates are less relevant to many current disasters, and opens up a debate on humanitarianism under emergencies.
2. Anderson, Mary B. Understanding the disaster - development continuum. Gender analysis is the essential tool. P.7-10 Women and Emergencies. Ed. Bridget Walker. Focus on Gender Series. Oxford, Oxfam. 1994.
Women are the most vulnerable to conflict and disasters due to their economic and political marginalisation and dependence on men. This is the same for women heads of households, an increasingly worldwide phenomenon. This paper argues that gender analysis is an effective tool for better

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planning and programming of humanitarian assistance for sustainable disaster development. Gender analysis as a tool helps to:
O Understand vulnerability
O Understand the linkage between short-term and long
term OutCOmeS. O Diagnose opportunities and constraints in humanitarian
development programmes and O Identify effective strategies for emergency assistance
3. Canadian International Development Agency. CIDA's policy on gender equity. Hull, Quebec (Canada), March
1999. P.25.
A bi-lingual report in English and French giving the rationale for CIDA's gender policy, their objectives and how gender is linked to their priorities. It describes how gender analysis is being used as a tool to promote gender equality in their development and support programmes in partner-countries through international cooporation initiatives. It also provides an outline of strategies and activities employed.
4. Crawley, Heaven. Women as asylum seekers. A legal handbook. s.l., Immigration Law Practitioners' Association (ILPA) & Refugee Action. s.l.), 1997. P...
This handbook aims to give representatives and decisionmakers a greater level of understanding of the specific needs of women within the policy framework for refugee/ humanitarian applications. Further, it provides guidance on how to meet some of the procedural and substantive obstacles facing the women asylum seekers in the United Kingdom - as a tool to cope with gender injustice faced by these women.
2

As women experience persecution differently from men, the author provides advice on how best claims can be approached in cases of gender based persecutions or harm suffered due to socio-cultural constraints in their birth countries.
5. Darcy, James. Human rights and international legal standards. What do relief workers need to know?. RRN Network Paper. London, Relief and Rehabilitation Network. February 1997. P.32.; notes; biblio.
The paper is based on the basic moral and legal framework, and raises issues of responsibility, protection and enforcement within international legal obligations, and their relationship to the work of humanitarian agencies when providing assistance/protection to people affected by conflict and other disasters. The first part of the paper discusses aspects of human rights law, humanitarian law (the Geneva Convention) and refugee law. Thereafter, it explores the key areas of these provisions and how they are inter-related. Roles and mandates of the ICRC and UNHCR are discussed in this context. In the second part, the author relates to the problems encountered in humanitarian protection/assistance, and when combining relief assistance with human rights advocacy. In conclusion, the paper recommends an assessment of protection needs and suggests various ways to minimize the negative side-effects of relief interventions.
6. El-Bushra, Judy. Gender planning in situations of conflict. P 127-136., notes. Thematic Paper 3. Gender Planning in development agencies: Meeting the challenge. Ed. Mandy MacDonald. Oxford, Oxfam. 1994.

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This report focuses on the analytical approaches used in development by ACCORD and Oxfam in their assistance programmes in African countries. Considering the impact of armed conflict on women and the long-term changes to their lives as a result, the paper highlights the important areas of intervention by non-governmental donor organisations (NGDOs) in meeting the challenges and the assessment of emergency needs. It is important for NGOs to examine their gender policy and policy on emergency work and to train their staff in new skills such as counselling, conflict resolution, flexibility of work, fund-raising mechanisms etc.
7. El-Bushra, Judy and Mukaru buga, Cecile. Critical questions. P.20-22. Women, War and transition. Gender and Development :Societies in Transition. Vol.3, No.3, October 1995.
This section of the article deals with the post-conflict situation in Rwanda where women are required to play a non-traditional role in personal, household and community levels. It attempts to explain how the international community could:
O Best support women and men in dealing with changes
in gender roles/traditions O Support women more effectively through rapid social
change, and O Focus on the specific needs of women.
Women's specific requirements and rights should be considered in relief efforts outside the "male power structure" and strategic plans to enhance women's capacity.
European Solidarity Towards the Equal Participation of People (consist of 13 NG DOs) published in "Enhancing our experiences: Gender planning in EUROSTEP Agencies", Oxford, May 1993.

8. Gammage, Sarath and Fernandez, Jorge. Gender, conflict and reintegration : An analysis of household evidence from El Salvador Washington D.C., The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW). November 1999. 34pp.; ref.; tables.
This study highlights the socio-economic status of women headed households and residents in former conflict zones who need to be integrated when reconstructing a post-war Society. While concentrating on the key agencies and programmes of reintegration and reconstruction, the paper pays special attention to PRODERE a programme created by UNDP in 1989 to promote and facilitate the integration of war-affected populations in Central American Countries, particularly El Salvador.
The paper recommends that policies and programmes should be targeted through a "gender and poverty" framework. As such, assistance programmes should be directed at:
O Women-headed and women-maintained households,
particularly those affected by war. O Support for women workers from such households
through gender-neutral labour policies especially in the informal service-oriented sector. O Support for the unemployed and underemployed women. O Women's health care services for the repatriated and the
internally displaced.
9. Gell, Fiona. Gender concerns in emergencies. P. 37-46., notes. Gender works : Oxfam experience in policy and practice. Ed. Fenella Porter et al. Oxford, Oxfam GB. 1999
This article attempts to explore the gender-related needs of women and men during disaster, conflict and complex
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emergencies, and how best humanitarian support could be rendered to women under these situations. Emergency responses could either ignore the change in the concept of gender or gender could be applied in humanitarian assessments and planning processes. The latter would be beneficial for women, in particular for war widows, and women heads of households in serving their long-term interest. In this context, the experience of Oxfam GB in strategy planning and support of women's domestic/reproductive and productive roles are examined. While relating to challenges faced during humanitarian action in terms of "humanitarianism versus women's rights", the article stresses the importance of gender sensitivity among all humanitarian workers for effective emergency responses.
10. Hans, Asha. Internally displaced women from Kashmir. The role of UNHCR. P. 20-30. South Asian Refugee Watch. Vol.2, No. 1, July 2000.
This article highlights the internally displaced women from the valley of Kashmir, who are victims of violence as a result of the armed conflict. It explores the hardship in flight and displacement such as gender-oriented violence and the lack of healthcare services. The paper attempts to "universalise" the role of UNHCR in the context of assisting the displaced women from Kashmir.
11. Harrell-Bond, Barbara. Can humanitarian work with refugees be human? P25, notes, ref. Source : ICES Archives .
This paper explores a specific area in the provision of humanitarian aid-the interaction between humanitarian helpers and refugees who are dependent on donor aid for their survival.
6

Often, the recipients are critical of the "treatment" given by helpers that is a significant dimension of humanitarian aid. The paper reviews such behaviour and gives recommendations to improve the helper-recipient relationship. It argues that ".... until refugees have access to effective legal remedies, humanitarian assistance will continue to be inhumanely delivered to refugees"
12. How to write proposals. P.33-37. CHA New Sletter.
Vol.II, Issue 10. September/October 1998.
Women are considered as a special category of recipients in development projects funded by international humanitarian organisations. Yet, "historically projects have not often enough considered women. Their specific requirements are either ignored or not enough has been considered...". This article giving guidelines on proposal-writing for donors shows how women-related needs could be highlighted in the proposals for assistance.
13. Hyndman, Jennifer. Gender and geography at work. The perils of perfect pluralism at the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. P.48-53, ref. Women in conflict zones. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
Recruitment of humanitarian personnel for United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is a critical issue, as the presence of women in refugee camps and UNHCRsponsored relief programmes has a direct impact on the quality
2 Source of information from Post-war Reconstruction &
Development Unit, University of York, Canada.
ל

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of humanitarian services. This paper evaluates the politics of gender in the humanitarian work of UNHCR operating in different geographic zones. Based on interviews conducted with UNHCR staff and field observations at refugee camps, this paper highlights the problems faced by the UN agencies and NGOs operating in conflict situations.
14. Hyndman, Jennifer. Gender policy at UNHCR. P. 8-11. Organising women: UN approach to gender and culture among the displaced. s.l., Women in Conflict Zones Network. 19... Source: ICES Archives).
This paper problematises the integration of gender in the People Oriented Planning Process (POP) of the UNHCR. POP is a culturally sensitive community planning for refugees and the internally displaced, identifying the needs of refugee women in camp situations where the family protection and traditional Social structures have collapsed and economic support is less available. The POP framework incorporates special needs of women in settlement planning, addressing the issues on discrimination, violence and inequality in access to resources that affect women.
15. Hyndman, Jennifer. Managing Displacement . Refugees and the Politics of Humanitarianism. P. 272; plates.; illust. Minneapolis, Minnesota University Press. April 2000.
Refugee naiagement is a debatable subject within the framework of humanitarianism-as to who takes on the responsibility of reconstructing shattered lives. The author who had been working for humanitarian agencies in Kenya and Somalia feels that, in spite of their best efforts, they can offer only a short-term remedy to the problem. She uses unique
8

insider knowledge both to challenge the political and cultural assumptions of current humanitarian practices and to expose the distancing strategies that exemplify the current humanitarian operations. In this context, the policies and practices of UNHCR is evaluated and recommendations are given to improve their services towards the displaced.
16. Infotecka Medica Zenica. To live with(out) violence . Final Report - Violence against women : Zenica, BosniaHerzegovina. Zenica, April 1999. P.92; ref.
A study on violence against women in the post-war communities of Bosnia-Herzegovina which show significant levels of violence, particularly of domestic violence, sexual assault, incest, prostitution and abuse of elderly women. The study recommends that NGOs:
O Lobby for legal reforms which would acknowledge
gender related violence
O Work together with the state to address the needs of
women by providing a net of services
O Raise public awareness on the problems faced by women victims of violence and their specific needs to counter the problem
17. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Gender issues. Getting the balance right. P.35. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Annual Report 1997. Geneva, 1998.
According to this report, the Federation ensures that women's specific needs are attended to when planning humanitarian programmes around the world. The secretariat has worked with

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national societies to identify the gender issues that arise in the context of disasters and to incorporate them into their humanitarian mandates within the traditions and norms of the recipient communities.
18. International Service for Human Rights. An independent prosecutor responsive to women's rights. P. 17-18. The International Criminal Court: Towards a fair and effective human rights tribunal. Dossier No.2. Geneva. April 1998.
A dossier that concentrates on the recent history that preceded the negotiations for an International Criminal Court (ICC) for war crimes. This dossier analyses the positions adopted by the various states and international NGOs who lobbied for an ICC. Accordingly, countries when acting through intergovernmental organisations have been insensitive to gender related human rights issues. In other words, exclusively state-based mechanisms do not report adequately on women's human rights violations.
19. International Women's Human Rights Action Watch (IWRAW). Refugee women. P57. Norway: Third Periodic Report submitted 6 May 1991. 1994 IWRAW to CEDAW Country Reports on Barbados, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Japan, Libya, Madagascar, New Zealand, Norway, Senegal, Zambia. December, 1994.
A report to assist the members of the Committee on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against Women, in reviewing the ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against Women, an international human rights treaty. Accordingly, refugee women when seeking asylum are being "defined in connection
10

with their husbands". They therefore have appealed that host nations reform their immigration law to permit their spouse and children to obtain independent residence permits when they meet the demands for family reunion. Also, experiences of gender violence during wars and political unrest are not considered in their asylum applications. Further, coloured women in the labour market face gender discrimination.
20. Good hand, Jonathan. Research in conflict zones. Ethics and accountability. P 12-15. Forced Migration Review. August 2000.
Doing research in conflict zones is the theme of this article. It highlights the ethical challenges arising during field surveys in conflict regions. While looking into aspects of security risk and confidentiality in accessing information from war-affected communities, the author provides practical precepts for conflict researchers. Referring to the relationship between ethical consciousness and humanitarianism, this article pinpoints the need to develop ethical frame works to help researchers adhere to ethical decision-making. Case studies from war-stricken countries include the protracted armed conflict in Sri Lanka.
21. Kane, June. Searching for an answer: The birth of WSP P.11-13. War-torn Societies Project: The first four years. Geneva, WSP. PSIP [War-torn Societies Project. Programme for Strategic and International Security Studies), 1999.
Widows and women headed families are among those who have been disadvantaged by wars and conflict. In a working seminar in 1994 the War-torn Societies Project has acknowledged the
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need to incorporate women in the rebuilding of war-afflicted societies. All aspects of social reconstruction, including humanitarian and emergency relief should have a "gender agenda" as a priority.
22. Kirkby, John et al. UNHCR's Cross Border Operations in Somalia. The value of Quick Impact projects for refugee resettlements. P. 181-198. Journal of Refugee Studies. Vol. 10, No.2. 1997.
War widows are considered as a target group for assistance of the Cross Border Operations (CBO) programme launched by the UNHCR to cope with the influx of Somali refugees into Kenyan refugee camps. A key issue here is the question of balancing the needs of war widows against the rest of the displaced. This paper opens a debate on consolidating gender into humanitarian assistance. The CBO is committed to create a "preventive zone" along the Somali border and devise strategies to "recreate" a basis for livelihood, a wage economy and the rebuilding of a civil society.
23. Korn, David A. Who helps the internally displaced : World Food Programme (WFPJ. P.39-40 & P. 107-108. Exodus within borders. An introduction to the Crisis of internal displacement. Washington D.C., Brookings Institute Press. 1999.
This publication is a critique of the efforts of the international community when assisting the internally displaced. In this context, the author comments on the food assistance given by WFP. Accordingly, the food programme involves women's participation in planning and managing the relief assistance. The distribution of relief supplies was made "direct to households, especially women...". However, a careful monitoring is necessary to implement the WFP policy on
12

gender integration in humanitarian assistance for the displaced.
The author evaluates the role of UN agencies in providing special assistance to women with children during displacement. Referring to the civil war situation in Liberia and the UNHCR Guidelines on Sexual Violence and Protection of Refugee Women, he emphasises that collection of genderspecific information should be a routine of humanitarian agencies and women need to participate in camp administration and decision making during displacement.
24. Lawyers Committee on Human Rights. Protection of Kosovar refugees during their return. Women and children. P. 16. Protection of Kosovar refugees and returnees: The legal principles. New York, June 1999.
These principles reflect the norms of international refugee law and the international humanitarian law which governs the protection of all refugees. While defining the minimum rights of refugees in asylum countries, the guidelines ensure the physical integrity and safety of all women as equal to those of men. Accordingly, women refugees and returnees require, besides protection against gender violence and economic exploitation, humanitarian support to achieve self-reliance.
The Lawyers Committee is an independent body working to protect and promote fundamental human rights, including those of refugees.
25. Loganathan, Bhawani and de Silva, Mangalika. Protection and rehabilitation of women refugees and their dependents. P.. An annotated Bibliography on
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Women in Conflict. Colombo, Social Scientists' Association. December 1999.
This part of the bibliography cites documents on genderrelated humanitarian assistance for women refugees and the internally displaced as a result of the civil wars in various parts of the world and in Sri Lanka. Special reference has been made to income generation projects initiated by humanitarian agencies for women heads of households.
26. Lomo, Zachary. Case study on Uganda. The legal and policy framework governing the gender dimension of internally displaced in Uganda. P.26-37. Expert Meeting on Gender Dimensions of Internal Displacement, New York, 14-15 June 1999.
This paper reflects the conflict situation in Uganda exploring displacement and gender in a broad perspective. It proposes that women be assisted through the existing institutions and the legal norms for protection of human rights. Instead of "partitioning" the displaced as internally displaced and refugees, assistance programmes and the allocation of resources should be co-ordinated with the framework of displacement and gender.
27. Lowilla, Lona James Elia. The role of Sudanese women in conflict prevention and resolution. IXth CodeSria General Assembly, Dakar (Senegal), 30 October 1998. P.33; ref. Source: ICES Archives ).
This paper looks into the historical milieu of the conflict in Sudan, and its effect on civilians, in particular women and children. While exploring the outcome of the civil war, it
14

describes the peace initiatives of the Sudanese women's organisations and the role of women in conflict resolution and peace building. Women are seen as agents of change rather than passive recipients in conflict situations. Hence, the framework on gender development should incorporate women in designing strategies and decision-making for sustainable peace building.
28. Martin, Susan Forbes. Responses ... and Situations? P94-103, ref. Refugee Women. Zed Books, London. 1991.
This section reviews the efforts to improve the responses of refugee women in the UN system as well as by NGOs within the gender-based policy development and implementation. It concerns the UN initiatives to provide humanitarian support to refugee women, and the role of NGOs in lobbying governments and the UN to improve their responses towards the needs of women.
The chapter also emphasises the challenges faced by humanitarian agencies in translating the gender policies into effective programmes that will help women to live in safety and dignity. Some steps to be taken to improve protection:
O Creating public awareness of the plight of internally
displaced women and their dependents.
O Engaging human rights organisations, the UN human rights system, and NGOs in revealing cases where the state has denied the basic necessities of the displaced.
O Developing standards for the internally displaced that should define the responsibilities of governments, opposition forces and the international community.
This publication provides a gendered account of displaced women during and after the displacement with
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recommendations on practical measures of humanitarian assistance by international organisations.
29. NORAD (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation). Handbook on gender and empowerment assessment. Oslo, January 2000. P.32.; annex.
This is a manual based on the gender policy of NORAD on how development programmes can empower women and men. It provides a gender-based assessment of project proposals presented by its partners and identifies the need for a gender analysis at the project appraisal, financial appropriation, progress reporting and project reviews/evaluation stages. A specimen-form on gender and empowerment assessment and a system on scoring are provided for the users.
30. OCHA United Nations Office for the Commissioner for Humanitarian Affairs. General principles. P3. Guiding principles on internal displacement. s.l), 19.
This booklet provides guidance to humanitarian agencies working with internally displaced persons. Expectant mothers, mothers with young children and women heads of households "shall be entitled to protection and assistance required by their condition, and treatment according to their special needs...".
31. Oloka-Onyanga, J. UNHCR. The theory and the practice. P.368-370.; notes. The plight of the larger half : Human rights, gender violence and the legal status of refugees and internally displaced women in Africa. Denver Journal of International Law and Policy. Vol.24, No.2/3. Spring 1996.
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This is a critical evaluation of the role of UNHCR in relation to refugee and internally displaced women. It discusses the "evolution" of the procedures that address gender-specific issues and the limitations faced in their protection. The UNHCR Handbook on Procedures and Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women is analysed in this context.
32. Oxfam GB. Gender works : Oxfam experience in policy and practice. Ed. Fenella Porter et al. Oxford, 1999. P.342; ref., notes.
This publication provides a multi-dimensional account of the efforts of Oxfam Great Britain to integrate gender issues in their planning and implementation of assistance programmes under disaster, conflict and complex emergencies. The volume recognizes gender as a critical social indicator when responding to emergency needs. Articles in this book reflect the personal experiences of programme managers and community-level workers employed with Oxfam, from all parts of the world. It covers:
O Challenges faced in implementing a gender policy in
assistance programmes
O Promoting gender awareness in development and
emergency work
O Influencing organizational culture
O Working with the international women's movement
towards a gender equality
Experiences from war-afflicted countries such as El Salvador, Ethiopia, Uganda, Cambodia Afghanistan and Bosnia are used. Building up of staff capacity on gender issues is achieved through training, learning from experiences and sharing good practices.
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33. Physicians for Human Rights. Humanitarian assistance in Afghanistan. P.37-41... notes. The Taliban's war on women: A health and human rights crisis in Afghanistan. Boston, 1998.
The war-widows in Afghanistan - a large proportion, are dependent on the sustenance of the international aid community. However Taliban's policy of gender discrimination makes it virtually impossible for humanitarian agencies to reach out to women, though they have been targeted as a vulnerable group of recipients.
34. Piza-Lopez, Eugenia. GADU: A specialistgender unit in Oxfam (UK/I). P. 158-166. Gender Planning in development agencies: Meeting the challenge. Ed. Mandy MacDonald. Oxford, Oxfam. 1994.
A case study exploring the strengths and weaknesses in having a gender and development unit to promote gender-fair practices in Oxfam. The paper elaborates on obstacles faced in promoting gender-based policies and the strategies deployed to dismantle them. The experiences of the Gender and Development Unit (GADU) shov that policy development requires a guiding framework for humanitarian programmes, parallel to the awareness-building on gender issues. Strengthening of women staff and promotion of work culture in keeping with the programme policy are also requirements for the organisation.
35. Rebaza, Ana Maria. Case study on Peru . The role of internally displaced women in the reconstruction of the social fabric affected by political violence in Peru. P. 1620. Expert Meeting on Gender Dimensions of Internal Displacement, New York, 14-15 June 1999.
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A case study on the internally displaced women victims of political violence in Peru. These women play a major role in emergency situations and during the rehabilitation/ reconstruction phase in rural and urban regions of the country. Their activities are more “survival-based' and they have yet to realize the importance of their roles in social reconstruction and peace-building. The author points out that, women in general are still unaware of their potential for decision-making and leadership both of which are very valuable for community development. This is an area available for humanitarian agencies, to empower women and society as a whole.
36. SAFE (Support for Afghan Further Education). Building peace - Afghanistan in 1996. P. 4-6. SAFE Annual Report 1996, s.l.
In this report the stand taken by the UN and international aid agencies in helping the war-torn societies in Afghanistan is highlighted. All the agencies are emphatic on:
O Having access to women, in particular to widow-headed families, where they could be employed freely, and that O Girls should not be denied access to education, which is an important aspect of international human rights laws
The report quotes that "while there remains grave concern about gender discrimination and girl's education, experiences in several parts of the country gives hope for change and improvement...". SAFE is an international NGO in partnership with others for rehabilitation and development programmes and emergency projects.
37. Sen, Sumit. The IDPs of South Asia. Strategies for protection and rehabilitation. P. 76-80. ref. South Asian Refugee Watch. Vol.1, No.2, December 1999.
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This is an evaluation of legal issues concerning human displacement, in the context of assistance and protection for the internally displaced. Accordingly, "...the needs of the internally displaced remain to be addressed largely with the general provision of human rights law and humanitarian law, and through ad-hoc operational measures and mechanisms". The author emphasises the need for developing an international legal framework specific to those displaced, to be used by humanitarian organisations to safeguard the fundamental and human rights in displacement.
38. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Three themes for Swedish humanitarian assistance. Gender equality in humanitarian assistance. Swedish humanitarian assistance: Annual Report 1997, Stockholm. P.28.
Gender equality is one of the goals for Swedish development aid in their humanitarian assistance programmes for basic needs. This report elaborates on SIDA's support for food aid, since women play a traditional role of providing food for the family. In their programmes women with children and women heads of households are the priority recipients. The support for food is channelled through the World Food Programme (WFP) that also follows a gender mandate.
39. UNICEF. The needs of internally displaced women and children. Guiding principles and considerations. P. Prepared by James Kunder. Office of Emergency Programmes Working Paper Series. New York. September 1998.
A report on the UNICEF policy and goals towards the protection of internally displaced women and children with
guiding principles that address their specific needs. These seek
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to ensure that gender concern is fulfilled in all emergency activities. Women heads of households with dependent children and girl children are specifically highlighted for assistance.
The report gives a list of working partners with the internally displaced - traditional partners who work with UNICEF and non-traditional collaborators.
40. UNICEF. The gender di mension of internal displacement. Concept paper and annotated bibliography. Prepared by Judy A. Benjamin and Kadija Fancy. Office of the Emergency Programmes Working Paper Series. New York, 1998. P.32; annex.
This paper identifies the major issues related to the rights of displaced women and girls and the gendered aspects of internal displacement in order to provide basic guidance to UNICEF and other organisations to meet emergencies of internally displaced women through a gender approach. The analysis is based on the following queries:
O What are the major issues concerning the internally
displaced women
O What course of action should humanitarian agencies
deploy to ensure their rights
The role of United Nations and other humanitarian agencies is reviewed and recommendations are given to promote an action plan for more effective approaches towards the needs and rights of internally displaced women. A
Annexed to the report is the annotated bibliography citing case studies worldwide related to the mandate of the United Nations humanitarian agencies.
Compiled by UNICEF and The Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children in September 1998.
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41. UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund. Office of Emergency Programmes. Expert Meeting on Gender Dimensions of Internal Displacement, New York, 14-15 June 1999. P.46.
The objectives of this conference was to:
O Prepare a training outline for the gender dimensions of
internal displacement, and O Specify how it could be incorporated into the training
manuals on internally displaced persons developed by international communities.
The report includes case studies on the internally displaced in Peru, Sri Lanka and Uganda from a gender perspective. Further, a policy statement has been prepared to ensure that a gender perspective is fully integrated to all humanitarian assistance programmes for the internally displaced.
42. UNICEF. Childcare and Psychological needs. P. 106-111. Assisting in emergencies: A resource handbook for UNICEF field staff. New York, UNICEF. May 1986.
This chapter suggests the type of needs under various situations and the possible kind of intervention for women destitute and single mothers by UNICEF, within the larger context of emergency assistance operations. Two categories of women are considered as recipients of emergency needs:
O Women with children who have lost their spouses or separated, and face difficulties in providing for their children
O Young women without family support and protection,
in need of a safe place to live
This handbook provides guidance for field staff to cooperate with state organisations and NGOs to identify the needs of
22

children in emergency situations and in providing the appropriate assistance.
43. UNHCR. Refugee women and girls. Surviving violence and neglect P60. The state of the World's Refugees: in search of solutions. Geneva, 1995.
This section provides worldwide surveys on refugee situations where 30% of the households are headed by women, that leads to a change in the traditional gender roles. Yet gender specific forms of persecutions affect women refugees. When providing social welfare, the specific needs and interests of women are inevitably ignored and their marginalised situation is reinforced. It is pertinent that the health of refugee women be recognized as an important component of all social welfare activities.
44. UNHCR. Legal procedures and criteria for the determination of refugee status. P. 35-43. Guidelines on the protection of refugee women. Geneva. 1991.
A guideline highlighting the issues faced by women refugees who wish to seek refugee status in other countries. Their access to refugee determination interviews, gender related prosecution in granting refugee status and their lack of opportunity to make decisions on repatriation are discussed here. An important aspect of the chapter focuses on how to understand the various bases upon which women could be granted refugee status.
Theses guidelines seek to address some critical issues brought forward by women, when making gender-related refugee claims:
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O Circumstances under which sexual violence or other gender-based abuses constitute legal persecution
Key evidence to be looked into when considering a gender-related claim
O Reluctance faced by women while relating their experiences, which are often humiliating to speak about
The last section of the guidelines gives the relevant human rights principles enunciated in international human rights instruments (eg: ICCPR, CEDAW* ).
45. UNHCR. Protecting refugee women. P. 92-93. Protecting
refugees: A field guide for NGOs s.l., 19....
A guide for humanitarian workers involved in the protection and care of the displaced. This section summarises the basic steps to be taken into account when protecting the human rights and security of displaced women. Protection against gender violence, programmes for their resettlement and sharing of information are emphasised here. A list of multimedia resources annexed is helpful for further reading.
46. Vou tira, Eftihia. Improving gender planning in emergency operations. P 13. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 20. November 1995.
This article calls for humanitarian agencies to consider women as a "priority" group rather than "vulnerable" in
4. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against women s Excerpts from "Improving social and gender planning in
emergency operation”, published by Refugee Studies Programme (RSP).
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assisting them under emergencies. Giving priority for gender would improve intra-household food security as women become major decision-makers to control food supplies. It also enhances the status of women, especially those of war widows and women heads of households who are marginalised during conflict and in displacement.
47. Vasquez, Norma. Refugee and returnee women. Skills acquired in exile and their application in times of peace. Las Dignas, El Salvador. November 1999. P.25.; append.; biblio.
A research project based on the experiences of Salvadoran women living through a cycle of war-asylum-repatriationpeace. The project sheds light on the changes experienced by women as refugees, the extent to which the changes were internalised and the degree to which they had an impact on gender identity. It further looks into how their experiences could be sustained to empower them in a society under reconstruction.
48. Women and War Reader. Ed. Lorentzen, Lois Ann and Turpin, Jennifer. New York, New York University Press. 1998. P...
This volume encompasses articles on women resistance movements, and a section on peace culture and peace action focussing on women's organizations and groups working for peace. This emphasizes the gendered role in peace and reconstruction, and the importance of incorporating gender dimension to post-conflict peace accords. The papers reveal activities and problems faced by women to overcome the division created by armed conflict. In this context, the U.S.
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women's peace groups, women's organizations in Israel and Palestine and the Women. In Black are illustrated.
The volume presents the gender dimension of war with an assembly of chapters by feminist scholars and activists with a coverage of the theoretical, geopolitical and practical aspects of war, the war industry and their relationship to women. It challenges the myth of women's relationship to war as passive victims, describing the roles played by women in conflict and their political stand in conflict and peace.
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1. 2 Sri Lanka
49. Bulath singhala, Frances. Civilians flee Wanni. The
Observer. 24 February 2000.
A news item on the initiatives made by NGOs and the armed forces to provide opportunities for employment and vocational training to the displaced people in the Vanni district. Plans are underway to help them indulge in agricultural farming, which is the most appropriate occupation in the Vanni and families are to be resettled suitably. However, their productivity in employment and security are to be monitored through the security and village councils. This rehabilitation programme will be assisted by UNHCR.
50. Cohen, Roberta and Deng, Francis M. Protection strategies for women and children. P.272-275. Masses in flight: The global crisis of internal displacement. Washington D.C., Brookings Institute Press. 1998.
An in-depth look at the problems encountered by internal displacement, as an increasingly common phenomenon today. Protection of women and children in displacement during conflict has been overlooked by most international and nongovernmental organisations during their programme operations. The chapter appraises the responses of humanitarian agencies and UN organisations regarding the specific needs of women and children in displacement. In this context, reference is made to the guidelines on sexual violence provided by UNHCR.
The situation in Sri Lanka has been widely referred to in this book in terms of state role, NGOs, humanitarian protection
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and resettlement. While reassuring the role of international community as interventionists, it is evident that the primary responsibility lies with the local community and their national government to develop community links, reunify families to help build capacity for the displaced.
51. Consortium of NGOs in Trincomalee District. Introduction: Human i tarian needs and work in Trincomalee. History and present situation P. 1-3. Trincomalee District Non-governmental organisations: Activities profile: Background and project information. Trincomalee, December 1999.
This section of the report reviews the nature and needs of humanitarian assistance in the Trincomalee district in terms of rehabilitation and resettlement of the displaced. The NGOs have agreed to supplement state assistance by undertaking to provide the major needs of the displaced viz., housing, income, water, transport, education, health and sanitation.
The publication focuses on information related to the activities of international, national and local NGOs in the Trincomalee district. The report aims to:
O Help the Trincomalee-based humanitarian organisations
for better co-ordination O To reveal the nature of the work done by NGOs to other
donors
Statistics and charts add more use value to the document.
Federation of Trincomalee District Young Men's Hindu Association. P. 28.
This is an outline of a gender-based programme of a religious organisation in providing shelter to the girl child. The construction of Annai Saratha Girls' Home funded by the
28,

UNHCR and other international NGOs, is due for completion in the year 2000. The Federation has provided sanitary facilities for rural women in Anbuvalipuram, Linganagar and in Thambalakamam, especially the widows.
52. Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies (CHA). Compendium of Humanitarian agencies and Donors (Northern province - Sri Lanka). April 1999. P. 47.
A directory of community organisations and state institutions which are involved in humanitarian activities in Northern Sri Lanka. It encompasses Colombo-based local and international NGOs, foreign missions, UN agencies and local NGOs based in the north. This gives helpful information on the location, duration, project- design, budget and the progress of partner organisations. Relief and rehabilitation programmes are categorised as basic relief, health care, education, income generation etc.
The Compendium is organised alphabetically, with information on district consortia, Relief & Rehabilitation Authority of the North (RRAN) and a list of Government agents.
53. Coy, Patrick. Bridging national and international organisations. P. 96- 100. Cooperative Accompaniment and Peace Brigades international in Sri Lanka in Transitional Social Movements and Global politics: Solidarity beyond the state. Edited by Jackie Smith et al. s.l., Syracus University Press. 1997.
This is an article on the activities of the Peace Brigade International (PBI) in relation to the humanitarian
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organisations working towards protection of human rights in armed conflict. It explores the case of grass root NGOs in Sri Lanka working towards peace building, social reconstruction and protection of human rights, with which PBI is in partnership.
54. de Alwis, Malathi. The purity' of displacement and the re-territorializations of longing. Muslim women refugees in North-Western Sri Lanka. Women in conflict zones Network: A comparative study of the issues faced by women as a result of armed conflict : Sri Lanka and the Post-Yugoslav States, Hendala (Sri Lanka), 11-13 December, 1998. P. 13.
A paper on displaced Muslim women from Northern Sri Lanka displaced during the peak of armed conflict in the Jaffna peninsula. The paper is divided into 4 parts:
O The positioning of the displaced within Sri Lanka, in the "Tamil homeland", refugee camps and new regions of relocation.
O The status of refugees in terms of displacement, as reproduced and gendered through moralizing discourses of the residents of that region
O Practices of refugees relating to the "purity" of their displacement through the nostalgic notions of "placeness" and "home"
O Specific practices of refugee women relating to the
longing of a "home", in displacement
Observation made on the practices among displaced women in the camps is helpful to aid workers/humanitarian agencies to distinguish between "essential" and "luxury" commodities in a gender perspective. This paper opens up further discussions on the construction of identity and place, in the
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context of internal displacement and the gendering of power in displacement.
55. de Alwis, Malathi. Moral mothers and Stalwart sons. Reading binaries in a time of war. P.254-267. notes. Ref. The Women and War Reader. Ed. Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin. New York, New York University Press. 1998.
This chapter discusses how idealizations of "feminized sacrifice" and "masculinized valour" become exaggerated in contexts of crisis and conflict by analysing how schools and the media reproduce such notions, in Sri Lanka. She also notes that students and viewers are not only interpellated in terms of gender but also in terms of ethnicity and religion: "In the context of Sri Lanka, which is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious country, it is nevertheless a Sinhala and a Buddhist hegemony that is disseminated." The second section of the chapter briefly considers how this rigid binary was disrupted by Tamil women activists who had joined some militant movements in the early 1980s.
56. de Alwis, Malathi. The "moral mother" syndrome. P 17
19.; ref. Pravada. Vol.6, Nos. 2&3, 1999.
This article examines the projection of Queen Vihara Maha Devi as a nationalist female role model in Sri Lanka, particularly during the escalation of the Tamil liberation
6 Queen Vihara Maha Devi reigned in Southern Sri Lanka during the 2nd century B.C. as the spouse of King Kavantissa. She was the mother of Duttugemunu who waged war against the Tamil King Ellala from the North.
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movement in the early 80's. Vihara Maha Devi is constructed as one who speaks for peace and for life through a call for violence which was nevertheless framed as being moral and right. The author also questions why this "moral mother" fixation should prevail when Sri Lankan women have produced many other important role models in the past century.
57. De Silva, Wimala. The refugee child. P24. Shadows & Vistas - On being a girl child in Sri Lanka. Centre for Women's Research (CEN WOR), Colombo. 1993.
This chapter explores the psycho-social impact of conflict and displacement on the girl-child in the context of humanitarian relief and rehabilitation operations in Sri Lanka. Various international instruments designed to protect refugees are identified here.
58. Demuz, Kerry. Listening to the Displaced . Action research in the conflict zones in Sri Lanka. Oxfam Working Papers. Oxford, Oxfam GB. 2000. P.65; index.
In 1996 Oxfam GB began a series of annual surveys on the displaced population to assess the effectiveness of their relief efforts. In collaboration with SCF women, men and children were interviewed, and their perceptions and criticism on humanitarian services recorded. This working paper was prepared by the former Emergency Coordinator in the Vanni area for Oxfam GB in which the author outlines the conception and execution of the "Listening to the Displaced" exercise carried out between 1996 and 1999. The criticism of the project, description of the methodology, assessment of the outcome and a summary of "lessons learned" are useful for other agencies that are interested in similar studies.
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59. Deng, Francis M. Profiles in displacement. Sri Lanka.
Doc. E/CN.4/1994/Add. 1, 25 January 1994. P...
A report of the Representative of the UN Secretary-General on his visit to the internally displaced camps in Sri Lanka. While visiting the camps in conflict areas he observes that state officials recognise the problem faced by internally displaced women, in particular the widows, and anticipates that the humanitarian agencies would assist them. Deng also analyses the assistance rendered by UN agencies such as UNHCR and UNDP and suggests ways to improve their services.
60. Dias Bandaran ayake, Harini. Rehabilitation and
reconstruction of N/E. The Island. 17 October 1998.
The displaced people in the North and East of Sri Lanka are being given assistance by many international humanitarian agencies such as UNHCR and German Technology Company (GTZ) and Rehabilitation and Resettlement Authority of the North (RRAN) which is a state appendage. The programmes cover housing, sanitation and water supply for the returnees.
61. De Fontgallad, Santhiapillai Guy. Sri Lankan in exile. Tamils displaced. The Ceylon refugees and Repatriates Organisation (CERRO), Colombo. 1986. P.
This document reports on the problems and situations of Sri Lankan Tamils in displacement and exile, with an evaluation of the role played by international organisations in refugee welfare. A pioneer attempt to study the problems and situations of Tamils in diaspora, it examines issues under three major sections:
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O Internal displacement O Exile to Tamil Nadu (India) O Flight to developing countries
The humanitarian assistance provided for the abovementioned is outlined under each category. The internally displaced are being assisted by international agencies such as CARE International, CEBEMO and indigenous NGOs such as Sarvodaya. The relief and rehabilitation is implemented through the Ministry of Social Services. Refugees who fled to India are assisted by religious institutions, secular community organizations and NGOs formed by refugees themselves. Assistance to the girl children has been provided by religious groups viz., The Ramakrishna Mission. In developing countries many NGOs and UN organizations are participating in refugee assistance, on par with the host governments. Humanitarian agencies have called upon the states to reform their policies towards refugee care. The volume cites a list of seminars held in this context.
62. De Zoysa, Dharshini Anna. Looking out from within. Muslim refugees in Sri Lanka. P. 1-7. South Asian Refugee Watch. Vol.1, No. 1, July 1999.
In this article refugee assistance rendered by the State organisations and NGOs in the North and South of Sri Lanka are comparatively dealt with. It concentrates on the socioeconomic conditions existing in the "welfare centres" and in "settlement villages". The extent to which assistance could cope with their religious norms and practices is discussed.
63. Deng, Francis M. Specific groups and individuals. Mass exoduses and displaced persons: Internally displaced persons. Report of the Representative of the Secretary
34

General Mr. Francis M. Deng, submitted to the Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1998/50. E/CN.4/1999/79. 25 January 1999. 37p.; notes.
This report gives the background to develop guidelines for the protection and assistance of internally displaced persons during civil conflict. The internal displacement in Sri Lanka is used as one such case study.
The guiding principles consolidate norms that are effective in ensuring the protection and assistance of the internally displaced within the international human rights and humanitarian laws.
64. District Email Humanitarian Help Desk Project: Review P. 29-30. CHA Newsletter. Vol.III, Issue VI. November/ December 1999.
The Consortium for Humanitarian Agencies (CHA) launches this project with an aim to facilitate an online communication network of information related to humanitarian issues for the purpose of documentation, disse mination, action and advocacy. The project focuses on the problems faced by people living in the civil war zones and the violation of human rights. The online facility is available in Batticaloa, Ampara, Vavuniya and Trincomalee with moves to establish the same in Jaffna. Conflict-related issues such as basic needs, education and medical care as well as arrests, detention, torture and disappearances are to be brought to the attention of humanitarian agencies for effective action. ie., the NGO Forum in the North, East and to the Psychosocial Forum.
65. For assistance from Australian Community Assistance Scheme (ACAS) in Sri Lanka. P.30-33. CHA Newsletter. Vol. II, Issue 9. July/August 1998.
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Women heads of households are a "priority group" for assistance from the ACAS in Sri Lanka. Based on the state policy that women's needs must be considered in all development assistance programmes, the community assistance aims at promoting women's leadership and equitable share in accessing all resources. ACAS invites nongovernmental community based organisations in Sri Lanka to submit project proposals on welfare activities.
66. Foster, Yolanda. Sri Lanka. Donor policy in a complex political emergency . A working draft. P. 31, biblio, annex. s.l.), February 2000. Source : ICES Archives).
A working paper on the issues of capacity building in conflict areas of Sri Lanka, with state co-operation in relief and rehabilitation efforts. Under the political emergency in the country, the paper seeks to examine:
O The role of humanitarian agencies under armed conflict O Steps taken by the agencies to improve humanitarian
assistance
The paper stresses the need for coordination and cooperation with the international community and development of a donor programme policy under armed conflict. The concluding section gives policy recommendations to donors and NGOs.
67. Germany gives aid to displaced people in LTTE held
areas. The Daily News. 23 November 1999.
The Seva Lanka Foundation and German Agro Action are implementing a food security programme for displaced people in the North and East of Sri Lanka. Their assistance includes
7 Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
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promoting professionalism, and integrating the community into rehabilitation programmes.
68. Global IDP. National and international responses. Sri Lanka. ICRC Relief activities (1999). P4. 10 July 2000.
Source - http://www.idpproject.org).
This is a summary of ICRC programmes for the war-affected people in Sri Lanka. Since 1989 the ICRC has been providing humanitarian assistance in the Vanni, the Eastern province and Jaffna peninsula. The major projects are on:
North/South patients transfer Orthopaedics programme Water and sanitation Protection of civilians
Besides emergency relief programmes, medical services and distribution of non-food aid have been beneficial to the displaced. ICRC has been persuading the combatants to abide by the international humanitarian law.
69. Global IDP. News Press Release : Ogata voices concern over fighting in Sri Lanka. P.... 18 May 2000. Source - http://www.idpproject.org).
A press statement of UNHCR where the High Commissioner for Refugees expresses alarm over conditions of civilians caught in the outbreak of civil war in Jaffna peninsula. Accordingly UNHCR has been able to work among the civilians despite a 24-hour curfew, providing humanitarian aid to war-stricken people through the state departments and rcligious institutions.
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70. Global IDP. Sri Lanka: National and international responses. P. 20 March 2000. Source: http://www. idpproject.org).
This web site gives a summary of humanitarian support by ICRC and NGOs towards the displaced, implemented through the regular state administrative structure. The site relates to problems on transportation and distribution of relief to the North and East, the state-managed humanitarian assistance in militant-controlled areas and a series of opinions on the reluctance of the state to co-ordinate with international humanitarian agencies.
The site also refers to a criticism by the U.S. Committee for Refugees (USCR) on the state policy towards providing assistance to those living in militant-controlled areas. In this context, the international NGOs have voiced their opinion regarding their limited ability to deliver supplies and to move in and out of the Vanni region.
An account of the UNICEF programme for children and women in war-affected zones is cited in this web. With an agenda covering special programmes for single parents and unaccompanied children the UNICEF conducts programmes on:
O Landmine awareness campaigns O Education on conflict resolution O Programmes on mental health, sanitation, nutrition and
other issues
The UNHCR assists the internally displaced in welfare camps and provides emergency relief in the Vanni region. With their UN partners the UNHCR plays an active role in promoting sustainable development in areas of return. This site refers to the co-ordination of UNHCR with the Resettlement &
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Rehabilitation Authority of the North (RRAN), in terms of providing assistance to the internally displaced persons. Rehabilitation projects are implemented in the Northern region through RRAN, to help the war-affected and the resettled
population.
UN World Food Programme (WFP) apart from providing food rations to those who do not receive state food assistance, has launched a two-year programme of Protracted Relief and Recovery Operation (PRRO) from January 2000. The programme provides relief assistance to the internally displaced and recovery assistance to the returnees. Currently, the Northern Province benefits from this programme.
71. Goodhand, Jonathan & Lewer, Nick. Sri Lanka : NGOs and peace-building in complex political emergencies.
P69-85. Third world Quarterly. Vol.20, No. 1, 1999.
A working paper giving findings of a field survey on investigating the consequences of violence and conflict in villages of Trincomalee and Batticaloa districts. The paper attempts to answer the following:
O The impact of humanitarian action on the dynamics of
the conflict
O The nature of humanitarian interventions which could
lead to peace-building
O The support required for such interventions
It stresses the importance of humanitarian agencies and NGOs to understand the complexity of historical and social factors and the socio-economy of the conflict-inflicted areas that has lead to protracted violence.
72. Green light for more micro-projects. Weekend Express.
24 October 1998.
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Community-based micro-projects have been implemented in Jaffna by UNHCR and monitored by the divisional secretaries of the local government. However, the UN agencies in Jaffna have not yet permitted the indigenous non-governmental organisations to participate in the implementation. As such, they are pressurising the government to lift the ban.
73. Government of Sri Lanka-UNICEF Programme of Co-operation 1997-2001. Government of Sri Lanka (and). UNICEF. Women's Rights Programme. P22-23. Mid-term Review 1999 (Final Report). Colombo, October 1999.
UNICEF has launched a programme on women's rights to support the state initiatives, NGOs and other agencies to integrate gender in national development projects and to create awareness towards eliminating gender-based violence. This report reviews the awareness-raising programmes on women's human rights and other related issues. The target groups are school children, media personnel, policy makers and those involved in gender-oriented development work.
74. Government of Sri Lanka-UNICEF Country Programme 1997-2000. Women's rights programme. P. 13. Report of the 1998 Annual Review. Colombo, January 1999.
This relates to the humanitarian services to widows and orphans where a household survey was conducted in the Trincomalee district through the district secretariat. The survey methodology will be applied to other districts to provide humanitarian support for the conflict-affected population. A review of the constraints in implementing the women's rights programme is included in this section.
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The data collected through this survey could be used by civil society groups to develop support systems for women headed families, widows and orphans.
75. Harris, Simon. Homogenising humanitarian assistance to IDP communities (A cautionary note from Sri Lanka). P. 19-21. Forced Migration Review. No.4, April 1999.
This paper explains that the internally displaced people in Sri Lanka are not a homogeneous group but that their needs vary in terms of social class, caste and religion. This aspect has to be considered when planning strategies for humanitarian intervention. The paper carries a summary of interviews by Oxfam ("Listening to the Displaced") of the displaced relating to their specific needs.
76. Harris, Simon. "Listening to the Displaced". Analysis, accountability and advocacy in action. P. 2021. ref. Forced Migration Review. August 2000.
A brief paper that provides the objectives, methodology and outcome of the programme of "Listening to the Displaced " conducted by Oxfam GB and SCF (UK) through interviews with the internally displaced people in Northern Sri Lanka during the period 1996-1998. This paper focuses on the lessons learned through the interviews, and the application of this experience for future assistance. The paper refers to the gender-sensitive revision of humanitarian assistance particularly, on the issue of non-food relief items that address the personal hygienic needs of displaced women.
77. Harris, Simon. Internal displacement in Sri Lanka's conflict affected North-Community perceptions and
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agency responses. P. s.l., 1999. Un published.
Source: Oxfam, Colombo).
A paper exploring the conditions of the displaced residing within the militant occupied territories of Vanni and the international humanitarian relief to their needs. The author views the needs and priorities to be met by the humanitarian assistance in a "unique environment" where the agencies have to interact with state bodies, armed forces, militant groups and local NGOs.
78. Hensman, Rohini. Journey without a destination. Is there a solution for the Sri Lankan refugees?. London, British Refugee Council. 1993. P.65; biblio.
The portrayal of a displaced community relocated in Sri Lanka and in Great Britain and socio-economic conditions of the displaced. Interviews with Tamil women residing in the camps of Batticaloa reveal that most of them are war-widows and female children of mixed marriages. As members of the fishing community in the East, their voices shed light on the hardship experienced due to an acute shortage of basic facilities and their urgent need for humanitarian assistance.
79. Hyndman, Jennifer and Malathi de Alwis. Capacity
building, accountability and humanitarianism. P. 16-19. notes. Forced Migration Review. September 2000.
The major focus of this study is on the role of the international humanitarian organizations and UN agencies in the armed conflict in Sri Lanka and their relationship to national and community-based NGOs. The paper raises issues on
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humanitarianism and the geopolitics of humanitarian assistance in the war zones. Besides providing the basic needs to the war-affected population, the agencies could indulge in capacity-building by promoting inter-ethnic interaction and transforming gender attitudes through their development programmes. Women's participation in non-traditional vocational training programmes is a significant criteria in changing social attitudes towards gender roles. International agencies could promote this through their local partners by focusing on changing gender roles and identities in conflict. Examples of grass-root women's NGOs from Eastern Sri Lanka show that more and more women participate in non-traditional skill courses. The paper provides recommendations for International NGOs when participating in capacity-building with national and local NGOs in a politically "volatile" situation.
80. ICRC Sri Lanka Newsletter. Issue No. 13, December 1999.
Initiated by the Sri Lankan State, ICRC has been active in conflict-ridden areas since 1989. This newsletter focuses on the role played by ICRC, which is an independent organisation of the international community, mandated to protect and assist victims of armed conflict and internal violence. Their humanitarian activities could be summarised as:
O Providing assistance to civilian population
Protection of detainees Re-establishment of family ties Dissemination of rules of behaviour in combat Acting as a neutral intermediary whenever required
ICRC has its offices in the North and East of Sri Lanka to provide relief to the displaced and the resettled.
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81. ICRC bitter over medicine. Daily Mirror. 21 April 2000.
This news item expresses the problems encountered by humanitarian agencies when providing relief to the conflictridden population during the escalation of civil war in the North. According to ICRC and MSF the supply of medicines to the sick has been controlled by security forces, leading to an acute shortage of drugs in Mullaitivu and Kilinochchi areas where the internally displaced need to be cared for.
82. Independent Commission on International
Humanitarian Issues. Refugees. The dynamics of displacement : A Report. Forwarded by co-chairmen Sadruddin Aga Khan [and] Hanan Bin Talal. Zed Books, London. 1986. P...
This publication reviews the humanitarian action of the international community towards refugees and the internally displaced, most applicable to the situation in Sri Lanka. It calls for improvements in humanitarian action, in terms of sensitivity towards the "refugee" issue and greater effectiveness of relief agencies involved in its work.
83. Institute of Human Rights Institute of Human Rights. Human Rights Desk - Batticaloa. P. 10. Institute of Human Rights Annual Report 1998/99, Colombo.
The report refers to the human rights desk established by the institute in Batticaloa to assist those in distress due to arbitrary arrests and prolonged detention of their family members. The desk provides legal aid and co-ordinates with the rehabilitation in Batticaloa.
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84. IT Intermediate Technology Sri Lanka. Energy: Addressing the energy needs of disadvantaged communities and small producers. P. T Annual Report 1996-97, Colombo.
IT Sri Lanka-an international NGO that aims to develop sustainability to rural/sub-urban communities has conducted training courses on building bio-gas units and set up de monstration plants in Trin com a lee, Vavuniya and A nu radhapura. The Energy Forum of IT Sri Lanka has conducted awareness campaigns on renewable energy options to communities affected by the civil war.
85. Janz, Fredrica. The thin red line for the ICRC. Sunday
Times. 20 June 1999.
An interview by Max Hadorn, Head of ICRC in Sri Lanka highlights their health programme in war-afflicted zones. In areas where the medical infrastructure is inadequate or nonexistent, ICRC runs mobile clinics. These services benefit the returnees in Vanni, Trincomalee and Batticaloa. However, this interview does not refer to any health services for women.
86. Kottegoda, Sepali. Female headed households in situations of armed conflict. P 10-19. ref. Nived ini. Vol.4, No.2. December 1996.
This article explores some key issues on women headed households in Sri Lanka that have emerged as a result of armed conflict. Relief agencies such as Oxfam and FORUT have gathered gender-based data on their needs in the North and East, which reveals that these women are mostly widowed.
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Briefing on their personal needs and concerns, the paper comments on the roles of NGOs and the state in recognizing this emerging group of women, and in formulating assistance programmes for such households.
87. Medicins San Frontiers (MSF). Sri Lanka. P. 27. MSF
Annual Report 1998, Colombo.
This section of the report gives a summary of the medical/ para- medical services offered by MSF in Northern Sri Lanka during the outbreak of civil war. In areas that are "sealed-off" from relief supplies, the organisation has supported hospitals by sending drugs and other basic amenities. Medical personnel of MSF have been performing surgery on war victims and supporting the anti-malaria campaign in collaboration with the government.
Similar projects are located in Mallavi, Mannar, Pudhukkudiyiruppu and Vavuniya where MSF works in partnership with UNHCR and other international humanitarian agencies.
88. Notice Under Registration of Voluntary Social Services Organisations (Registration and Supervision) Act No.3 1 of 1980 as amended by Act No. 8 of 1998. Sunday Observer. 14 March 1999.
A notice by the NGO Secretariat of the Ministry of Social Services, calling all non-governmental and voluntary organisations to be registered under the Social Services Organisations Act. This is applicable to all indigenous and international NGOs operating through foreign sources that have signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the government and gained the authority to become engaged in humanitarian work.
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89. NORAD, Sri Lanka. Women in development and Gender equality. P.61. NORAD Sri Lanka Annual Report 1997, Colombo.
This gives an account of the activities of NORAD in improving gender equality in Sri Lanka where the organisation has been instrumental in:
O Supporting Sri Lankan women workers abroad through The Migrant Women's Association that cooperates with the Trade Union Movement of Sri Lanka.
O Running a broadcasting programme on women's rights
in Sri Lanka
O Forming the Women Entrepreneurs Association to export
their products
O Providing support services for victims of domestic
violence through Women. In Need
90. OCHA United Nations Office of the Commissioner for Humanitarian Affairs). Focus on the psychological needs of displaced and returnee children. (Sri Lanka). P21. Manual on Field practices in Internal displacement: Examples from UN Agencies and partner-organizations on field-based initiatives supporting internally displaced persons. s.l., 1999.
This part of the manual refers to the activities of UNICEF that supports training programmes on the Guiding principles of Internal Displacement and on international humanitarian and, human rights laws for the displaced. UNICEF has launched training programmes for primary school teachers who in turn could identify the psychological needs of displaced children. This programme enables them to make interventions or referrals for counselling.
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Es tablish ment of an international presence near concentrations of internally displaced persons to enhance protection : (Sri Lanka). P40-42.
An example of enhanced protection for the internally displaced as a humanitarian assistance offered by UNHCR. This part of the manual refers to the Open Relief Centres (ORC) in Madhu in the district of Mannar, as an alternative to conventional refugee camps. UNHCR maintains full-time presence in the ORC, operates relief programmes and works to maintain a demilitarised environment along with other NGOs.
The report provides a summary of the activities of ICRC in the Vanni region assisting the internally displaced through tracing programmes for the community. The programme helps to trace those who have "disappeared" as a result of land mines and sporadic battles. ICRC accepts queries from other humanitarian agencies concerned with disappeared people in displacement.
91. Oxfam Great Britain and Save the Children (SCF) U.K. Listening to the Returned. A community study . Full Report. Jaffna, 1998. P.13.; append.
A collaborative effort of Oxfam and SCF towards the returnees in Jaffna with the purpose of identifying how they returned and what their experiences had been. This report reveals the problems of displacement, as prioritised by the returnees counting a significantly high proportion of women. Through interviews and discussions it is understood that the coping mechanisms of the war-affected people depend on age and gender. The returnees indicate the need for a long term
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development-oriented humanitarian assistance rather than a short-term relief. Humanitarian interventions should focus on reinforcement of coping mechanisms that are "fragile" otherwise, and helping them to learn from the past experiences and build their capacity.
The main objectives of this study is to:
O Identify the priorities of the returnees and plan
sustainable humanitarian interventions
O Identify the people's coping mechanisms and capacities
O Practice and evaluate the community development techniques of Oxfam and SCF and to improve the usage of participatory assessment techniques.
The report also helps to understand the people's expectations of the support system and their views on potential interventions. This leads to a better understanding among donor communities to review their assistance programmes and to lobby for those which will have a positive impact on the lives of the people.
92. Oxfam Great Britain and Save the Children SCF
U.K. Summary Report: Listening to the displaced and listen ing to the returned. (s.lJ, 19... P. 13.
The condition of the displaced in the Vanni and returnees to Jaffna is explored in this report. Humanitarian agencies urge that poor women and children should be considered for humanitarian assistance and that they should participate in assistance programmes. This research helps Oxfam and SCF to identify areas of humanitarian intervention, improve the understanding of the donors for better assistance and to lobby for resettlement and rehabilitation programmes for the returneeS.
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93. Oxfam (UK/Ireland). Humanitarian responses for internally displaced in Northern Sri Lanka. Progress report on the distribution of household items: December 1995- March 1996. Sri Lanka, 22 April 1996. P...; tables.
This report documents the purchase and distribution of household items as emergency relief to the internally displaced in the Kilinochchi area. While providing relief and assistance the organization resorts to a gender-based approach. In this context, single parent families are given priority, besides the disabled and the elderly.
Describing the politico-military background to the ethnic conflict and the mass displacement during 1995-96, the report reviews the mechanisms of co-ordination and issues of organisational development in assisting the displaced. The report raises issues on interagency lobbying through delegations and media campaigns. The financial summary for 1995-96 is annexed to the report.
94. Van Brabant, Koenraad. Gender: P 10-12 sand/ Gender and gender Policy implementation. Towards a more systematic approach in Oxfam, Sri Lanka. P.24-28. Programming and Partnership: Themes and approaches in Oxfam, Sri Lanka: Some reflective notes. Colombo, Oxfam). 15 July 1996.
The gender approach of Oxfam in providing assistance to the displaced is highlighted in these sections of the document. An analysis of the "gender balance" and gender sensitivity towards staffing and programming - the Country Representative comments on the practical issues on women's participation in development programmes. Merits and short-comings in forming women's groups and their impact
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on integrated humanitarian assistance are stated here. The report suggests ways to strengthen the gender perspectives in strategy planning and programming within Oxfam, Sri Lanka.
95. Programme Activities: Batticaloa. P. 17. CHA
Newsletter. Vol. IV, Issue IV, July/August 2000.
This section of the newsletter provides information on humanitarian programmes for war-affected population in Batticaloa district. The Institute of Human Rights (IHR) aims to provide relief assistance to women heads of households as a priority group. Development programmes for women in this region are restricted by the security control and war economy. The Christian Aid - an international NGO operating in the district presents their women's programme and the type of training provided for field workers who cater to the needs of the people.
96. Programme activities: Northern group. P. 24. CHA
Newsletter. Vol.III, Issue 5. September/October 1999.
The Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies (CHA) conducts workshops in Batticaloa and Vavuniya on "protection issues" that encompass the protection of women and children. These workshops encourage humanitarian agencies to include a gender dimension in their relief programmes and develop practical guidelines for humanitarian workers.
97. Programme activities: World Food Programme (WFP)
P38. CHA Newsletter. Vol.VI, issue 1. Januray/February 2000.
The United Nations World Food Programme is one of the humanitarian agencies assisting in food security for the
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displaced population. This part of the newsletter gives a summary of the assistance provided by WFP in agreement with the government of Sri Lanka to provide 80% of food rations to welfare centres in the northern region.
98. Rajasingham, Anusha. Displacement and refugees . North-East Sri Lanka as a case study. P54-68. South Asian Refugee Watch. Vol. 1, No.2. December 1999.
This explores the relief and resettlement processes in the North and East of Sri Lanka. Interviews conducted by humanitarian agencies reveal that the displaced, while acknowledging shortterm relief supplies, have a strong preference towards longterm relief measures such as employment to become selfreliant.
99. RRAN (Resettlement and Rehabilitation Authority of North). Status of rehabilitation projects implemented with foreign assistance. Fourth quarter. Colombo, 1998. P.99; tables; maps.
This report presents the status of rehabilitation projects in Jaffna, Vavuniya and Mannar which are assisted by foreign and local donors. It provides an overview of the contributions made by international and local humanitarian agencies in collaboration with the state component in implementing the projects. Information is delivered district-wise in tabulated format with particulars on funding agencies, implementing partners, project title, objective, beneficiaries, time frame, current status of the project and the budget. Beneficiaries are termed generally as "families", "farmers", "students", "school children" etc. Few projects state "women and children" in a gender-specific manner. With a large proportion of women in
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the region as a result of armed conflict, the beneficiaries could encompass women heads of households, women farmers, women students, women entrepreneurs etc., pin-pointing their specific needs. The report includes district maps and statistics.
100. Resettlement & Rehabilitation Authority of the North (RRAN). Special groups. Female headed families. P. 17. The dawn of a new era...: Mannar. Programme framework for resettlement, rehabilitation, reconstruction and development. s.l.), November 1998.
RRAN is the state infra-structure which collaborates with the UNHCR in serving the needs of the displaced and the resettled in the Northern part of Sri Lanka. This report categorises women headed families as a special group who need to be developed in a war-torn society under reconstruction." Special attention is needed for such female heads of households, which are generally poorer than the others...".
11. Resettlement and Rehabilitation Authority of the North (RRAN). P.5-6. CHA Newsletter. Vol.II, Issue No.3. July/ August 1997.
The Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies (CHA), United Nations and other humanitarian agencies have been requested by RRAN to develop a feasible proposal for relief of the internally displaced. Women are considered as a "vulnerable group" in need of health care, food security, water, sanitation aid transport. This proposal is to be implemented in the Vanni districts. Agencies will use this proposal for long-term economic rehabilitation and sustainability. Several recommendations of RRAN have been incorporated in this proposal.
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102. Rajasingham - Senanayake, Darini. After victimihood: Women's empowerment in war and displacement?. P.2529.; notes. Pravada. Vol. 6, Nos 2&3. l999.
The article refers to the role of relief agencies and nongovernmental organisations in providing assistance to displaced people, in particular the displaced women. "Noncombatant women who have found spaces of empowerment in the conflict need sustained assistance to maintain their newfound mobility and independence..." when faced with the nationalist patriarchal cultures during war and post-war reconstruction. The objectives of rehabilitation ဖုံးfiဒ#f6ff; need to be restructured to include gender-sensitive, post
conflict interventions.
103. The return of internally displaced people (IDPs) to Jaffna. P.5-11. (and) District situation Report. Batticaloa. P.30-31. CHA Newsletter. Vol.II, Issue September/October 1997.
The article refers to the activities of local NGOs such as SLRCS, TRO and Association for Rehabilitation of the Disabled (ARD) who have resources to imple meht humanitarian programmes but are unable to act effectively due to government restrictions imposed on them in the period 1995-96. Religious groups however, are active and run assistance programmes to support the elderly and the young.
The situation report relates to a set back of humanitari activities by NGOs in the Batticaloa district due to securi restrictions. NGOs have been given a specific time frame b state authorities to submit all aspects of their humanitarian projects (location, donors, budget etc.) for approval.
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104. Schak, Bo. The role of UNHCR in refugee care . Personal safety and the provision of humanitarian assistance and relief. P. 113-115. Victims of war in Sri Lanka: "A question of health consensus". International Conference on Health, London, 17-18 September 1994.
This verbal statement refers to the scope and limitations of UNHCR assistance to the people affected by armed conflict in Sri Lanka. The speaker highlights the role of UNHCR in refugee camps as well as on the repatriation of Sri Lankan refugees under the Swiss-Sri Lanka Agreement. He urges the Sri Lankan government for peace negotiations, as UNHCR and the UN are not able to settle the ethnic conflict.
105. Schrijvers, Joke. Making dirty hands : Dilemma's of humanitarian aid for internal refugees in Sri Lanka. P 7-29. Nethra. Vol. 3, No. 2. January/March 1999.
An attempt to answer the question of integrating humanitarian relief with development when working with the internally displaced people. The author explores the theoretical aspects of development and refugee situations with reference to Sri Lanka. Displaced women living in camps and dependent on humanitarian assistance make a "political cry for peace". The article pin-points the difficulties in seeking relief cum development aid in crisis situations and the influence of humanitarian agencies on the war.
106. Schrijvers, Joke. Manipulating vulnerability or building on the strength of refugees? Experiences from Sri Lanka. p. 47-53. , ref. South Asian Refugee Watch. Vol.1, No.2. December 1999.
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The author explores the issue of "vulnerability" of women refugees within the internally displaced camps in Sri Lanka. The article questions the presupposed vulnerability of women and how humanitarian aid could support them. Unlike men, women are vulnerable to gender violence during displacement and rarely have access to health care. On the other hand, women in such situations have also developed new skills which need to be strengthened through assistance programmes. The article reports on the failure of the programmes in the warridden North and East due to restrictions imposed on "resettlement zones" by the security forces. The defining of parameters for activities related to the settlements has a direct impact on humanitarian projects designed for development sustainability for the displaced people.
107. Samath, Faizal. ICRC weathers crisis situation. Sunday
Times. 15 August 1997.
A news item on the limitations to humanitarian aid provided by ICRC in the Vanni region. In 1998 Geneva-based ICRC had launched the campaign named "People's war" with interviews from women affected by armed conflict besides children, soldiers, militants and humanitarian workers all over the world. Sri Lankan women have not participated in this listening campaign as "the government had responded negatively to ICRC...".
108. Sri Lanka. Donors should demand protection for civilians.
19 May 2000. Source-http:///www.topica.com).
A news item relating to the concerns of international humanitarian organisations towards the safety and needs of civilians in the Jaffna peninsula at the outbreak of yet another
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offensive between LTTE and armed forces. Human Rights Watch urges all combatants to ensure free movement of civilians away from conflict areas, and the urgent need for supply of emergency relief. The Human Rights Watch also appeals to the Government of India to accommodate refugees from Sri Lanka fleeing the country as a result of the conflict.
109. Seneviratne, H.L. and Stavropoulou, Maria. Sri
Lanka's vicious circle of displacement. P. 359-396. , notes. The forsaken people: Case studies of the internally displaced. Ed. Roberta Cohen and Francis M. Deng. Washington D.C., Brookings Institute Press. 1998
A case study on the situation of the internally displaced in Sri Lanka and the response of the State to the problem is presented in this chapter. Concerning the issue of internal displacement, the text provides a revised version of Francis Deng's report (1993) on his field visit to Sri Lanka as representative of the UN-Secretary General. A brief account of the state administration on relief assistance to the waraffected population is followed by an evaluation of the roles of the international and non governmental agencies viz., UNHCR, UNICEF, ICRC, NGOs and the donor community. This article stresses that humanitarian agencies besides providing emergency relief, should be given full and free access to the displaced and be allowed to supply food, nonfood and essential services. It further recommends that NGO liaison offices be established at district level through the Ministry of Defence, to facilitate access and delivery of relief supplies.
110. Tiruchelvam, Neelan. Emergency debate May 6, 1999. P.123-125. (and) Defence vote December 5, 1997. P....
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Transcending the bitter legacy: Parliamentary speeches: Neelan Tiruchelvam. Edited by Lisa M. Kois. ICES, Colombo. January 2000.
This speech focuses on problems pertaining to the transportation of civilians to and from Jaffna, to which humanitarian agencies are willing to assist provided that vessels comply with the international safety standards with regard to seaworthiness. The speaker calls for state cooperation with ICRC and UNHCR to render a secure sea transport for the civilians and the internally displaced in the North and East.
The debate on the Defence Vote raises issues concerning fundamental values in terms of humanitarian relief and protection of civilians caught in the civil war. Due to the current offensive, there has been an inadequate flow of relief, medicine and food to the affected population, restricted by the combatants. The speech quotes the Amnesty International Report of 1997- "the government should ensure that internally displaced persons are treated in keeping with the full range of human rights and standards...".
111. Tiruchelvam, Neelan. Sri Lanka's ethnic conflict and preventive action. The role of NGOs. P. 147-162., ref. Vigilance and vengeance : NGOs preventing ethnic conflict in divided societies. Ed. Robert Rotberg. Washington D.C., Brookings Institute Press. 1996.
This article deals with the roles played by local and international humanitarian organisations during the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Activities of the Civil Rights Movement of Sri Lanka (CRM), Movement for Inter-racial Justice & Equality (MIRJE) and the UNHCR and their efforts to coordinate relief operations, documenting of information and the management of relief efforts are discussed at length.
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112. UNHCR. UNHCR Micro-projects implementing procedures: Annexure I. UNHCR BO-LKA: Implementing procedures for micro-projects (Revision 3). Colombo, 30 December 1998.
Micro-projects funded by UNHCR aim to encourage resettlement and relocation of internally displaced persons in UNHCR operational areas. The projects provide one-time assistance and are to be completed within a limited time frame. Procedures related to the projects that clarify the role of UNHCR field staff, Government Agents and the implementing partner NGOs is annexed to the text.
113. UNICEF. Armed conflict in Sri Lanka. P.27. 1998
UNICEF Annual Report. New York, 19...
The involvement of UNICEF in war-torn regions of Sri Lanka is summarised in this section of the report. Apart from providing basic amenities for the displaced population UNICEF is active in social reconstruction and peace building in the North. Through the "Education for Conflict Resolution Project" and "Landmine Awareness Pro garm me" the organisation aims to train the school teachers who in turn would educate students.
114. UNICEF. A programme for special assistance to children and women affected by armed conflict in Sri Lanka . 2000-2001. Colombo, September 1999. P.37;
21 CCX.
This publication highlights the UNICEF supported humanitarian assistance in forthcoming years, for children and women in conflict-ridden parts of the country. Protection and
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welfare of widows is a recognised aspect of the communitybased programme, as they are vulnerable and "at-risk". The assistance will help them address war-related problems such as stress and social marginalisation.
115. UNICEF. Children c. Women in Sri Lanka: A Situation Analysis. P..... Women and Children in Situations of armed conflict. Colombo, 1991.
An analysis of women and their dependent-children in situations of armed conflict (1983-1991). It gives statistical data assessing the relief exercise in meeting the increasing physical, psychological and material needs of women.
116. The United Nations International Working Group on Sri Lanka. The relevance of the Geneva Convention and the International Committee of the Red Cross to the present situation in Sri Lanka: A CRM report (Third edition, July 1999). P.7-9. Fundamental standards of humanity as a peace-building measure in Sri Lanka: A compilation of relevant documents. s.l., 19...
This document was prepared by the Working Committee of the Civil Rights Movement of Sri Lanka as a public release with an accompanying request to the Government to accept the offer of lGRC to serve the war-torn regions. The report gives a profile of ICRC and stresses the humanitarian need to let them help the civilians and the combatants.
Appendices to the text include information on the Geneva Convention referring to internal armed conflict and the humanitarian activities of ICRC in "internal" situations elsewhere.
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117. United States Committee for Refugees (USCR). Sri Lanka: Island of refugees. P.37, notes; biblio. Washington D.C. October 1991.
This report deals with the problem of internal displacement in Sri Lanka and refugees seeking "shelter" In Tamil Nadu (India) as a result of the civil war. It focuses on the roles of the ICRC and UNHCR in the war-stricken regions of Sri Lanka. and the NGO assistance in India. Non-governmental, expatriate and local relief groups serve the refugees inside and outside camps in India. The document provides a short account of the assistance by the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in the west towards asylum seekers from Sri Lanka.
The report concludes with recommendations of the USCR to promote safety and security to Sri Lankan refugees and the internally displaced, until a peaceful settlement is found.
118. United States Committee for Refugees (USCR). Conflict and Development in Sri Lanka. March, 1997. P...
A "site-visit-report" of USCR on Sri Lankan refugees and internally displaced people from the North, during the military operation Riverasa in 1996. The report highlights the categories of uprooted Sri Lankans, inclusive of the formerly displaced people returning to Jaffna. Comments have been made by the committee and by other relief organisations based on interviews with displaced women.
The concluding part of this report is on socio-economic. conditions of the internally displaced. It recognises women as vulnerable and notes they should have access to basic amenities and protection. Relating to the task of humanitarian agencies in the conflict zones, the report suggests that Sri
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Lankan Government and the LTTE should grant local and foreign NGOs access to serve the displaced, in order to provide humanitarian and essential services.
119. Uyangoda, Jayadeva. NGOs, politics and questions of
democracy. P. 62-71. The Thatched Patio. Vol. 8, 1995.
This article examines the activities of non-governmental organisations in Sri Lanka, particularly to those giving humanitarian aid to the war zones. It analyses the role played by and the limitations of humanitarian agencies within the context of national security. This raises the issue of state control and legislation for humanitarian organisations.
120. Van Brabant, Koenraad. NGO legislation: The Sri Lankan case. P 12-15. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 19, May 1995.
The article highlights the "relationship" between the Sri Lankan State and non-governmental organisations in the wake of the civil war in the North and East. It explores the extent of co-ordination of the NGO Consortium and state authorities with regard to resettlement, rehabilitation and recovery programmes for the internally displaced.
121. Van Brabant, Koenraad. The co-ordination of
humanitarian action. The case of Sri Lanka. RRN
(Relief and Rehabilitation Network) Paper. December 1997. P.23; maps; notes; ref.
The term "co-ordination" in relation to the experiences of NGOs, UN and the government in humanitarian assistance is examined in this paper. Humanitarian action in Sri Lanka at
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the outbreak of the civil war is presented as a case study. The paper deals with mechanisms for co-ordination during situations of conflict and the constraints structurally and contextually.
122. Wanasundara, Leelangi. Women affected by armed conflict : Bibliographic summary. Colombo, CEN WOR, 1998. P. 15.
A study analyzing the documents on the impact of the northern armed conflict and the southern insurrection on women. The summary provides information to the National Committee on Women to develop gender specific strategies to empower women who are constantly being affected by armed conflict. The data has been compiled from 1983 to 1998, collected qualitatively and quantitatively from state institutions, UNHCR, international humanitarian organizations and local NGOs. The first part of the publication focuses on women in the north-east, border villages, internally displaced women, war widows and families of the disappeared. A bibliography to the summary is provided in the latter part. .
123. Wickremasinghe, Nira. Humanitarian relief organisations and challenges to sovreignty. The case of Sri Lanka. Regional Centre for Strategic Studies, Colombo. 1997.P.51.; notes.
This publication focuses on humanitarian relief organisations operating in the war zones of Sri Lanka - the legitimacy of their actions in terms of the humanitarian/human rights laws of the country. The involvement of UNHCR, MSF and ICRC has been explored in this context.
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124. Wijayatilaka, Kamalini. An extract from the Report "Overview of the situation in the Puttalam District", July 1994. P.5-9. Voice of Women. Vol.4, Issue 4. September 1996.
A report on the socio-economic conditions of the displaced Muslim women from the North of Sri Lanka, residing in the camps of Puttalam district. It reviews information from the Donor/NGO Consortium of Puttalam. The information is gathered from women refugees who have formed small discussion groups on their problems, besides other sources such as representative groups of camp inhabitants, villagers, religious leaders and state officials. Based on the information gathered, the NGOs' Consortium has put forward recommendations to improve the situation within the camps. The main issues of the suggestions are on basic needs, environment, education, land, economic activities, social issues and civil/ political rights of the displaced people.
The report admits that NGOs have not adequately met the requirements of the displaced on a strategic level. Relief support is not the only factor that can bring about a significant change in the lives of displaced women, but co-ordination between the displaced and the locals is essential to improve the situation. Rehabilitation programmes should involve both communities. Programmes on integrated credit, literacy and adult education could therefore be initiated with state support.
125. ZOA Refugee Care. Sri Lanka. P.24. ZOA Refugee Care Annual Report 1998. Apeldoorn (The Netherlands).
A brief description of the humanitarian aid of ZOA Refugee Care in the country. The programme is mainly on emergency relief for the displaced through relief centres in Polonnaruwa, Batticaloa, Ampara and Trincomalee districts. The NGO with its partners support the refugee resettlement and microprojects for income generation in the East.
See also Citation Nos. 20, 25, 193, 207 & 276.
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2
Assisting Women in Conflict
2.1 Violence Against Women
2. 11 General
126. Butalia, Urvashi. The other side of silence. Voices from the partitioning of India. New Delhi, Viking Publishers. 1998. P.278.
The partitioning of India during 1947 is the background to this writings. This volume focuses on giving voice to women survivors of partition which occurred in India during 1947 by unpacking the experiences of women during the conflict, particularly those who were “targets” of abduction and rape during the Indo-Pak division. Based on research and interviews from the women survivors who had sought help from social organisations, this book provides an insight into the gendering of communalism and casteism in multiple patriarchies of family, community and the state and a “space” for those victims who have remained silent over a long period of time.
127. Co om araswamy, Radhika. A question of honour: Women, ethnicity and armed conflict. Lecture delivered at the Third Minority Rights Lecture, Geneva, 25 May 1999. (Source: ICES Archives).
This verbal statement gives a general analysis of rape during armed conflict, illustrated by cases of violence against
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women during armed conflict within the framework of ethnicity and nationalism.
Though an old practice, rape and sexual violence during wars have been “invisible' issues of international humanitarian law and dismissed as “private acts”. Humanitarian norms though “gender accommodative', still face problems when assisting victims of sexual violence. The Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women is critical that planning of rehabilitation and reconstruction in armed conflict do not consider gender-oriented violence as a significant area for assistance. Programmes tend to ignore this question when carrying out their mandates. She stresses on the need for the agencies to be sensitive to the issue of gendered violence, so that women could be empowered in a post-war society.
128. Coomaraswamy, Radhika. Women in the world stand up to violence. P54. Nived ini. Vol.4, No. 1. June 1996.
The article refers to global campaigns on violence against women where women's groups have succeeded in bringing sexual violence during armed conflicts into the agenda of the United Nations. The Global Tribunal on Violence against Women is a forum which has called for hearings on the mass rape and killing of women in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the problems encountered by the “comfort women” in East Asia who are victims of military sexual slavery imposed by the Japanese Government during the second world war.
129. Co om araswamy, Radhika. Preliminary report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its causes and consequences, in accordance with Commission on Human rights resolution 1994/45. Doc.E.CN.4/1995/42. 22 November 1994. P....
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This report deals with the issues of gender violence in armed conflict and during displacement. It analyses the "high risk” situation of women, identification of their specific needs and the various protective measures within the UN mandate.
130. East-Asia-US Women's Network Against Militarism and Asia Pacific Centre for Justice and Peace. Women redefining Security. Reports from two international meetings - Okinawa, Japan, May 1-4 1997 /and// Washington D. C.., October 8-13, 1998. J
This report provides information from two international conferences towards the prevention of military violence against women. The workshops aim to raise awareness of military violence such as rape and trafficking of women into military prostitution. The Women's Network against Militarism in USA is supported by the Centre for Justice and Peace and is committed to raise consciousness towards genderoriented military violence.
131. Farr, Vanessa. "The pain of violence is a powerful silencer'. African women write about conflict. P 102108., ref. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4 Winter 2000.
According to this paper, women's organizations in the postconflict societies of South Africa have urged the media to draw attention to awareness campaigns on sexual assault on women. Women writers after the conflict have increasingly focused on gendered violence. Subsequently, national organizations such as Rape and Crisis have been backed by women's organizations in the reconstructed society towards legal reforms on crimes of gender-oriented violence.
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132. Fitzgerald, May Anne. “We keep silent until we die....
P21-23. Refugees. Vol.2, No. 115. 1999.
This article focuses on the preventive measures taken by UNHCR towards Somalian women refuged and victimised by gender violence not only through rape and sexual abuse but also through abduction and forced marriages. It explores the activities and the limitations of Women Victims of Violence Project (WVV) that was aimed at supporting the victims through a system of protection, medical care and counselling.
133. The Government of Australia. Refugee women. P2123. Information given by the Australian Government to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women. s.l.), February, 1995.
In keeping with the UNHCR policy of enhancing provision for refugee women, this report outlines the state sponsored support programme “Women at Risk (WAR)'. This programme recognises that women refugees are often exposed to the risk of sexual abuse, victimisation or harassment when traditional support systems collapse. Women heads of families, single mothers, widows, abandoned or single women are considered as “at risk” and in need of resettlement. The WAR recipients are supported in various ways such as passage, on-arrivalaccommodation, financial assistance, health care, translation/ interpreting services, English language tuition etc.
134. Grant, Katy. Determination of refugee status. P. 1-6. Violence against refugee women. Unpublished). 19.
Source: ICES Archives).
The article refers to the recognition by UNHCR that “rape and other forms of gender violence committed for political,
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racial, religious reasons can be considered as persecution under the 1951 definition of refugee status...”. Applying this, the author explores the grounds on which women refugees inflicted with rape and sexual abuse could seek refugee status. Factors that make a woman legally eligible for asylum are discussed at length.
135. Hughes, Donna M. Violence against women in
Belgrade, Serbia: SOS Hotline 1990-1993. P. 101-127. notes, ref. Violence against Women. Vol.3, No.2, 1997.
This article provides an outline of the SOS hotline for women and children victims in Belgrade, Serbia. Data collected from callers show that:
O Majority of the victims are family members or intimate
partners
O Incidents are mostly physical, verbal/emotional violence
with few reports on sexual violence
O Frequency and duration of violence were very high
O Callers were often compelled to live with perpetrators
due to the lack of available housing
O Family violence against women was high as a result of
men’s participation in wars
O A high percentage of violence against women refugees and women hosts, as refugees were housed in private homes
136. Hyndman, Jennifer. Managing differences. Gender and
culture in humanitarian emergencies. P. 241-260, notes, ref. Gender, Place and Culture. Vol.5, No.3, 1998.
This paper is based on research focusing on the organizational structure and politics of UNHCR - on their mandate to provide
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humanitarian assistance under emergencies. The paper analyses gender and cultural politics in refugee camps, in the process of handling displacement and asylum in a “gendered manner.” Gender policies in UNHCR and how they are mainstreamed and integrated in humanitarian assistance for women in displacement are dealt with at length. The paper examines the implementation of Women Victims of Violence (WVV) project that was launched by the UN in the Kenyan camps for Somali women victims of gender violence. The objectives of the project are:
O Provision of health services
O Improved physical security and material assistance to
the victims of sexual violence
O Consciousness-raising towards law enforcement
authorities, on the issue
The project suffered problems such as treatment of rape victims, according to their family “interfered' with the cultural practices of female genital mutilation among Somalian girls. Contradictory to the gender policies of UNHCR, the WVV generated a cultural politics of its own. This project is an example where the socio-cultural norms and family control on women could lead to a set back when integrating the gender dimension in humanitarian programmes.
137. CRC. Women. P. 6. Civilians in War. XXVIth International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Geneva, 1995.
The conference organised by the International Committee of the Red Cross focused on women victims of sexual violence in conflict zones, suffering long-term effects physically and mentally. The forum has given due recognition to gender
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violence against women in terms of public condemnation and strict enforcement of national/international laws.
The following proposals were submitted to the conference:
O Security/state authorities to ensure protection and
assistance to women refugees
O Rape to be condemned as a serious war crime and an
offence under humanitarian laws
O Assistance to victims of rape by humanitarian agencies
and by the state
O Consciousness-raising on gender violence to the armed forces and to help them offer special protection to
WOCI
O Encourage the participation of women in all the above
activities -
Statistics on programme allocations as percentage of humanitarian programmes and on recipients as from country of birth are tabulated.
138. Mandate of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women. The question of integrating the rights of women into the human rights mechanism of the United Nations and the elimination of violence against women. Law & Society Trust Review, Vol. IV No. 76. 1 May, 1994.
The mandate appointing Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy as Special Rapporteur to the UN Human Rights Commission on violence against women and the monitoring of conditions in all UN member states. In this context, the Rapporteur also de als with gender violence during armed conflict, in displacement and during resettlement.
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Accordingly, the Special Rapporteur will be required to:
O Seek and receive information from governments, inter
governmental bodies and women's organisations on violence against Women
O. Undertake missions either separately or with other
Special Rapporteurs and Working Groups.
O Recommend measures at national, international and
regional levels to eliminate violence against women.
139. Menon, Ritu & Bhasin, Kamla. Borders and boundaries. Women in India's partitioning. New Delhi, Kali for Women. 1998. P.260.; append.; index.
Women's experience of violence during the partitioning of India in 1947 and subsequent displacement are viewed from a gendered perspective in this volume. The work stems from interviews with women - survivors, social workers and state authorities who are relating their experiences of rape, sexual abuse, abduction, trauma of widowhood, rehabilitation and liberation. “The real work of rehabilitating women fell on women....' and a large number of them worked in camps, seva sadans and women's service centres in relocating and rebuilding the lives of women victims. This publication explores what country, nation and religious identity mean to women, posing the question of the nation-state and the gendering of citizenship.
140. Musse, Fouzia. Women victims of violence. P. 17- 20. RPN Refugee Participation Networkl. No. 16, March 1994.
The author reports on the humanitarian assistance provided to rape victims from Somalia, residing in Kenyan refugee
8 Indigenous humanitarian institutions
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camps. The activities of the assistance mission of UNHCR, besides documenting incidents of sexual violence, is to develop an easy-training guide for refugee outreach workers on how to counsel and assist the victims through medical referrals. The outcome of this intervention has:
O Created awareness on gender related crimes and violence
through educational workshops and media campaigns
O Enhanced women’s ability to cope with rape
O Caused a change of attitudes regarding sexual violence
in refugee camps
The mission has prepared a project on preventive measures, assistance to the victims and their families and a cross-border operation to repatriate the victims.
141. Nikolic-Ristanovic, Vesna. Victimisation of war rape: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. (ICTY). P28-35., ref. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
The article intends to analyse the provision of the Statutes and Rules of Procedures and Evidences, and the practice of ICTY when providing for victims of war rape. In protection of victims, it calls for the cooperation of NGOs and the state organizations where potential victims are located, and to direct funds for the support of the victims/witnesses. In this context, special attention has to be paid to NGOs that are accompanying and counselling the witnesses in relation to the trials of war tribunals.
142. Poore, Peter. UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund. P. 16-19. RPN Refugee Participation Networkl. Issue 20. November 1995.
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This focuses on the support offered by UNFPA for women traumatised by rape and sexual abuse in Bosnia/Croatia. Support for women victims of sexual violence is one of the areas in women's health care among the refugees, as gender violence is common in times of war and rape is a war weapon. Counselling services for rape victims are a part of UNFPA projects for people affected by the war as well as suggestions for prevention of unwanted pregnancies through emergency contraception. However, contraception services depend on the circumstances under which rape occurs.
143. Quick, Diana. Refugee women . The special need for protection. P. 15-19. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 22. September 1996.
This article focuses on the need for protection of refugee women from sexual abuse. Despite the UNHCR guidelines for protection of refugee women, they are still at risk as far as gender violence is concerned. In Rwandan refugee camps, women are being raped and attacked when collecting firewood. Sexual exploitation by authorities in exchange for improved access to basic amenities is also common in camps. To counter this, Crisis Intervention Teams (CIT) help women through “group support”. Further, women are given e qual responsibility as men in food distribution, establishing kitchen gardens, poultry farming etc., which enhances their status as decision makers in camps.
144. Reproductive Health for Refugees - RHR Consortium. P 12. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 20. November 1995.
Sexual violence among the displaced is considered as work for the member institutions of the Reproductive Health for
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Refugees (RHR) Consortium. They provide health services to victims of rape and sexual abuse in refugee settlements.
The members include CARE, International Rescue Committee
(IRC), Marie Stopes International, John Snow Research & Training Institute and the Women’s Commission for Refugee
Women and Children, USA.
145. Siddique, Masud Hassan. The state of Rohingyas in refugee camps. A critical assessment. P39-46. South Asian Refugee Watch. Vol. 1, No. 1, July 1999.
This is a criticism on the living conditions of Rohingya refugee camps run by UNHCR in Bangladesh where refugees within the camp committed sexual violence. Though responsible for the general protection of refugees, UNHCR did very little to control this situation. As a result the local police had to intervene.
146. Sorensen, Brigitte. Social integration. P51-57. Women and post-conflict resolution. The War torn Societies Project Occasional Paper No.3. Geneva, United Nations. June 1998.
Women sexually assaulted during armed conflict are a stigmatised group of the society. Rape victims, those carrying unwanted pregnancies and unwed mothers are a challenge to the existing norms of womanhood in any civil society. Many humanitarian organisations have developed counselling programmes for them, as rape is not only a traumatising experience for the victim but also has long-term effects on their social status due to marginalisation.

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147. UNHCR. Sexual violence against refugees: Guidelines
on prevention and response. Geneva. 1995. P...
Sexual violence issues are now handled in a more systematic manner by UNHCR, which has given guidelines to social workers dealing in this area. This guideline provides a primer on sexual violence in the refugee context and the physical, psychological and social effects caused to the victim. It addresses the ways of combating sexual violence and how to respond when it occurs. The annexure includes a sexual violence needs assessment and a programme framework tool to assist the field staff providing protection to such victims.
148. UNHCR. Gender-related persecution. P. 196-197. The state of the world's refugees: A humanitarian agenda. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1997.
This section of the volume deals with persecution related to a person's gender or sexuality not mentioned explicitly as the criteria for refugee status (1951 UN Refugee Convention). Based on recent cases of women asylum seekers, the article gives circumstances under which gender based persecution could be valid. They include adultery, sexual violence during situations of armed conflict, female genital mutilation, forced reproductive activities (e.g. coerced birth control, abortion, involuntary sterilisation etc.), mistreatment of sexual minorities and the issue of domestic violence.
In recent times, Australia, Canada and USA have introduced
guidelines for the assessment of gender-related asylum requests based on the above criteria.
149. UNHCR. Gender specific violence. P. 34-38. International legal standards applicable to the protection
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of internally displaced persons : A reference manual for UNHCR staff. Geneva. 1996.
This manual gives a set of norms applicable to gender-oriented violence relevant to displaced persons within the context of tension/disturbance, non-international armed conflict and inter-state armed conflict. Gender specific violence is defined as “ any act of violence that results in or likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering on account of one's gender causing sexual abuse, sexual harassment and acts of prostitution...”. The standards deal with prevalent forms of gender-related violence among the internally displaced, particularly women subjected to rape, sexual abuse, spousal battering and marital rape experienced due to the stress of displacement on the family unit.
150. UNICEF. Violence against women. P. 77-92. Women in transition: The Monee project. Regional Monitoring Report No.6. Florence (Italy), 1999.
This report discusses gender related violence of displaced women in Central, Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet Union. Statistics reveal that gender related violence in displacement is not restricted to rape and forced impregnation but extends to domestic violence, forced prostitution, coerced labour, trafficking of women and of sexual harassment in work environment. Non-governmental/ Women's organisations working in reconstructed communities address the issue of gender violence by:
Setting up hotlines, crisis centres, shelter homes and legal aid centres
O Launching public awareness campaigns
O Lobbying authorities who are responsible for policy
making
O Providing training for health workers, police officers and
other law enforcement authorities
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151. United Nations General Assembly. Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme, 44th session, 12 October 1993. Note on certain aspects of sexual violence against refugee women. Executive Committee .... Doc. No. A/AC.96/822. P..
A report addressing rape, sexual extortion and forced prostitution of refugee women and girls within the framework of the international human rights law. While viewing the problem of rape as a cause of refugee flight and an obstacle to durable solutions to the refugee problem, it states instances of gender violence as a cause of flight, during flight and in the country of asylum/protection and tries to seek solutions.
152. Women’s Caucus for Gender Justice in the ICC. Urgent action alert. Gender and other trouble in the International Criminal Court negotiations. March, 1998. P. (Unpublished).
This is an appeal by the Women's Caucus in the ICC. To ensure a gender justice in sex crimes during wars, the Caucus believes that the following be included in the Statute of the court:
O An overall provision prohibiting adverse discrimination, including gender discrimination in the application of all laws
O A provision guaranteeing that there will be a sufficient number of persons with expertise on sexual/gender issues, in the election of judges and other legal personnel.
O A provision for the appointment of a permanent legal
advisor on sexual/gender violence
O A provision guaranteeing a balance of women/men in
all organs of the court at all levels.
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The Caucus views ICC as one of the major mechanisms for implementing the commitments made by various states at the Beijing Platform for Action.
153. Women, Law & Development International and
Human Rights Watch. Women’s Rights Project. UN High Commissioner for Refugees. P52 - 55. Women's human rights: Step by step. Washington D.C., 1997.
A monograph elaborating on the legal remedies and the advantages/disadvantages of UNHCR show that only refugee women in the UNHCR refugee camps have access to complaint procedures. Further, the Commission offers no protection against gender violence but only reports such cases.
This is a publication on the mechanisms involved in the functioning of the UNHCR, with reference to violation of human rights of refugee women. It helps the user to:
O Assess the problem of sexual violence in a given setting
and identify practical measures to combat the problem
O Prepare guidelines on the roles and responsibilities of
the humanitarian workers and
O Select the crisis intervention teams, organise training
and evaluate the programme
This manual could be adapted as required to the type of refugee Setting.
154. Women, violence and war. wartime victimization of
refugees in the Balkans. Ed. Vesna Nikolic-Ristanovic. New York, Central European University Press. 2000. P. 300.
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This is a study on the social and psychological impact of war and violence against women, their families and communities. The papers in this volume are based on interviews from refugee women who besides physical and sexual violence, have been subjected to emotional abuse from their community. Their discussions on rape and the International Crimes Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) reveal that gender justice for victims of rape during the war will not be easily obtained.
Researched by women criminologists and victimologists, this study serves to help the women interviewees to become selfreflexive, bring out their accumulated emotions and empower them. An action component of this research is a form of support and assistance given by women to women.
See also Citation Nos. 127, 163, 172, 173 & 309.
2.12 Sri Lanka
155. Community Aid Abroad CAA. Oxfam in Australia. Functional literacy. P.. Integrated Community Resettlement and Development program: For assistance from the Australian Community Resettlement Program (ACRP) in Sri Lanka. Colombo, 19...
The breakdown of conventional systems of education in the North-East has lead to the development of this programme for women in conflict-ridden areas. Specially designed for widows who are being oppressed by the civil war and traditional norms of ostracisation, the programme relates to rights and responsibilities in a conflict situation and violence against Women during war.
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156. Family Rehabilitation Centre FRC. Support services for rape victims from war-afflicted regions of Sri Lanka.
Source. ICES Archives). March 2000. P.2.
FRC offers free counselling services for survivors of rape and sexual abuse from war-torn communities, mostly referred by other NGOs. The centre helps the survivors to gain access to medical treatment and conducts special counselling sessions for the relief of mental trauma.
157. Hyndman, Jennifer and de Alwis, Malathi. Case study on Sri Lanka . Gender, conflict and displacement: Lessons learned from Sri Lanka. P.21-25. Expert Meeting on Gender Dimensions of internal Displacement, New York, 14-15 June 1999.
Regions bordering the war-zones of Sri Lanka have become centres for prostitution and cases of sexual violence are on the increase. However, support services for the victims by the state/non-governmental organisations are not evident. Humanitarian agencies need to include this in their agenda for services in armed conflict zones
158. International Centre for Ethnic Studies. Home for Human Rights. P. 24-25. (and). Sinhala Women's Development Organisation. Women's Entrepreneurship Development Project. P52. A directory:Violence against Women: Organisations, activities and projects concerning violence. Colombo, September 1999.
The directory provides information on two Sri Lankan NGOs working in the war-ridden areas of the East on prevention of sexual assault and offering assistance to survivors of sexual
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violence. The Home for Human Rights conducts programmes in the East to address gender issues by:
O Raising awareness at all levels of the community
O Establishing preventive measures through training
O Providing support to victims to overcome the
stigmatisation
The Sinhala Women's Development Organisation conducted programmes for women entrepreneurs in the Anuradhapura district that borders the areas of civil war. The women were trained to combat gender violence that is regarded as "a weapon of war.” This project was funded by CIDA from 1995-98.
159. Satkumarajah, Bavani. Centre for Women and Development offers a helping hand to women who faced abuse and violence in the Jaffna peninsula. (Translation summary J. Virakesari. 22 July 1999. Source: ICES Archives.
The adversities encountered by women in Jaffna are directly and indirectly due to the ethnic conflict, civil war and the instability of civil administration. Centre for Women and Development (CWD) offers free legal advice to women to help to lodge complaints on sexual violence. It also assists in the rehabilitation of the affected and in safeguarding their human rights.
160. Suriya Women's Development Centre. Programmes related to women affected by violence. Batticaloa, 31 March 2000. P.2
This is on the awareness-raising programme launched by Suriya, a women’s NGO based in the Eastern province. This aims to create a social consciousness on gender-based violence
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and to counter such abuse. The programme includes a poster campaign, observing the “Violence against Women Week”, cultural events, exhibitions and networking with other community-based organisations to lobby for action against rape and other forms of gender-oriented abuse.
161. UNFPA. Fighting violence against women. The Daily
NewS. 29 March 1999.
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and Sri Lankan Association for Voluntary Surgical Contraception (SLAVC) have incorporated gender violence into the training programmes for military personnel and police officials. This aspect is helpful in combating violence against women, particularly in the war-ridden zones.
See also Citation Nos. 158, 326 & 347.
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2.2 Women's Health
2.21 General
162. AUSTCARE. South Asia. P 12-14. Austcare Annual
Report 1996. Camperdown (Australia).
This relates to health projects for women refugees and displaced people through women’s health and literacy programmes. Conducted in Afghanistan and Pakistan the objective of this programme is to increase health awareness through education. The project was set up in conjunction with UNHCR and other international donors.
163. Canadian Council for Refugees. Proposal for an international network and conference on refugees fleeing gender-based persecution. P.3. March 2000.
Unpublished. Source: ICES Archives).
This proposal is to develop an international network of organisations working on protection of women fleeing genderbased persecution and to have a conference in the year 200l. The objective of this conference is to increase awareness among NGOs working on supporting victims of genderoriented violence - on the need to recognise gender-based refugee claims. This is an attempt to widen the Convention for Refugees definition of a refugee, and to include genderbased persecution and violence against women.
164. Marsden, Peter. The dialogue with the humanitarian agencies. P 102-1 13. The Taliban: War, religion and the new order in Afghanistan. Karachi, Oxford University Press. 1998.
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This chapter of the book focuses on the difficulties faced by humanitarian agencies in Afghanistan where gender discrimination is part of the political ideology. UN agencies and NGOs are faced with the issue of providing them assistance equal to that of men. One way to assist is by targeting women through health assistance, such as vaccination programmes and post-natal clinics. Besides, women could be employed as humanitarian workers through these programmes. The chapter concludes with a statement drawn up by the UN agencies and NGOs highlighting basic humanitarian principles and requesting the state authorities to include women as the beneficiaries in gaining equal access to education and training opportunities to ensure the long-term development of the country.
165. Nersesian, Paula and Brady, Bill. Controlling STDs/ HIV within dynamic refugee settings. P.26-29. RPN Refugee Participation Networkl. Issue 20. November 1995.
A discussion on the importance of including STD/HIV control and prevention programmes in the health services for women refugees, besides maternal/child health and family planning services.
166. O'Connor, Ronald W. The development of a health program for women and children. P. 163-188, notes, tables. Healthcare in Muslim Asia : Development and disorder in wartime Afghanistan. New York, University Press of America. 1994.
This chapter elaborates on the development of women's and children's health care services initiated by NGOs in an
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embattled country. It includes strategies adopted by humanitarian organizations and UN agencies in implementing the programmes within the current socio-cultural and political constraints. In this context, the following programmes have been implemented in Afghanistan and in Pakistan where refugees are being accommodated:
O Training of Afghan women health workers
O Volunteer health sisters for community outreach and
social communication O Maternal, child health and family planning services
The chapter reviews lessons learned from the women and children’s programmes that are helpful in improving the quality of services. This book shows that significant advancement in basic health services could be achieved even in times of war and social disorder.
167. Office of the United Nations Co-ordinator for Afghanistan. United Nations Afghanistan commends Afghan women. Islamabad, 8 March 2000. P.2. Source: ICES Archives).
A press release referring to the humanitarian activities of UN agencies towards healthcare of women and girls in Afghanistan. Accordingly, a 3-year training programme for women nurses has been launched by WHO/WFP on International Women's Day. Further, medical supplies have been donated to women's hospitals in Kabul and women doctors who wish to return are being assisted by the International Organisation for Migration (IOM).
The UNICEF and Habitat (UNCHS) are pursuing advocacy activities for women by bringing them together for dialogue on gender-related issues, and building solidarity among them.
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168. Poore, Peter. Delivering reproductive healthcare. An examination of the constraints. P. 16 (6 P18-19. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 20. November 1995.
Steps taken by UNFPA in providing reproductive healthcare for refugees/internally displaced and the projects launched are listed here. Reproductive healthcare encompasses family planning, services and programmes on maternal and child health. Brief description of:
O Clinical and counselling services on family planning,
and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases
O Training of health personnel and community self-help
groups
are given in this article. Further, it pin-points that challenges in reproductive care for women refugees lies in assessing what is available and what more needs to be done in reproductive health services within the socio-cultural constraints of the refugee situation. The paper includes a number of factors that determies the health needs of refugees to be met by humanitarian relief and also suggestions to improve the health care. The author says that “ the failure of state and humanitarian agencies to provide adequate health care is not technical but organisational...”. Good practices, effective responses and participation of the refugee community are essential to improve women's health care among the displaced.
169. Physicians for Human Rights. Humanitarian assistance in Afghanistan. P.37-41. notes. The Taliban's war on women: A health and human rights crisis in Afghanistan. Boston, 1998.
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The United Nations humanitarian services have gained little access to women's health services and health education in Afghanistan though a memorandum of understanding has been signed between the UN and the Taliban. The participation of women in health educational programmes has been very gradual due to “economic difficulties and specific cultural traditions....” It is important that women's health services be accepted in terms of women's human rights in Taliban controlled areas, for humanitarian programmes to provide women's health care.
170. Rahman, Tahmina. Literacy for refugee women. A case study from Nepal. p. 28-29. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 21, April 1996.
The Oxfam Bhutanese Support Programme in Nepal conducts a health awareness programme through their literacy project for women refugees in partnership with Save the Children Fund. This helps to raise consciousness on child health and related social issues. Textbooks supplied for the adult education programme contains topics on reproductive health, child health, primary health care and immunisation. This encourages women to use the facilities available at health centres located in settlements and camps.
171. Ravindran, Sundari T.K. Addressing gender and health issues in NGO programmes. P24-27., append. Gender issues in health projects and programmes. Oxfam. Discussion Paper No.5. Oxford, 1995.
Reproductive health programmes at grass-root level need to be gender-sensitive in order to make them more effective. The chapter de als with the gender-related approaches for

successful programming of health care for the community. Family planning services for women could be integrated with other women's health services, such as safe abortion. For women's health care at community level, NGOs need to raise gender awareness among women, train them in skill development, provide specific health services to suit their needs and organise women to form support groups for sustainability of the programme. The chapter gives suggestions on raising gender issues in health with the funding agencies, with reference to constraints faced by most NGOs and the approaches towards such situations.
This report introduces the subject of women's health within a social context, identifies women's health needs, accentuates the importance of healthcare for women and strategies for NGOs to launch programmes for rural women.
172. Reproductive Health for Refugees - RHR Consortium. P.12. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 20. November 1995.
The RHR Consortium supports institutionalising reproductive health services in refugee settlements throughout the world. The organisation focuses on services for family planning, HIV/ AID and sexually transmitted diseases, gender violence, maternal and child health and gynaecological services. Member institutions of the Consortium work towards:
O Advocating increased attention and action among policy
makers, donors and service groups O Educating on reproductive health in refugee camps
O Expanding the number of organisations involved in
promoting women’s health services for refugees
The member institutions of the Reproductive Health for Refugees (RHR) Consortium provide health services to victims
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of rape and sexual abuse in refugee settlements. The members include CARE, International Rescue Committee (IRC), Marie Stopes International, John Snow Research & Training Institute and the Women's Commission for refugee Women and Children, USA.
173. Sorensen, Brigitte. Rehabilitation and social services. P46-51. Women and post-conflict resolution. The War torn Societies Project Occasional Paper No.3. Geneva, United Nations. June 1998.
Women's health care activities in war-inflicted societies consist of primary health care and response to psycho-social problems. The author quotes that “in most war-affected societies women health personnel have served their own kind by not only providing medical assistance through voluntary organisations, but also by conducting training and discussion groups on health-related issues...', thereby playing a productive role in those societies.
174. Sphere Project. Minimum standards in health services. P. 219-22 1. Humanitarian Charter° and Minimum standards in Disaster response. Geneva, 20000.
According to this section, women's views are important in formulating humanitarian services to the affected population. As women have a greater awareness of the cultural factors affecting their health they could relate to specific needs of the vulnerabie. Therefore, a gender-based participation is important in launching health services to the conflict-affected
g The second revised edition incorporates gender review and
feed-back from field experience.
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people. The volume deals with the practicality of the Principles and Rights coded in the Humanitarian Charter that encompass the human rights, humanitarian rights and the refugee law.
The Sphere project aims to improve the quality of humanitarian support provided to people affected by disasters and also to improve the work of the humanitarian system in emergencies. This is a programme of the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response (SCHR), InterAction, VOICE, ICRC and ICVA.
175. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Humanitarian assistance through Swedish NGOs. Woman to Woman. P. 18. Swedish humanitarian assistance: Annual Report 1997, Stockholm.
This gives a background to Woman to Woman which is a network of women’s organisations and individuals in Sweden who wish to protest against armed conflict and support victims of conflict. It is a fund-raiser without any ethnic and political bias that works with those in the Former Soviet Union. Through their emergency activities health services are provided to women, in particular to mothers through mobile health clinics. SIDA is a donor for the humanitarian projects of Woman to Woman.
176. Takazato, Suzuyo. Report from Okinawa Long-term U.S. Military presence and violence against women. P42-47. ref. Canadian Woman studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
A reference to women activists protesting against rape and military violence committed by U.S. troops in the southern
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part of Japan. In their efforts to eliminate the military violence against women, the Okinawa women are working towards promoting an international network, support systems and campaign by:
O Developing their women’s organisations through conscious-raising, research and networking nationally and internally
O Organising vigils, campaigns and public protests O Appealing to the state and international peace
moVementS
177. UNICEF. Women sy health. P 59-76. Women in transition: The Monee project. Regional Monitoring Report No.6. Florence (Italy), 1999.
The report explores the status of displaced women from Central, Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union and suggests that displaced women's health should be a focal point for the humanitarian services of World Health Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF. Conventionally, health care of the displaced women is directed towards pregnancy and maternal health services. This section of the report stresses that women's health extends beyond childbearing to women's overall health as an integral part of reconstructed societies. It further gives health statistics on women in displacement and views their access to health care.
178. UNICEF. Next steps - Recommendations and a plan of action. P.30-32. The gender dimension of internal displacement: Concept paper and annotated bibliography. Prepared by Judy A. Benjamin and Kadija Fancy. Office of the Emergency Programmes Working Paper Series. New York, 1998.
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This section gives suggestions to UNICEF to plan actions towards issues on internally displaced women and children, particularly on women's health, family planning, pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases/HIV and counselling services for rape/torture victims.
179. UNHCR. How to guide reproductive health in refugee situations. A community-based response on sexual violence against women. Ngara (Tanzania). S.l), January 1997. P.13; annex.
Developed through the experiences in the refugee camps in Tanzania, this is a guide for field-based humanitarian workers, NGO staff and others in health, community services, protection and other related sectors.
180. UNHCR. Medical protocol for treatment of rape victims, Ngara, Tanzania. P. 18-21. ref. How to give reproductive health in refugee situations: A community-based response on sexual violence against Women. Ngara (Tanzania), January 1997.
This manual, while helping humanitarian workers to solve the problem of sexual violence in refugee settings, gives guidelines to treat victims of rape in places where medical services are minimal. Issues on prophylactic (antibiotic) therapy, treatment for sexually transmitted diseases and emergency contraception have been dealt with extensively. This guide is applicable in any refugee situation of the humanitarian worker.
181. UNDAW and UNFPA and UNHCR. Framework for a human rights approach to women's health . Refugees,
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migrant and displaced women. P15-17. Roundtable of Human Rights Treaty Bodies on Human Rights approaches to Women's Health, with a focus on sexual and reproductive health and rights. New York, UNFPA. 19.
A conference report focusing on gender perspectives on health and human rights, with a discussion on human rights approach to the health of minority women. When focusing on the rights to reproductive and sexual health of refugees and internally displaced women, humanitarian law and policy fails to recognise gender issues. As such, they fail to address women's special needs for protection in refugee situations.
This forum is based on women’s rights to reproductive health in situations of forced displacement, and calls for specific actions to address their health needs. Health programmes should involve:
O Expansion of reproductive and sexual health
O Control of child-bearing through safe contraception
O Training of displaced women to become service providers, through special programmes to set up community-based health clinics.
The Roundtable pinpoints the responsibility of humanitarian agencies to collaborate with state and international institutions to provide such services during and after armed conflict, and to involve women in the reconstruction and nation-building process.
182. Walker, Bridget. The question of gender. P. 8-11. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 20. November 1995.
Assistance to women in disaster emergencies has been less developed even though gender integration is widely recognised
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in development programmes. The author highlights the importance of including gender in all phases of humanitarian relief, particularly in women's health services to women in displacement and in exile.
183. Waszak, Cindy and Tucker, Beverly. The reproductive health needs of adolescent refugees. P.23-25. RPN Refugee Participation Network. Issue 20. November 1995.
Provision of reproductive health services in an adolescent refugee community where there is instability in sexual and reproductive development is vital. Reproductive health needs of adolescents are diverse and the cultural norms or practices in their home countries can influence their sexual behaviour in displacement. The delivery of health services therefore, should be based on the above. This paper presents case studies of adolescent refugees from Vietnam in the camps of Thailand, exploring the need for pregnancy care, family planning services and sex education among young women.
184. Women's Health and Development Programme. Excerpts from the Liberian Manual for training traditional midwives. Violence against women in war. s.l., 1995. P... Source: ICES Archives). マ
This manual provides a guideline on ethics for health personnel, in particular the traditional midwives, to cope with victims of rape, sexual abuse and other gender crimes committed during the civil war in Liberia. It helps them to cope with those facing social stigmatisation and gender based prejudices, attempting to re-define the traditional role of midwives in rural areas. Also included is a series of activities
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to establish a more meaningful relationship with the rural community during post-war development.
Support for women victims of sexual violence is one of the areas in reproductive health care among refugees. Sexual violence is common in times of war and rape is a war weapon. Suggestions are given for prevention of unwanted pregnancies through emergency contraception. However, contraception services depend on the circumstances under which rape occurs.
185. Wulf, Deirdre. The reproductive health needs of refugee women. P3-19. Refugee women and reproductive health care : Reassessing priorities. New York, Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children. June 1994.
It is observed that healthcare services in refugee settings are generally directed towards “mothers” and not “women”. The programmes often exclude birth control/contraceptive services and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases for women. Humanitarian health services should consider sustainable health care and the general well-being of women. Therefore, it is advantageous for NGOs and humanitarian agencies to work in collaboration with the international health community. The article gives suggestions to health care agencies to address refugee women's reproductive needs more widely through:
O Needs assessments
O Policy reforms
O Research on women's health issues
O Preventive healthcare and
O Clinical protocols/management guidelines.
See also Citation Nos. 64, 106, 134, 136, 142, 144, 156, 304 & 312. −
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2.22 Sri Lanka
186. "A brief report of the counselling programme". P. 2-4. CHA Newsletter. Vol.II, issue No3. July/August 1997.
A training programme for counselling of young widows was co-ordinated by ARD and assisted by Oxfam in 3 regions of Kilinochchi viz., Karachi, Kandavalai and Punnakam during April- May 1996. The themes were on:
O Listening skills
Self-esteem
Post-trauma Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Grief therapy
Family counselling
Theory of personality Feelings and how to deal with them Psycho-sexual/psycho-social development stages and transactional analysis
O Case studies and group dynamics
Individual counselling was given to young widows according to their needs. Also, “support groups” were formed where the victims shared their own losses and problems. Similar groups were formed for young mothers who were separated from their spouses. 。つ
187. Amarasekera, Paneetha. Volunteers trained to counsel
'war widows'. The Daily News. 28 April 1999.
A workshop to train volunteers in trauma counselling for war widows in Sri Lankan armed forces was held by the Association of Retired Flag Rank (AFRO) and the Psychiatric
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Association of Sri Lanka. Around 200 women have been widowed by the civil war and suffer from psychological problems due to the loss of their spouses.
188. A m para District NGO Consortium. Health and educational improvements. P.... Voice of Needy People. Ampara, 11 February 2000.
Health conditions of pregnant women affected by armed conflict undergoes further deterioration by malnutrition, poor medical services, inadequacy of drugs, and lack of specialised medical attention. This report refers to health care for needy women as one of the challenges faced by humanitarian organisations working in conflict-affected areas.
189. Baron, Nancy. Proposed programmes. P20-25. Psychosocial needs assessment: The voice of internally displaced people in the non-conflict area of Sri Lanka. Colombo, 15 June 1994.
This study serves to assess the psycho-social needs of the internally displaced people in camps and to use this data to develop humanitarian programmes to meet their needs. The report proposes the mobilisation of women's support groups through which sewing groups could get involved in making soft toys for the children. This type of activity would help the women and children to cope with stress due to conflict and displacement. Further, it encourages women to meet and provide support and empathy for each other. The report also refers to the success of self-employment and mental health programmes launched by NGOs towards war-widows in displacement. V
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190. Bawa, Badriya. Living with refugees for five years. P. 16. Voice of Women. Vol.4, Issue 4. September 1996.
This is an article on the psycho-social programmes conducted in refugee camps of Northern Sri Lanka, to motivate the emotional well-being of internally displaced women with dependant children. The counselling sessions help them to combat the psychological trauma experienced after displacement. A parallel training programme was conducted for social workers from the East who in turn could train the humanitarian workers dealing with war victims.
191. Centre for Women and Development (CWD). A brief outline of the programmes and projects). Jaffna, 5 May 2000. P. Source: ICES Archives).
This unpublished document highlights a programme on health education that is especially designed for women in warafflicted zones. Pregnant women are the most vulnerable to suffer from malnutrition. CWD together with social workers, medical personnel and the local government has launched this programme. The organisation also distributes food supplement to pregnant women and lactating mothers, through rural health and community centres. This is a women’s NGO committed towards the empowerment of women living in Jaffna.
192. Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies CHA. Sri Lanka Churches Child Care Association (SLCCA). P21. [and) Human Development Centre (HUDEC). P.34. Compendium of Humanitarian agencies and Donors (Northern province - Sri Lanka). April 1999.
A reference to the nutritional programmes conducted by SLCCA for pregnant mothers through milk feeding centres in
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Jaffna. Women are also trained on childcare. The SLCCA has other Christian institutions as partners for humanitarian relief programmes. -1
HUDEC is a religious organisation involved in health programmes for women in Jaffna, Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu. HUDEC has launched a nutritional programme for lactating mothers in areas where malnutrition is a major problem as a result of the ongoing war.
193. The Consortium of NGOs in the Trincomalee District. Eastern United Women's Organisation. P20-23. and. Se va Lanka Foundation, Trinc o male e. P. 12 - 122. Trincomalee District Non-governmental Organisations: Activities profile. Background and Project Information. Trincomalee, December 1999.
This is the background information on the efforts of a local women’s NGO, towards humanitarian aid. The project focuses on health services, nutrition, water and sanitation for the warstricken families in Kantalai - to women in particular. This project had been implemented from May 1997 to December 1998, assisted by SEDEC. The health and nutrition programmes were conducted by the Foundation for Rural Women in Trincomalee district from 1995 to 1998, with assistance from UNHCR, GTZ and other international NGOs.
194. Crook, Sally. Draft report on community health in the Vanni, plus recommendations on Oxfam s responses. September - October 1998 visit. s.l., Oxfam. 30 September 1998. Unpublished). P...
These are observations made on the extent of support provided by humanitarian agencies towards women's health services in
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the Vanni area where the displaced have found shelter. Besides supporting medical personnel, the agencies need to train health volunteers in ante-natal and post-natal health services. This report recommends providing basic needs such as clothing through the clinical staff to pregnant women and mothers so that they could attend the clinics more regularly.
195. De Silva, Nillika. Healing wounds. Sunday Times. 23
May 1999.
A group of voluntary organisations have conducted a training course for counselling for humanitarian workers, including those having counselling services for widows and women headed households in war zones. The workshop concentrates on communication with war-victims, war-widows in particular, who, besides having financial difficulties have problems in bringing up their adult children as well.
196. District Planning Secretariat, District Secretariat. Population Services Lanka. P. 22. and Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya: Performanance of Vavuniya District NGOO on approved projects (01.01. 1999 - 31. 12. 199). P. 23. Vavuniya District Performance Report 1999: UNHCR micro-projects, UNICEF and NGO projects as at 31.12.1999. Vavuniya, 10 January 2000.
An outline of the special projects for women's reproductive health care. Components of the health services are safe motherhood care, Infant and childcare, family planning, subfertility issues, control of sexually transmitted diseases, adolescent health care and general treatment for ailments. This programme is being implemented for women from 22 villages in Vavuniya under the assistance of the Overseas Development for U.K.
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The summary shows a population and women's health training programme conducted for the internally displaced women in Vavuniya by the Samgamaya. This self-funded programme was held for 20 participants.
197. District situation report. Jaffna peninsula. P. 36-37 and
District situation report. Kilinochchi. P. 40 (and/ General information. Patients seeking medical treatment. P. 49. Listening to the displaced. CHA Newsletter. Vol.II, Issue No.3. July/August 1997.
Women heads of households are among these vulnerable to health care in the Vanni area where the civilian population is affected by inadequate health facilities. Lack of parallel infrastructure such as water supply, transportation and electricity affects the health services in the region. Pregnant women and lactating mothers in the Vadamarachchi region, particularly returnees from the Vanni area are urgently in need of nutritional supplements. There is also a lack of midwives in the region.
TRO is involved in providing nutrition to undernourished mothers in the Kilinochchi region. HUDEC provides food Supplements for post-natal and ante-natal mothers who are displaced. It is evident that the degree of NGO involvement in this region is diminishing probably due to the state restrictions imposed on NGOs.
The release of inmates from welfare centres in Vavuniya where restrictions are imposed on the movements of the internally displaced - pregnant women in the advance stage of pregnancy will be released to travel to Vavuniya on medical recommendations made by the District Medical Officer. They could reside in Vavuniya up to one month after child-birth
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and thereafter, mothers with newly born babies could live in a permanent residence through a restricted resident pass issued by the State authorities.
198. District situation Report: Kilinochchi. P. 19-20. CHA
Newsletter. Vol.II, Issue 2. May/June 1997.
Tamil Refugees Organisation (TRO) an indigenous NGO working in conflict zones of the North is managing nutritional centres for displaced persons. TRO provides nutritional supplements (“Palm Posha' a product of the Palmyrah palm abundant in the north) to ante-natal mothers and lactating mothers to counter the problem of malnutrition.
199. Empowerment Programme. P4-5. Survivors Associated
Newsletter. Ist Quarter, January/March 2000.
The summary of a health programme conducted by SA to displaced widows from Sithamparapuram camp (Vavuniya) during January this year. The programme aims at helping them overcome mental depression, lethargy and informing them of the support facilities available in medical, legal, economic and health sectors. A follow-up on stress management covers counselling sessions for mothers, discussions with befrienders and play therapy for children. Sessions on primary health care and self-employment have been included in this programme.
200. Farook, Faiza. War zone docs on warpath. Sunday
Times. 28 November 1999.
This news item indicates a deterioration of health services for the displaced, mostly women with dependent children.
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Humanitarian agencies working together with state health personnel in war zones and the medical doctors from Vavuniya, Batticaloa and Ampara are requesting the Ministry of Health to be released from "risk” to “non-risk” stations after one year of service.
201. FORUT. Jaffna: Karainagar. P. 9. [and] Puttalam: The Kuruwankudil project. P. 14-15. FORUT Annual Report 1996. Colombo.
This is an account of the health services provided for the internally displaced women by FORU T. Mothers and children's health clinics have received food supplements. Health volunteers from adjoining villages were trained to assist midwives in their routine work.
The report focuses on the nutritional and women's health care as the major components of FORUT projects in Puttalam area where the internally displaced women are resettled. Nutritional programmes are held for mothers with the help of medical personnel in the locality and a maternal welfare clinic has been set up with community support.
202. Government of Sri Lanka and UNICEF. Health programme. P. 14-15. Government of Sri Lanka-UNICEF Programme of Cooperation 1997-2001: Mid term review 1999 (Final Report). Colombo, October 1999.
Internally displaced women and service personnel are among the high-risk groups for sexually transmitted diseases. This section of the report relates to “Safe Motherhood” and HIV/ AIDS control programmes conducted for the displaced women with children by UNICEF. Training of health workers in women's health is also part of the programme.
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203. German Technical Co-operation. Integrated Food
Security Programme Trincomalee (IFSP). P. 55-56 GTZ in Sri Lanka. Colombo, February 1999.
IFSP recognises the needs of women in armed conflict, especially of single women and widows who are heads of households. As women are vulnerable in terms of health and malnutrition, their health programme aims to improve health services, health education and family planning through volunteers who assist in curative and preventive health care.
The main IFSP activities focus on the Trincomalee region, while the “Food-for-Work” programme covers the Trincomalee and Ampara districts.
204. Govinnage, Malini. North-East conflict: Fallout on women, children. The Daily News. 5 June 1999.
This news item reports on the observations made by a stateappointed fact finding committee that women in war-inflicted areas have inadequate health services including those of midwives. As a result maternal and infant deaths occur frequently.
205. Health - Sri Lanka : NGO takes HIV/AIDS battle to... Online. s. n.s.l.. 18 October 1999. Source: ICES Archives.
The ongoing civil war in Sri Lanka has lead to the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases among military personnel. As brothels around military bases has made the military personnel a new high-risk group for HIV/AIDS. UNDP is conducting an awareness-raising programme for soldiers on AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases and avoidance of such diseases.
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206. Human resource development of professional helpers in mental health and well being. P. 20. CHA Newsletter. Vol. III, Issue 2. March/April 1999.
Gender and forced migration was one of the themes of a 5day training programme aimed at developing social workers and humanitarian workers to respond effectively to forced migration of the displaced and refugees. This was organised by the Federation of NGOs for Mental Health and Well-Being and the Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies (CHA).
207. Hyndman, Jennifer and De Alwis, Malathi. Case study on Sri Lanka. Gender, conflict and displacement. Lessons learned from Sri Lanka. P21-25. Expert Meeting on Gender Dimensions of International Displacement. New York, 14-15 June 1999.
Gender, conflict and displacement in Sri Lanka, their effect on displaced women in Sri Lanka and their implication on humanitarian agencies are discussed in this working paper. This is based on field research done in the Northern and Eastern parts of the country. Pre-natal and post-natal health
services are the only ones “visible” in war-affected regions, though birth control measures and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases are equally important for the displaced. Also, the population in border-areas where sex workers are on the increase is much in need of women's health information/ services. The paper calls for a reconceptualisation of women's health care by humanitarian agencies working in Sri Lanka.
208. International Centre for Ethnic Studies. Ahavoli Christian Family Service Centre. P. 4-5. A directory: Violence against women: Organisations, activities and
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projects concerning violence against women in Sri Lanka. Colombo, September 1999.
The directory cites A ha vol i-a religious-based social organisation in the Jaffna Peninsula that conducts counselling programmes for women to combat gender violence. While encouraging women from all parts of the peninsula to participate Ahavoli conducts group therapy for war widows and family counselling programmes.
209. Jaffna Diocese of the Church of South India (JDCSI). Health programme. P.5. Kiran Widows Empowerment Project (KWEP): Annual report and case analysis 199697, Batticaloa.
This report discusses the health programme launched by JDCSI to widows in Kiran, a village much affected by armed strife in Northern Batticaloa. Community workers of JDCSI are trained with the help of the government primary health nurses, who in turn educate the women on issues of basic health care.
The Family rehabilitation Centre is a local NGO focusing on post-violence health aspects by providing psycho-social services including trauma counselling and medical treatment for women who are victims of armed conflict. Women are a target group for FRC and most of the field workers at FRC are war-widows. FRC runs centres throughout the country on prevention and awareness programmes for a variety of others such as NGOs, media personnel, law enforcement authorities, armed forces, prison officials and community leaders.
NEST is a community-based organisation working towards mental health care in Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and
Moneragala that are border areas to the war zones. NEST
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works closely with midwives and other public health personnel in promoting women's mental health and towards prevention of sexually transmitted diseases/HIV. The assistance for NEST is through public donations and international humanitarian organisations.
War widows from the border villages to war-inflicted areas are given trauma counselling by SAPSRI - a local NGO. This project has been initiated in 1999, with provision of financial assistance to them.
210. James, Sister Victorine. Shanthiham. The Association for Health and Counselling. P. 138-14 1., charts. Victims of war in Sri Lanka: "A question of health consensus". International Conference on Health, London, 17-18 September 1994.
This paper highlights the services of Shanthiham that is a local NGO conducting trauma counselling for victims of armed violence in Jaffna. Statistics reveal that most of those receiving counselling are women. The organisation aims to provide:
O Trauma counselling services and training teachers and
health workers as counsellors
O Referral services to the needy towards medical help
O Awareness programmes for school children on mental
trauma
O Peer group support for trained personnel
In partnership with NORAD, Shanthiham is involved in a research/study on mental health in Jaffna.
211. Jayasinghe, Indralal. Health. P. 26-27. Situational
analysis of Puttalam. Colombo), Oxfam. May 1995.
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This section of the report refers to the high increase in maternal mortality as 52 per 1 000 in the Puttalam district where the internally displaced are being settled. The report suggests that policy planners, NGOs and humanitarian agencies who wish to contribute towards the development in Puttalam district, should initiate a well-planned health education programme as a public educational programme. They could also provide incentives to entrepreneurs to start producing food supplements (e.g: Triposha). Community-based NGOs should be encouraged to develop programmes with guidance and assistance from international and national NGOs.
212. Manikavas agam, P. UNHCR acts on grass root problems in the Vanni. Weekend Express. 24 October 1998.
The news item refers to the medical dispensary that has been opened by the Social, Economic & Environmental Developers (SEED) in collaboration with UNHCR in Sithambarapuram (Vavuniya). This provides primary health care for the returnees, those resettled and for those engaged in microprojects in this locality.
213. Mobile health in Batticaloa. P.3. ICRC Newsletter. Issue
No.5. June 1998.
The newsletter gives an account of the health services provided by ICRC for displaced people in conflict-affected areas. In Batticaloa the humanitarian health workers along with government mid-wives and preventive health personnel conduct health clinics and immunisation programmes for mothers and children. Mobile health services are conducted in partnership with MSF for villages and "uncleared areas” where the state health services are minimal or non-existent.
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214. Medicins San Frontieres [MSF). Madhu and Mannar districts. P. MSF Annual Report 1997, Colombo.
The health services delivered by MSF in Madhu and Mannar districts in 1997 is given in this part of the report, where preventive healthcare for women and children is one of the objectives. The maternity clinic of the Catholic Church Madhu is supported by MSF where the ante-natal clinic has a followup programme for pregnant women that include preventive treatment for malnutrition and hygienic advisory services. MSF also runs mobile clinics to the surrounding areas where there is a massive displacement of people due to the armed confrontation.
215. MSF warns of medical emergency in Northern Sri Lanka. P4. Weekly News on Internally Displaced Persons. 1-7 May 20000. Source -http://www.idpproject.org.
This news refers to pregnant mothers in the war-afflicted Northern Sri Lanka, who are urgently in need of essential drugs. While providing humanitarian assistance to the displaced population, Doctors Without Borders/Medicins Sans Frontiers (MSF) face an acute shortage of medical supplies in Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu, due to “a sudden change in the procedure for approval and transportation of medicines...'. MSF calls upon the government to expedite the transportation.
216. NEST. Community health workers' year. P. 10. The community health worker: A collection of writings on the work of the community health workers of Nest, in the year 1st April 1997 to 31st March 1998.
A write-up by the Executive Director refers to a health education programme entitled “Reducing the harm from HIV.”
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conducted for the women in the Sri Lanka Navy. The organisation trains and evaluates the community health workers in the public midwife areas of Polonnaruwa district. Nest produces documentary films and conducts workshops at community level on health awareness.
217. NGO Consortium. Gender and development. Schedule VIII. P. 27. Programmes & Activities of Ampara District. Akkaraipattu (Sri Lanka), 1998.
The Affected Women’s Forum (AWF) a local women’s NGO in the district conducts health seminars covering maternal and child health and nutrition. Besides AWF there are many other women’s NGOs viz., Kaalam, Mahasakthi Foundation, Mother & Child Care Society and the social welfare societies of Akkaraipattu and Ampara which are involved in similar programmes.
218. Novib. Sri Lanka policy paper. P. 27-28. ss.ll, 21
September 1992.
This policy document indicates their developmental activities in trauma counselling for women refugees in camps. Women for Peace a local action group and Novib have implemented a mental health project on relief and rehabilitation for the displaced.
219. Oxfam. Oxfam's strategic thinking of women heads of households in conflict. Chapter 4. A qualitative comparative study of Sri Lankan and Cambodian poor women heads of households' survival strategies in the context of armed conflict. s.l., 19... P.53; ref.
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This chapter views humanitarian assistance rendered by Oxfam for war widows and their dependents in Southern Sri Lanka. The projects aims at improving their psychological health, besides em powerment and socio-economic development. Trauma counselling and rehabilitation programmes were carried out for those affected by conflict.
220. Oxfam. Listen ing in Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu: A second series of interviews in OXFAM operational areas of Northern Sri Lanka. P. 16. Colombo. 19...
This study is sought to better understand the public attitudes and interventions regarding displacement and return and assist Oxfam in preparing packages of non-food relief items to suit the actual needs of the displaced. In a dialogue with displaced women Oxfam was able to realize that they needed material for personal hygiene and traditional infrastructure for sanitation for health care of women. Based on these observations, work was carried out in settlement sites.
221. Perera, Sasanka. Extension of the states role in dealing with the past: Absence of knowledge and lack of access to mental health services. P. 135-140. Stories of survivors: Socio-political contexts of female headed households in post-terror Southern Sri Lanka. Vol.I. Colombo, WERC. 1999.
This volume deals with the impact of JVP related violence in Southern Sri Lanka in late 1980’s on the health of women heads of households. In conclusion, the author highlights the role of humanitarian agencies in providing services of mental health to the affected women. The contribution of humanitarian agencies could be summarised as follows:
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222.
To provide logistic support and funds for regional outreach
Programmes in mental health and counselling To establish permanent mental health centres To intervene in registering and monitoring mental health professionals, so that no violation of human ethics are made To provide information on mental health to state officials, social scientists, health experts, civil societies and community workers.
Rajarata Sahab agithwa Sanwardena Padanama: A project working with refugee camps in border villages. HIV/AIDS project. Intervention. The Daily News. 1 December 1999.
A news advertisement by Alliance Lanka which is a humanitarian agency working with the internally displaced Muslim women from the North of Sri Lanka. The programme aims at:
223.
Raising awareness on reproductive and sexual health among women Overcoming cultural barriers prevailing in the community, which are disadvantageous to women's progress. Bringing about a change of attitude among the men in the community
Regular visits to refugee camps. P.5. Family Rehabilitation Centre Newsletter. Vol. A/1, No. 1. JanFeb-March 1999.
War widows affected by extreme trauma are target persons for counselling services in mental health conducted by Family
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Rehabilitation Centre. Monthly meetings with war widows are conducted as part of the “Empowerment of War Widows Programme.”
224. Reproductive health project in conflict affected areas sand/ Workshop to train counsellors for war widows.
The Daily News. 31 May 1999.
A news item on a two-year project on reproductive health is being implemented with funds from the Australian Government and channelled through UNFPA for the population affected by conflict. This comprises reproductive health services and information on programmes of heath care, supplementing the UNFPA supported Reproductive Health Service Delivery Programme in Sri Lanka.
This workshop is organised by Ex-Servicemen Association (AFRO) and the Psychiatric Association of Sri Lanka, aiming to train personnel to counsel war widows. The participants are volunteers and are supposed to serve victims in their respective districts.
225. Samarasinghe, Gameela. Strategies of coping. P. 102119. Stories of survivors: Socio-political contexts of female headed households in post-terror Southern Sri Lanka. Vol.I. Colombo, WERC. 1999.
This article focuses on strategies utilised by women heads of households in Hambantota and Moneragala to cope with violence during the JVP insurrection in late 1980's and the current civil war by LTTE. It examines the coping mechanisms deployed by these women after the loss of their spouses or
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family members. Mental health services in terms of humanitarian support are marginal or non-existent in these regions. However, some NGOs and women's movements have helped the traumatised women to form support groups to share their “burden'. The paper stresses the need for humanitarian, agencies to offer health services, particularly for trauma counselling, through psychologists and social workers.
226. Samarasinghe, Gameela [and] Galapatti, Ananda. Living in conflict zones, past and present. Women and psychological sufferings. (A draft). Women in Conflict Zones Network: A comparative study of the issues faced by women as a result of armed conflict: Sri Lanka and the Post-Yugoslav Štates, Hendala (Sri Lanka), 11-13 December, 1998.
This is a draft paper on the psychological impact of war on women, in the North and East of Sri Lanka viz., Vavuniya and Moneragala. The paper outlines the concerns regarding the dominant conceptualisation of violence-related psychological distress, exploring its relevance to the lives of women. The paper includes case studies of women victims, particularly those of "war-widows” who have experienced the ill-effects of a prolonged armed conflict.
227. Sivarajah, N. Maternal and child health. P40-43.
charts, ref. Victims of war in Sri Lanka: "A question of health Consensus". International Conference on Health, London, 17-18 September 1994.
This paper illustrates the deterioration of maternal and child healthcare and services in Jaffna during the past years. While emphasising on a political solution to the armed conflict, the
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author requests the international community to pressurize towards lifting of the economic ban, resettlement of the displaced and restoration of agricultural and fishing industries. In particular, the decentralization of undergraduate and paramedical training is most needed for proper maternal and child health services.
228. Sivachandran, Saroja. Health of women and the elderly. P.48-50. ref. Victims of war in Sri Lanka : "A question of health consensus". International Conference on Health, London, 17-18 September 1994.
Women in war-stricken Jaffna are organising themselves into various community-based organisations, to advocate improving health programmes towards maternal and child health. This paper focuses on the role played by women through the Centre for Women and Development that implements primary health care for the young and elderly women at grass-root levels. The author recommends strategies for the international community that could provide assistance to the North. She requests that they provide additional medical personnel to train the local community as midwives and to help establish nutrition centres to supply food supplements for pregnant women and mothers with dependent children.
229. Somasundaram, Daya. Social rehabilitation and reconstruction. P. 305-306. Scarred minds : The psychological impact of war on Sri Lankan Tamils. Colombo, Vijitha Yapa Bookshop. 1998.
This section of the book deals with the social rehabilitation and reconstruction of the North and East within the framework of mental health. International aid agencies, UN organisations,
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donors and NGOs should be flexible and “...let any project or programme develop and grow out of local initiatives which can be sensitive and responsive to the needs, demands and pressures within the community”. Self-help groups and local leadership should be encouraged to initiate programmes, using resources from outside agencies and NGOs.
The volume focuses on the theoretical and clinical aspects of the psychological impact of pro longed war-violence on civilians, using the civil war in Sri Lanka as a case study. The study is based on the author's experience both as a psychiatrist and as a refugee.
230. Srishanmugarajah, M. Healthcare and rehabilitation of women and children in the Batticaloa District. P. 135137. Victims of war in Sri Lanka: " A question of health consensus". International Conference on Health, London, 17-18 September 1994.
A paper evaluating the healthcare of women and children from the war-affected Eastern Sri Lanka. The paper provides a background to the problem and efforts of NGOs to meet the health and rehabilitation needs of war widows and women with dependent children. Dry zone Development Foundation (DDF) is an indigenous NGO that aims at addressing the needs through:
Nutritional programmes Counselling services O “Barefoot doctors” who provide community services and
to supervise income generating projects and O Treatment with herbal bath
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This paper reviews the projects implemented by DDF in Rannespuram, Batticaloa district.
231. Suriya Women's Development Centre. Programmes related to women affected by violence. Source: ICES Archives). Batticaloa, 31 March 2000. P.2.
This information gives the work programme of Suriya towards internally displaced women with children in the East. Women and girl children affected by violence are assisted to seek medical help, legal aid and to lodge complaints with the police. Responding to their health needs, this women's NGO runs medical clinics in camps and refers patients to state medical services.
232. Survivors Associated SA). Empowerment of female heads of households. P.23-25. Evaluation of Survivors Associated (April 1996 to August 1998). Ratmalana (Sri Lanka), August 1998.
An outline of a mental health module devised as part of the empowerment programme for women in conflict. Conducted by health workers of SA this covers issues on grief and mental trauma and the basic methods of overcoming the problem through group therapy, befriending services and referrals for counselling. Also including primary health care and first aid, the programme is held in Mannar, Kantalai and Kalmunai, targeting widows in particular. SA has also held a stress management programme for parents and Care givers in conflict-affected areas.
233. Thiruchandran, Selvy. Households as alienating and the levels of poverty. P. 110-115. The other victims of war:
18

Emergence of female headed households in Eastern Sri Lanka. Vol.II. Colombo, WERC. 1999.
This part of the volume refers to the socio-economic
conditions of women heads of households in war afflicted
Eastern Sri Lanka, based on a field survey. The researchers; were able to observe a large proportion of sick and under
nourished women who have the responsibility of caring and
providing for their families. In terms of their healthcare the
war has de-stabilised state health services to a large extent,
and "NGOs have not included services to the sick in their
agenda..'.
234. Tiruchelvam, Neelan. Adjournment debate motion on the displacement in Vavuniya, November 14, 1996. P4247. and Defence vote, December 5 1997. P. 79-80. and Adjournment motion on the food situation in the Vanni, 20 August 1998. P 104-105. Transcending the bitter legacy: Parliamentary speeches: Neelan Tiruchelvam. Edited by Lisa M. Kois. International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Colombo. January 2000.
This parliamentary speech highlights the socio-economic conditions of the displaced in Vavuniya. Health facilities in refugee camps and in the government hospitals are inadequate for primary health care as well as for preventive health. The Speaker calls for humanitarian assistance to address the needs of the displaced people. The speech on the internally displaced in the Vanni area reveals that women form a large proportion of those psychologically traumatized and undernourished. This debate raises issues relating to “fundamental values with regard to humanitarian relief.” towards the displaced civilians and stresses the importance of health care and humanitarian assistance for the displaced.
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The speaker sheds light on the poor health condition of pregnant women and nursing mothers among the internally displaced in the Vanni region. It elaborates on the initiatives of the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (UNECOSOC) urging the Sri Lankan State to call for humanitarian organisations to provide reproductive and maternal health care services in the region.
235. Twenty-two war widows selected for counselling. The
Daily News. 8 June 1999.
War widows from armed forces are receiving counselling services for mental trauma through counsellors who are trained through AFRO and the Psychiatric Association of Sri Lanka. Around 1200 war widows are in need of counselling says the Association.
236. UNFPA. Reproductive health for refugees and displaced persons. Chapter3, P44. Six billion: A time for choice. New York, 22 September 1999.
Reproductive health needs of women affected by conflict are being initiated by UNHCR and met by UNFPA in collaboration with other UN bodies and international humanitarian agencies. The programme trains staff and supplies needs for family planning, contraception, assisted childbirth, complications of unsafe abortions, sexual violence and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS.
The Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium produces need assessment manuals/procedures, while a working group produces emergency reproductive health kits for distribution in camps and settlements. UNFPA with its partners conducts
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training programmes for counsellors in support of women affected by sexual violence during armed conflict.
237. United States Committee for Refugees (USCR). Conflict and Development in Sri Lanka. Immigration and Refugee Services of America, 1997. P.48. notes.
This report examines the reasons for displacement, socioeconomic condition of the displaced and the abuses faced by them. Psycho-social and health issues of displaced women are examined under the following aspects:
O Traumatisation due to the “disappearance” of their
family members
O Rape and sexual abuse perpetrated by state forces and
rebels
The report calls for a systematic monitoring and documentation of human rights violations and improved state monitoring of arrests and detentions.
238. Victims of war in Sri Lanka. "A question of health consensus'. International Conference on Health, London, 17-18 September 1994. P.151.; charts.
The major objective of this conference is to focus on the health and healthcare needs of the Tamil people in Sri Lanka and to determine how best their needs could be met. The conference aims at providing a sharing of information among the various people/groups serving in the field of healthcare to the warafflicted population, in particular the donors, health workers and the health professionals. It also addresses efforts to rehabilitate the torture victims and help them regain their place in society. While encouraging self-help initiatives and securing
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available resources, it urges the Government of Sri Lanka to make health services equally available to the people of the North.
See also Citation Nos. 101, 106, 225, 249, 292, 318, 345 & 348.
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2.3 Income Generation and Economic Support
2.31 General
239. AUSTCARE. Africa. P. 13. Austcare Annual Report
1996. Camperdown (Australia). 19.
This relates to a skill-training project set up for the benefit of returnees, in particular for women in Mozambique. Accordingly, the project had been designed to combine skill training and job creation with credit facilities for the trainees to purchase tools and material. Provided through the district community organisations, the programme includes tanning of leather and shoe making.
240. CARE. Opportunities for women. P. 14-18. Care Annual
Report 1997, Atlanta (USA).
CARE considers women's progress essential to achieve sustainable socio-economic development, particularly in warridden societies. Women are helped to use their skills and energy to emerge as micro-entrepreneurs who would become self-reliant and improve the economic security of their families. This article cites the case of Afghanistan women where the widows have benefited from CARE's relief for Widows Project launched in Kabul. The project has provided wheat as payment for quilt making, through which the women have access to staple food, at the same time developing a skill. The project has now evolved into a rehabilitation programme incorporating the local NGOs and UNHCR.
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241. Hasci, Naima. Bricks, biscuits and barrels of pigs feet. Liberian women refugees and credit schemes. P. 20-22. RPN Refugee Participation Networkl. No. 17, August 1994.
The women returnees affected by the Liberian civil war are supported by UNIFEM and the International Rescue Committee (IRC) during their transition from relief to development. They have completed micro-business management skill training and are joining a credit scheme for entrepreneurs. Women also participate in non -traditional training courses such as carpentry and building construction.
242. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Gender issues. Getting the balance right. P.35. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Annual Report 1997. Geneva.
The Laos) Red Cross provides loans for self-help projects, vocational training and helping women to strengthen their local communities. Women are given the opportunity to begin small-scale enterprises through credit facilities and training in business skills to help them manage their own projects. The projects are implemented with the partnership of Lao Women's Union that has a network to reach rural women.
243. Korn, David A. Strategies and solutions: Post conflict reconstruction. P. 119-121. Exodus within borders: An introduction to the crisis of internal displacement. Washington D.C., Brookings Institute Press. 1999.
Development programmes in a post-conflict society, in particular women with dependent children are highlighted in
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this part of the text. Constituting a large proportion of the displaced population, women are often the heads of households and sole caretakers of their families. Intrinsically, they need skill training and income generation ventures. These should go beyond traditional skills where women have proven their capabilities. The UNHCR, UNIFEM, UNICEF and NGOs have incorporated women in quick-impact reintegration projects, as equal to men in all aspects. However, the scope for women's income programmes has to be widened to give access to training and employment opportunities.
244. Lautze, Sue [and] Ham mond, John. Coping mechanisms, capacity building and dependency. An introduction to basic concepts. P2-3. Coping with Crisis; coping with aid: Capacity building, coping mechanisms and dependency, linking relief and development. New York, United Nations. December 1996.
This paper is based on the experience of the UN humanitarian agency with Rwandan refugees in Zaire and the Great Lakes region. Displaced women from farming communities have been observed to reduce their production and depend more on storage techniques to sustain their income levels. It has also been observed that women refugees when living in settlements for long periods took to alcohol production out of the relief grain. This type of activity, besides income generation, is a coping mechanism for war-affected women as well as adapting themselves to a new environment.
245. Solidarity among refugee women. P 12-13. Compiled by Elizabeth Colson and Rosemary Preston. RPN Refugee
Participation Network. Issue 3. November 1998.
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Co-operative activities and craft production are regular features of refugee camps and settlements in many parts of the world. This newsletter provides information on women's self-help groups in refuge and displacement. The self-help groups aim at:
O Generating income by selling their products through co
operative sales outlets
O Providing support for each other within the camps
O Nurturing the culture of their homeland
They may also assume a political responsibility for the cause of conflict. Case studies from the Nadjeh Association in Lebanon, Refugee Women's Group in Papua New Guinea and Women's Clubs in UNHCR settlements in Uganda are reported here.
246. Sorensen, Brigitte. Women and post-conflict resolution. The War Torn Societies Project Occasional Paper. No.3. Geneva, United Nations. June 1998. P.68; biblio.
This paper elaborates on the ways in which women contribute to the rebuilding of societies and nations “recovering” from armed strife. It highlights the social, political and economic aspects of reconstruction through a gendered framework. The influence of such reconstruction on stereotype gendered roles during conflict is discussed at length. The author notes that the programmes from international humanitarian agencies offering skill training and income generating activities for women stress the importance of gender equality and equal access for women’s participation.
247. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Humanitarian assistance through Swedish NGOs. Woman to Woman. P. 18. Swedish
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humanitarian assistance: Annual Report 1997. Stockholm.
This gives a background to Woman to Woman, which is a fundraising network of women's organisations and individuals in Sweden who wish to protest against armed conflict and support victims of conflict. As granted by SIDA, this NGO works for those in the war-affected societies of the newly-independent states of the former Soviet Union. The network offers education and employment and rehabilitation to women in conflict and strengthens through sustainable development projects.
248. UNHCR. Women in war-torn societies. P. 160-161. The State of the World's refugees: A humanitarian agenda. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1997.
The Bosnian Women’s Initiative (BWI) was established by UNHCR in 1996 for women refugees and returnees in the wartorn societies of Bosnia, who required a better access to vocational, skill training and literary programmes, as well as banking and credit facilities. This programme encompasses:
Income generating projects (e.g.: The Gorazde Cow Bank which provides cows to women to start their own dairy farming)
Rehabilitation projects with counseling
Besides, BWI addresses the legal, social and political issues
of women whose spouses are from other ethnic groups.
Women's groups are being given Legal training and advisory services on issues related to land, property, employment and -> pension rights. A similar programme was launched in Croatia
for the displaced, widowed, elderly and sick women.
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In Rwanda, the Rwanda Women's Initiative (RWI), administered by UNHCR with state collaboration, was channeled through several women’s organizations. The projects are mostly income generating activities (brick making, tailoring etc.), targeted towards widows, women heads of households, single mothers, victims of sexual violence and foster families. Legal training had also been provided to handle land and property disputes of women who are sole providers for their families.
See also Citation Nos. 23, 248 & 3 10.
2.32 Sri Lanka
249. Community Aid Abroad. Impact. P. Water, Sanitation, Health and Rehabilitation Project. (Final Report). 19971999. s.l.).
This aspect of the report concerns the access to basic needs, in particular to water. Widows and single women are a group of recipients who obtain wells, which also helps them indulge in home gardening as a source of income. The ownership profile shows the percentage of rural women who have been provided with wells in the Eastern province.
The project was funded by AusAid and implemented through the community-based NGOs in the locality, as a valuable exercise towards institutional strengthening.
250. Centre for Women and Development. (CWD). A brief outline of The programmes and projects). Jaffna, 5 May 2000. P.. Source: ICES Archives).
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This unpublished report relates to the income generating activities organised by CWD towards women, particularly widows without means, living in Jaffna. The programme has 2 components:
O Providing technical training and other support services on agricultural cultivation, small-scale enterprises, livestock farming, coir-rope making and tailoring
O A revolving fund to provide financial assistance to those
who wish to be self-employed
In order to develop the potential of young girls and school dropouts, CWD conducts a non-formal diploma course in home economics and skill development.
251. Community Aid Abroad and Oxfam in Australia. Micro credits. P. integrated community resettlement and development program: For assistance from the Australian Community resettlement Program (ACRP) in Sri Lanka. Colombo, 19...
This focuses on the development of small-scale initiatives for war widows who are now compelled to become bread-winners. In the absence of state or private sector support, the partners of CAA have identified micro-finance ventures that reflect their previous work experiences. Collective brick making, poultry, goat rearing and mat weaving are some of these, which help the displaced women to regain their economic status and become self-reliant.
252. Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies (CHA). Methodist Church of Sri Lanka. P. 16-17. Compendium of Humanitarian agencies and Donors (Northern province - Sri Lanka). April 1999. [s.l).
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A briefing on the church-based organisation that has implemented projects for widows and young girls in Jaffna and Mannar. Income generating projects designed for widows aim to enhance their socio-economic status in a war-ridden society under reconstruction. The organisation is also managing the Jaffna Girls' Home whose inmates are orphans and destitutes.
Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya (INC). P. 18.
This is a grass-root NGO implementing projects in Jaffna and Mannar to "...enhance the skills of women and to develop their earning capacities”. The Sangamaya is in partnership with AusAid, UNICEF and UNHCR.
Y-Gro Ltd. P22.
This is a humanitarian organisation aiming at addressing emergency problems in war-afflicted areas. Since 1983 Y-Gro has implemented training programmes - an income generation for widows in the Jaffna peninsula and in Mannar. In this context, it has set up a “Widows Revolving Loan Programme” encouraging the beneficiaries to merge as entrepreneurs.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). P27-28.
The UNDP has launched rehabilitation programmes through education for young girls in the Jaffna district. The girls are trained on computer software at the Computer Training Centre directly executed by the UN Office for Professional Services (UNOPS).
Pre-school Education Development Centre. P.37
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This education-based NGO conducts in-service seminars for pre-school teachers where the majority are women. The seminars are held in Kilinochchi, Vavuniya North and Mannar. Besides educational services, the organisation is involved in co-ordinating health volunteers to serve the displaced population.
Working Women's Development Front. P43.
This is a citation of a community-based women’s NGO in Vavuniya aiming to develop the potentials of the internally displaced women. The Front has implemented vocational training and income-oriented projects for the women.
253. The Consortium of NGOs in the Trincomalee District. Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya (INC). P. 86-93. I and J Save the Children Fund, Trinc o malee. P. II3- II 15. Trincomale e District NonGovernmental Organisations: Activities profile: Background and project information. Trincomalee, December 1999.
This report relates to an income-generating programme for widow-headed households in the Trincomalee district. This project facilitates micro-credits for income-oriented ventures of women heads of families by Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya, and is under operation since 1996. Assisted by the UNHCR, displaced women are being trained in cane work and sewing. They are given micro-credit facilities for agricultural ventures and trained in management skills, that enables them to continue as small-scale entrepreneurs. Women living in Kantalai and Thampalakamam divisions of Trincomalee are given vocational training on Palmyrah handicrafts. Kantalai, Gomarankadawela and Eachilampathai
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are pastoral areas and the rural women are trained in goatrearing, as a micro-project.
The Save the Children Fund gives micro-credit facilities to women entrepreneurs with dependent children involved in goat rearing. Further the organisation conducts educational programmes on gaining access to:
O Birth certificates and other related documents O Children’s education O Water supply through wells.
254. The Consortium of NGOs in the Trincomalee District. The World University Service of Canada (WUSC). P. 129-133. Trin Comalee District Non-Governmental Organisations: Activities profile: Background and project information. Trincomalee, December 1999.
Widows in Trincomalee district are provided with vocational training by WUSC. The programmes include TV and radio repair, tractor repair, auto mechanism', air-conditioning and plumbing. Women are also trained in carpentry through a specially designed course. The programme co-sponsored by CIDA, is conducted in Uppuveli, Muthur and Kanthalai for the benefit of the rural and sub-urban women.
Trincomalee District Development Association. P. 135137.
The report focuses on a tree-planting campaign launched by this local NGO for rural women in Thampalakamam area, with a view to providing a source of income for them. The Association also provides shelter for women affected by the
O Three wheeler (trishaw)
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civil war. This project is funded by the Royal Netherlands for a period of 2 years.
Trincomalee District Refugee Welfare Association. P. 41-42.
The Trincomalee District Refugee Welfare Association has launched a gender-based programme for women in Muthur. Assisted by a group of international NGOs and donors, the project provided humanitarian assistance through selfemployment schemes for widows during the period 1998-99.
Trincomalee Islamic Development Society. P. 147-148.
Funded by international. sources, the Trincomalee Islamic Development Society has implemented projects to generate income and micro-credit facilities to women living in the district.
Trincomalee Women's Welfare Organisation. P. 151-152.
The volume provides background information on the Trincomalee Women's Welfare Organisation which is a women’s NGO serving the war-afflicted and internally displaced women. Since 1994 they have implemented income generating projects for rural and sub-urban women as part of their rehabilitation programme that is funded by a group of international donors.
ZOA Refugee Care. P 176.
ZOA Refugee Care conducted an income generation project for women agricultural workers in Muthur and Seruwila. Rural women were trained to indulge in animal husbandry as a source of income. The project was carried out with the partnership of UNHCR and private donors from 1998 to 1999.
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Young Men s Christian Association (YMCAJ. P. 157
Women-headed families whose spouses have either been killed or have “disappeared' are provided with self-employment by the YMCA as part of their rehabilitation and relief programme for the displaced. This programme is being implemented from 1998 to 2000.
255. De Mel, Neloufer and Wickremasinghe, Maithree. The integration of gender and development into the Project for Rehabilitation through Education and Training. A practical guide. Colombo, World University Service Canada-Sri Lanka)... 19... P.35; biblio.; charts. [Unpublished).
This study reviews the integration of principles and practices of gender and development into the current development projects of World University Service Canada-Sri Lanka such as PRET (Project for Rehabilitation through Education and Training), with institutional responses and experience acquired in the process. Practical examples quoted reveal the obstacles faced when implementing the women's programme within the projects in a “pre-defined” socio, politico cultural environment.
256. District Planning Secretariat, District Secretariat. Vavuniya District Performance Report 1999: UNHCR Micro-projects, UNICEF and NGOO projects as at 31. 12. 1999. Vavuniya, 10 January 2000. P.3 l.; tables.
This report gives a tabulated summary on the performance of the Vavuniya district NGOs on projects approved by the
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District Secretariat and the names of partnership organisations under each NGO during the year 1999.
Among the NGOs that render the basic amenities and resettlement facilities for the displaced, Seva Lanka Foundation and the Socio Economic Environment Developers (SEED) are supportive towards the internally displaced women, in particular the women headed families. Both these are being funded by the UNHCR.
The report includes a tabulated summary on the vocational training project for women in the district launched by the Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya. The programme, assisted by the National Youth Services Council (NYSC) was conducted at the Sarvodaya District Centre for 90 trainees.
257. District situation report: Jaffna. P.50 (and) Ampara. P45. CHA Newsletter. Vol.IV, Issue 1. January/February 2000.
This report cites self-employment assistance for women in Thambasiddy, a village in the Vadamarachchi district. The rural women who are under the poverty line have been given cash loans by the UNHCR for income generating ventures.
The Ampara District NGO Consortium organised a training programme for pre-school teachers of Akkaraipattu and Alayadivembu in January. This programme was collaborated through the Department of Education.
258. District situation reports: Ampara. P. 33 [and] Trincomalee. P35. CHA Newsletter. Vol. II, ISSue.3, July/August 1997.
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This refers to humanitarian assistance to war-widows of the region. The World Vision Lanka (WVL) through loans to widows living in Komari are assisted by what will help them to engage in subsidiary food crop cultivation.
The Trincomalee Women's Welfare Association has launched a one-year training course in dress making for girls from poor families. They also implement income generating activities for widows. The Trincomalee District Development Association too is conducting similar projects for women heads of households.
259. District situation Report. Jaffna peninsula. P. 18. and
Killinochchi. P. 19-20. CHA Newsletter. Vol.II, Issue. 2, May/June 1997.
MERLIN a non-governmental organisation working for people in conflict areas helps women in getting bank loans for selfemployment. Six women from Pallai have received loans to purchase sewing machines. Tamil Rehabilitation Organisation (TRO) has offered loan facilities for poor women to start poultry farming and granted the same for production of packeted Pappadam.
260. Fernando, Vijitha. Women without men - an exercise in empowerment (A case study of the Centre for Family Services). P. 6., ref. Sixth National Convention on Women's Studies, CENWOR, Colombo. 19-21 March 1998.
A profile of the Centre for Family Services (CFS) which is a non-governmental organisation implementing in come
i A side dish for rice and curry.
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generation projects for women whose male family members have been either killed or “disappeared' during the periods of armed conflict in Sri Lanka. CFS has branches in Western, Central and Southern parts of the country, working towards the empowerment of “women without men”, in a rural conventional society.
261. FORUT. Jaffna: Jaffna East. P . 8. FORUT Annual
Report 1996. Colombo. -
The Thunnalai Women's Society of Jaffna East is assisted by FORUT where the members are involved in farming, vocational training, pre-school teaching and managing the Village Bank. Women manage income generation, savings and credit functions of the society members. The progress made by the women's society is an example of success under difficult conditions.
The society also maintains a library for the beneficiaries of the vocational training programmes that include training of pre-school teachers. Pre-school teachers are being trained by FORUT while the mothers committee of the society manages the pre-schools.
Puttalam: Rehabilitation project. P. 14-15.
FORUT assists internally displaced women from the North of Sri Lanka resettled in this region. Women were identified as a target group and helped to form women’s organisations and in the setting up of women’s banks at various locations. Credit provided by the bank has encouraged women to become independent and manage their own affairs.
The banks and the women's groups, after initial set backs have brought a change not only in the income levels of the displaced
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women, but also in the social structure of the area. The community now realizes that women's participation is essential for social upliftment, and the men support the WOne.
262. FORUT. Vanni Caring for children under difficult circumstances. P. 1-3. FORUT Annual Report 1998. Colombo.
FORUT is assisting a number of pre-schools in the Vanni area where the internally displaced are being resettled. As part of the Vanni relief project, women are being trained to be preschool teachers.
This report relates to the rehabilitation project that has brought together rural organisations to form an apex body called “Federation of Institutions for Rural Management (FIRM)” where 60% of the members are rural women. They benefit through a credit and saving programme and develop their economic potentials.
263. Govinnage, Malini. North-East conflict. Fallout on women, children. The Daily News. 5 June 1999.
Observations made by a state-appointed fact finding committee reveals that women affected by war rely heavily on relief allowance provided by non-governmental organisations and humanitarian agencies operating in those areas. It is important for them, especially for women heads of households, single mothers and war widows to organise themselves towards productive existence.
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264. Guymer, Isabel. The Sri Lankan Situation. P. 12-13
Voice of Women. Vol.4, Issue 4. September, 1996.
In this paper the displaced women with dependent children fall into 3 major categories:
O Those who live in camps and in social welfare centres
O Those who live with relatives outside the conflict zones,
O Those who flee from the village when fighting starts
and then return to their homes
Despite their socio-economic setback in displacement and their subordinate status, they were very much in control during the crisis situation. They participated in all community activities and were directly involved in income-generating projects sponsored by NGOs and humanitarian agencies working in war-afflicted zones of Sri Lanka. Workshops and skillstraining courses are held to increase their capacity as decisionmakers and heads of households in the absence of male family members. Besides generating income, such programmes help them to combat loneliness arising from widowhood and disrupted family lives and to develop courage and ability to hold the community together.
265. Institute of Agriculture and Women in Development (IAWID). The plight of refugees. Part II. Chapter 6. Women, Transition and change: A study of the impact of Conflict and displacement on women in traditional Society. Colombo, 1995.
This chapter elaborates on the roles played by nongovernmental organizations in providing vocational training for women who are displaced. Further, it gives statistical data on the original residence of displaced women, displacement
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of refugees from 1983 to 1988 by district, with emphasis on women who are under-employed.
266. International Centre for Ethnic Studies. CIDA: Empowerment of women in border villages - NCS (Thanthrimale). P... A directory: Violence against women: Organisations, activities and projects concerning violence against women in Sri Lanka. Colombo, September 1999.
CIDA and the Community Education Centre aiming to seek economic empowerment of women living close to the war regions have implemented this project. The project includes awareness building on gender issues and women's rights and prevention of community violence.
267. Jaffna: Organisational activity. P. 50-51. CHA
Newsletter. Vol. VI, Issue 1. January/February 2000.
This refers to the humanitarian assistance by the UNHCR in the Vadamarachchi region of Northern Sri Lanka, where cash loans are given to self-employed women under the poverty line.
268. Jaffna Diocese of the Church of South India (JDCS). Kiran Widows Empowerment Project (KWEP): Jaffna Diocese of the Church of South India Annual Report and Case analysis 1996-97. Batticaloa. P. 24; plates.
A report on the project to empower widows in Kiran - a warafflicted village in Batticaloa. Since 1996 this programme has helped to uplift their socio-economic status, with collective participation in solving their problems.
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The components of the project are:
O Development education for empowerment O Credit programme for income generation and promotion
of the saving habit
The development education programme aims to improve skill knowledge, management capacity and awareness in socioeconomic issues affecting women in conflict. This encompasses health, economic issues and identifying income earning projects through a series of workshops/seminars. The participants are helped through a "revolving credit” programme that is partly a grant and partly a loan. The National Savings Bank and the Village Committee assist them with compulsory savings and bank loans. Marketing facilities for women entrepreneurs is provided through an outlet named “Our Shop” which is a project launched by the women themselves. Case studies of women who have made significant progress in their socio-economic status are included in this report.
269. Kyle-Botejue, Christine. Micro-projects in Sri Lanka: A formula for consolidating durable solution. Socioeconomic review (October- November) 1995. s.l., UNHCR, Colombo. P.28; append.
The objective of this review is to examine and identify the impact of the micro-project programme in Sri Lanka that involves UNHCR, other donor agencies and the efforts of the Sri Lankan state. It aims to address the needs of returnees from India and the internally displaced population to reintegrate to their communities. Referring to the security arrangements, widows and women heads of households feel more secure in camps rather than their own homes. Recommendations are given for resettlement from transit
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camps and for the micro-project programme, implemented by the UNHCR.
270. Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya. Sarvodaya Women's Forum. P. 13-14. Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya Annual Report 01.04.1997 - 31.03.1998. Moratuwa ((Sri Lanka).
This is an account of the activities of the organisation's women’s forum that has established Women's Education Centers in Moneragala and Anuradhapura that are bordering the war-inflicted areas. The center is a community-based forum whose main concern is the upliftment of women with dependent children. Their programmes include literacy and vocational training for women with financial support to begin self-employment ventures.
271. Law & Society Trust. The internally displaced - Impact of displacement on women. Chapter XII. Sri Lanka State of Human Rights 1994. Colombo, 1995.
This chapter explores the status of women refugees affected by the civil war with reference to income generation projects initiated by women's groups and non-governmental organisations. It also mentions the types of state compensation for widows who have lost a supporting family member.
272. Loganathan, Bhawani and de Silva, Mangalika. Protection and rehabilitation of women refugees and their dependents. P.. An annotated Bibliography on Women in Conflict. Colombo, Social Scientists Association. December 1999.
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This part of the bibliography cites documents on genderrelated humanitarian assistance for women refugees and the internally displaced as a result of the civil war. Special reference has been made to income generation projects initiated by humanitarian agencies for women heads of households.
273. MP plea to help war widows. The Daily News. 15 May
1999.
According to this news item the National Youth Services Council (NYSC) has proposed to rehabilitate war widows in the Batticaloa district through self-employment programmes. At present there are 286 war widows under the age of 29 in need of humanitarian assistance.
274. NGO Consortium. Gender and development. Schedule IX. Programmes & Activities of Ampara District. Akkaraipattu [Sri Lanka), 1998. P. 27.
The NGOs in Ampara district are involved in gender developmental activities such as self-employment skills, preschool training, training in leadership, credit administration and management for women living in the district. The programmes encompass training and credit disbursement to those who wish to start their self-employment ventures. .つ
275. Novib. Sri Lanka policy paper. P. 27-28. [s.l), 21
September 1992.
This paper outlines the oriented development projects in war zones of Sri Lanka, where Novib is in partnership with local
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women's organisations. Novib and the Centre for Women and Development have implemented a working project to improve the earning capacity of single women in Jaffna.
276. Oxfam and Save the Children Fund. Summary report of listening to the displaced and listening to the returned. s.l., 1998.
This report explores issues affecting the lives of the displaced and the returnees in the Vanni region and Jaffna, with the objective of humanitarian assistance “...with the people rather than to the people”. Women prefer self-reliance instead of relief measures and educational facilities for their dependent children. They stress on communal solidarity in times of conflict. Their opinions are reflected in the recommendations given to design humanitarian programmes for the displaced and returnees.
277. Oxfam. Oxfam's strategic thinking of women heads of households in conflict. Chapter 4. A qualitative comparative study of Sri Lankan and Cambodian poor women heads of households' survival strategies in the context of armed conflict. s.l., 19... P.53; ref.
This chapter describes the humanitarian intervention of Oxfam with regard to women-headed households in Sri Lanka, affected by armed conflict. The project aims at providing immediate relief, reconstruction and economic support towards their existence and their social integration into the communities they belong to. The project in Trincomalee focuses on compensating their material losses and promoting their income generation.
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278. Rajaratnam, Siron. The role of women in the NGOs
in the Trincomalee region. Fourth National Conference on Women's Studies. Centre for Women's Research (CENWOR), Colombo. 3-6 March, 1994. P.
Assistance given to women refugees with dependent children through NGOs at the welfare camps in the Trincomalee district is referred to in this paper. Income generation projects for the displaced women were initiated by loans and grants accompanied by vocational training facilities. The beneficiaries felt that once the programme was set up they were no longer the decision makers.
279. Redd Barna Sri Lanka 12. PTIDO: Pandian kulam - Thunukkai Development organisation: "Pre-schools in conflict areas, Mullaitivu”. P. 9. Redd Barna Sri Lanka Annual Report 1997, Colombo.
This aspect of the report highlights projects to develop preschools in conflict-torn regions and the training programme for pre-school teachers. Pre-school teaching being a womendominated project, the teachers are trained on play therapy to offer psych-social support to children who are traumatised by the war. Payment to teachers is through a “Revolving Fund' that is managed by the displaced community. This training programme has mobilised local resource persons and is conducted by visiting trainers.
280. Sachithanandan, A. Shanthi. From destitutes to development, assisting refugee women in conflicted areas - a case study of Batticaloa district. Third National Conference on Women's Studies. Centre for Women's Research (CENWOR), Colombo. 4-7 March, 1992. P.
Presently know as Save the Children Fund.
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The paper reviews a multi-faceted relief and rehabilitation programme for refugees and internally displaced women that has been implemented by Community Aid Abroad (Australia) and co-sponsored by NGOs in Batticaloa. This programme provides the essential and immediate needs to affected women and promotes group activities among displaced. Further, it provides the displaced women and the resettlers information on the available credit facilities to start small ventures such as weaving, home gardening, pottery etc., so that they could be self-reliant. The launching of credit saving schemes and occasional Shramadana camps for groups of women prove to be of “therapeutic' value during instability. The author notes that, despite the war, women valued the resources possessed and were able to envision a "tomorrow'.
281. Satku na rajah, Bavani. Centre for Women and Development offers a helping hand to women who faced abus es and violence in the Jaffna pen insula. [Translation summary J. Virake sari. 22 July 1999.
Source: ICES Archives ).
Centre for Women and Development Centre (CWD) is a NGO in Jaffna assisting in the economic upliftment of women - mostly widows, single parents and women heads of households. Living amongst the civil war with an unstable civil/legal administration, they are in need of guidance to claim pensions, employees benefits, social security, insurance, distress-related assistance etc. CWD helps them to appeal for compensation and to procure the relevant legal documents.
282. SEDEC Social & Economic Development Centre). “Sa vis thri ”: Alternative Programme for the
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Development of Women: progress Report October 1999 - March 2000. Colombo, SEDEC. Unpublished).
Source: ICES Archives). P.7; annex.
This programme aims to transform social changes through alternative means, and to prevent the marginalisation of women. The training programmes for women in Anuradhapura and Trincomalee are being launched through communitybased women's NGOs in the districts. As out-reach to rural women, the programmes are based on alternative economic training on home gardening, self-industries and on saving. An inter-district exchange of farm products was carried out in the Polonnaruwa and Moneragala districts where the women cultivators had the benefit of paying for their purchases through installments. Self-industries programme has taught them to use locally available resources, and loans made available for small-scale producers. Small banks were established in 4 districts including Moneragala, encouraging saving through guidance and credit facilities.
The programme covers leadership training for grass-root women, while raising awareness on women's human rights and violation of human rights. Women are encouraged to form support groups and vigilant committees to look out for incidents of human rights violations in their localities.
283. Schrijvers, Joke. Internal refugees in Sri Lanka: The interplay of ethnicity and gender. P. 30-60., ref. Nivedini Vol. 6, Nos. l&2. June/December il 998.
A focus on the internal refugees living in camps in Colombo during 1993, managed by the state authorities and provided with relief by non-governmental organisations. Some of the
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NGOs provide classes in sewing and handicraft for displaced women. However, no follow-up was done in terms of selling their products, or in helping them to seek employment. According to the author, this has lead to a worse condition than before, as the women do not have any hopes for the future.
284. Self-Help Support Programme of Interco-operation Swiss Organisation for Development Cooperation (SSP/IC). Self-Help Support Programme - Sri Lanka. P 6-8. Self-Help Support Programme Phase III (19941997): Annual Report January 1996 - June 1997. Nugegoda (Sri Lanka), January 1998.
This part of the annual report focuses on the humanitarian programme for women in Eastern Sri Lanka, much affected by the civil war. SSP has conducted assistance programmes in Trincomalee to help widows to identify their immediate needs and activities that would enable them to earn a living.
While presenting an outline of their objectives and a Code of Ethics for NGOs, SSP/IC highlights their humanitarian and relief operations in the North and East of the country during 1996-97 through interaction with the government rehabilitation body RRAN.
285. Shanmugam, Gethsie. The War Widows Programme. P23-74. Rebuilding lives: A new beginning: War widows and their children. Edited by B. Ranjitha. (Sri Lanka), Save the Children Fund (Norway). December 1999.
Training the war widows in self-employment opportunities and skills development is the aim of this programme. It intends to give them a ray of hope and self-reliance, rather than mere
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assistance. Based on data gathered on mothers and children in conflict-ridden areas, the programme involves:
O Training of social workers/supporters who are young women with basic education from the same community Peer-counseling sessions for victims Training on income generation activities Linking women with banks for loan facilities Organising mothers’ groups and strengthening the women's groups
286. Sinhala Kantihab hi vurdi Sang vidanaya (Sinhala Women's Organisation for the Welfare and Advancement of Women). Projects for women in armed conflict areas and outside. June 2000. P.5.
Unpublished. Source: ICES Archives).
This document outlines the income generating activities of “Women and Community Development Project” of the Sangvidhanaya. Setting up a sewing centre to train women to become self-reliant is the purpose of this project. Trainees are provides with raw material and the garments made are sold at local outlets in villages. The project is implemented in Trincomalee and Ampara for internally displaced women and war widows. In Vavuniya the project has been suspended at the moment. Women are also trained in dairy farming with cows being provided. The dairy products are sold to the armed forces and civilian households. Brick cutting is another skill training for women living in conflict areas. Rural women from Panama, Lahugala in Ampara district have benefited through a project named “Socio economic Empowerment through Rehabilitation.” War widows and the internally displaced women are trained in:
O Self-employment as small-scale entrepreneurs and O Pre-school teaching
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This programme of capacity building, besides generating income for women, has improved their health condition as most of them suffer from war trauma. Furthermore, it gives them a greater mobility and empowerment. The organisation recently received the Award of Honour for Community Development
287. Sooriyakumari, S. and Manikavasagar R. Counseling programmes for Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in India. P. 142-145. Victims of war in Sri Lanka: "A question of health consensus". International Conference on Health, London, 17-18 September 1994.
The paper relates to the efforts of OFERR - an ex-patriate NGO in Tamil Nadu (India), assisting refugees who fled Sri Lanka during the armed conflict. In providing vocational training for youth and women, OFERR gives skills training in tailoring and handicraft for women. Besides providing counseling services for trauma victims, the organization trains volunteers to handle mental disorders, violence-related health issues and to combat suicidal tendencies.
288. Sri Lankan Canada Development Fund (SLCDF). Project for regionalisation of Sri Lanka Women's Conference to increase the participation of Rural and Semi-Urban women in development activities. P. 19-21 sand 1 Vavuniya District Agricultural Development Project. P45. SLCDF Annual Report 1996-97, Colombo.
This report gives a summary of the project implemented for women in Puttalam and Anuradhapura with the partnership of Sri Lanka Women's Conference. The project aims at:
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O Expanding and de-centralising their on-going
programmes O Managing the projects O Training entrepreneurs and assisting them in income
generation ventures
The project is for a 3 year duration and aims to assist women in displacement and those who live near the war regions. The Agricultural Development Project gives a brief account on the training programmes for women living in the Ampara, Trincomalee, Vavuniya and Anuradhapura districts. The programmes are on:
O Entrepreneur development
O Skills training
O Credit awareness and establishment of a revolving fund
for loans
O Gender sensitisation and awareness
The programmes are conducted for a period of 4 years with the Sinhala Women's Organisation for the Welfare & Advancement as local partners. Women have been assisted through the Vavuniya District Agricultural Development Project implemented by SLCDF through the Community Service Foundation that is a grass-root NGO in Vavuniya South. Revolving loan funds have been set up to enable them to dress-make as a micro-enterprise.
289. Suriya Women's Development Centre. Programmes related to women affected by violence. Batticaloa, 31 March 2000. P.2. Unpublished. Source: ICES Archives).
Information given by Suriya, a women's NGO based in the East and committed to achieve equal rights, freedom and empowerment for women. It relates to skills training
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programmes for internally displaced women residing in camps. The programme aims at assisting them to seek employment or be self-employed. Suriya also helps women with limited grants to start their income-generating ventures.
290. Survivors Associated (SA). Entrepreneur development for widows. sand) Skills Training P. 3. Survivors Associated Annual Report: January-December 1999.
A briefing on SA in partnership with Seva Lanka, which has conducted a 3-day training programme in entrepreneurship for widows in Pottuvil. Thereafter, the trainees were given loans through a revolving credit scheme. A six-month course in dress-making was conducted for young girls from Pottuvil, Kalmunai, Mannar and Valaichchenai. This enables them to access the available jobs or to be self-employed.
291. Survivors Associated (SA). Empowerment of female heads of households. P.23-25. Evaluation of Survivors Associated (April 1996 to August 1998). Ratmalana (Sri Lanka), August 1998.
This refers to a socio-economic programme towards rehabilitation of women affected by the civil war. SA with the collaboration of local NGOs has conducted this programme that includes packages and services available for widows such as compensation, legal rights, revolving credit schemes and savings towards their self-reliance and economic stability. These programmes have been held in Mannar, Kantalai and Kalmunai.
292. Suveendran, A. A reconstruction of the trauma and post-war syndrome of women in Trincomalee. P22-35. Nivedini. Vol. 7, No.2. December 1999.
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Based on interviews with widows in the Trincomalee district, this paper shows that 28% of the interviewees were involved in self-employment ventures, assisted by NGOs. The recipients are mainly widows and the women heads of households below the poverty line. Data shows a variety of self-employment (e.g. chicken farming, tailoring) against the percentage of women unemployed.
This study explores the nature of psychological problems suffered by women and children during armed conflict, particularly on the trauma experienced by widows during armed conflict and on the post-traumatic symptoms of war widows.
293. Tambiah, Stanley J. Civil war and women of Jaffna. Tales of many widows. P8-11. Pravada. Vol. 1, No.2, 1992.
This article refers to humanitarian assistance rendered by TRRO (Tamil Refugee Rehabilitation Organisation) a local NGO to poor widows in Jaffna. Based on a survey on war widows who are now heads of families and in need of gainful employment, the NGO aims at providing guidance and assistance towards income generating activities such as dairy farming, home crafts and small-scale entrepreneurship. However, TRRO is able to offer assistance to only a small proportion of the widow population in the area.
2.94. Thiruchandran, Selvy. Households as alienating and the levels of poverty. P 110-115. The other victims of war: Emergence of female-headed households in Eastern Sri Lanka. Vol.II. Colombo, WERC. 1999.
This chapter delves into income-generating projects for women heads of households, funded by NGOs. Interest-free loans were
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given to begin self-employment ventures, but the projects were not monitored and the women gave up as there was no sustainability. The author observes that NGOs did not train them on skills or organise them towards empowerment. Religious organisations were helpful in assisting to fulfil their basic needs. However, “within the benefit scheme there is a strong sense of charity.”
295. UNHCR. Micro projects - first and necessary steps on the path towards development. P. 8- 10. A primer on micro-projects in Sri Lanka: A formula for consolidating durable solutions. Colombo, 1993.
This is a volume on the UNHCR's returnee and reintegration programme in Sri Lanka. The report reviews the micro projects of UNHCR FEM/GENDER FOCUS that prioritizes income generation activities of women and their dependents. The project design has the following women-focused criteria:
O Participation of women in the identification of needs
O Planning of micro-projects
O Training and mobilizing the beneficiaries in project
implementation, maintenance and operation
O Opportunities for women for remunerated work
O Secondary use of project sponsored construction/repair
of community infrastructure, on condition that these are made available for women at any time.
296. UNHCR allocates Rs.224 m since 1997 for North. The
Daily News. 13 November 1999.
A news item on the aid of UNHCR in war-stricken areas of Sri Lanka. Refugees in the North and East of Sri Lanka,
particularly those in Jaffna, Mannar and Vavuniya districts
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are to receive assistance from UNHCR through RRAN. This money would be spent to implement micro-projects for the resettled and displaced population.
297. Vocational training programmes for re-settled women in Jaffna district. The Daily News. 20 April 1999.
Women returnees in Jaffna are to receive vocational training conducted by the National Youth Service Council in collaboration with United Nations Organisation under the North-East rehabilitation programme. The programme aims at self-employment of women and their access to loan facilities through co-operative societies and state banks.
298. Wijayatilake, Kamalini. Development programme for women affected by violence. Vehilihini Development Centre. OXFAM, s.l.). January 1994. P.21; ref.; append.
Vehilihini Sanwardene Kendraya (VDC) is a non-political NGO that serves the needs of those affected by armed conflict in the Moneragala district. Vehilihini Women's Circle (VWC) the women's wing of VDC operates loan schemes and provides housing for women heads of households who have lost their male members as a result of the civil war. The women receive skills training in pre-school teaching, poultry farming, yoghurt making etc. Apart from these, non-traditional skills such as pesticide control, agricultural technology and integrated farming are conducted by VWC. An evaluation of the programme is included in this report.
299. World University Service of Canada (WUSC). Training handbook: Women and work. From a gender
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perspective. Prepared by Gwendolyn Smith. Hambantota (Sri Lanka), June 1995. P.8 l; append.
This handbook explains the need to incorporate gender and
development (GAD) in the Project for Rehabilitation through
Education and Training (PRET), carried out in the conflict
ridden zones of Sri Lanka to assist women as income earners.
Translated into Sinhala and Tamil, the objective of this
publication is:
O To address the change in gender concept in a sensitive
and competent way
O To sensitize those involved in women's projects from a
gender perspective
O To provide an overview of the importance of gender in
development processes and projects O To increase effectiveness of WUSC programmes in
providing vocational training skills and sustainable employment for women.
The manual is meant for trainers, trainees, benefactors of the rehabilitation programmes and vocational training instructors. As women are being selected to follow non-traditional skills training, this book is helpful for families of female trainees to understand the changing role of gender.
300. World University Service of Canada (WUSC-Sri Lanka). Gender and development. P... Project for Rehabilitation through Education and Training (PRET): Annual Report 1998/1999 (Final draft). Colombo, February 1998.
Consciousness-raising programmes on gender were held by WUSC for partner organisations in the Eastern region of Sri Lanka. The humanitarian aid workers were trained to have a better understanding of women- displaced and resettled with
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dependents, involving themselves in income generating activities. They are the major beneficiaries of humanitarian assistance.
The report gives statistics on women participants in the 1997/ 98 management-training seminars organised by PRET in the Eastern zone of the country where the civil war was escalating. Vomen trainees vere included in the micro-projects ofPRET on skill training in outboard motor repairs. The programme was conducted in Mannar and Vavuniya. Of the estimated number of beneficiaries 1/3 were women. It is noteworthy that this is a non-traditional skill training programme for women living in war-inflicted zones of Sri Lanka.
WUSC conducts workshops on Gender and Development as a "pre-course” in the Entrepreneurship Development Training for vocational trainees in the East of Sri Lanka. The trainees are also provided with tools of the trade. This report gives an estimate of women trainees in each programme that would benefit through vocational and “on-the-job’ training courses in the district. Women from Moneragala, Mannar and Vavuniya have benefited from these programmes.
301. World University Service of Canada (WUSC-Sri Lanka). Project for rehabilitation through Education and Training (PRET): Annual Work Plan 1999/200 (Draft). March 1999. P.21; annexure.
PRET has conducted programmes on consciousness-raising on gender aspects and gender sensitivity as part of the various training programmes for partner organisations in Ampara, Vavuniya, Moneragala, Batticaloa and Trincomalee.
See also Citation Nos. 25, 79, 158, 222, 318, 328, 329, 334, 344 & 350.
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2.4 Social Participation, Leadership and Peace
Building
2.41 General
302. Adelson, Anne et al. Enough is enoughl. Voices of
Somali Women for Peace, Reconciliation and Political
rights. P. 132-136. Women in conflict zones. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
This gives an account of the activities of Voice of Somali Women for Peace, Reconciliation and Political rights (VSWP) - a Canadian-based women’s NGO. This is a forum for Somali women in exile to create stability in their homeland and demand that women be included in the peace-making process. Current efforts of VSWP are summarized in this paper.
303. Afghanistan Development Project s: Leadership roles for women at community level). Prepared by Rahela Hashim. [s.l), Baha” i International Community Centre. 28 August 1998. P. Unpublished). Source: ICES Archives).
This document relates a presentation on gender and development in Afghanistan, hosted by the NGO Committee to UNIFEM and the Baha'i International Community. The objective of the project is to mobilise women towards the socio-economic development in Northern Afghanistan by assisting them to assume leadership roles at community level, through a process of lobbying and involving communities in the development of war-torn regions of the country.
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304. Baines, Erin K. Refugee and return. The challenges of
transition for Guatemalan women's organizations. P. 115-120. Women in conflict zones. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
An exploration of the post-war women's organizations in Guatemala which are initiated by women refugees/returnees to reinforce their status in a "new society', empower themselves, address issues of domestic and sexual violence and actively participate in socio-political reconstruction. The organisations are community-based, and aim to help grassroot women to adapt themselves to their new, demanding and hostile environments. Besides, the women build their capacity for communication towards social development. This article focuses on the major challenges faced by women in transition and how the organizations have become their forum "...to come to terms with their fears and begin to recognize their rights”.
305. Banerjee, Paula. The Naga women's intervention for peace. P 137-142. Women in conflict zones. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
This article focuses on women's negotiation for peace during armed conflict in Nagaland situated in the northeast part of India, and how their intervention has lead to a redefinition of peace and gender-related social change. The author relates the activities of the Naga Mothers Association (NMA) that is a grass-root NGO comprising indigenous women. These women believe that conflict arises out of chronic underdevelopment of society and assume the role of spokespersons in their community.
306. Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR). The African Project: 'Train the Trainers' Programme for the
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Women's Peace Centre in Bujumbura 9 in collaboration with Search for Common Ground) P 10. CCR Annual Report 1997/98. University of Cape town, 19.
This project aims at training women in a post-conflict society to assist conflict resolutions at various levels. Members of the Women's Peace Centre in Burundi have been trained by CCR on practical techniques for conflict resolution and intervention to help women in conflict. The trainees could transfer their skills to other women, who would participate in peace-related activities in a "reconstructed society'.
307. Cockburn, Cynthia. Women. In Black: Being able to say neither/nor. P 7-10. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
This article describes the background and activities of Women in Black (WIB) that is a movement against armed violence. WIB opposes the perpetration of violence against women in war. This movement was formed in Israel (1988) by women against Israeli invasion of the West Bank and Gaza. WIB acts through silent vigils, and by wearing black attire. There are many WIB groups worldwide, working with other women’s groups for peace.
308. Das, Veena. Communities, riots, survivors. The South Asian experience. The Punitham Tiruchelvam Memorial Lecture, Colombo, 5 September 1988. P.22.
The lecture comprises case studies on violence, and is divided into 3 parts:
O The moment of violence encountered in riots, in the
context of societal and individual perceptions
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O Instances of violence that had a significant impact on the South Asian society i.e., Ethnic violence in Sri Lanka (1983), Anti-Sikh riots in Delhi (1984) and the AntiReservations movement in Gujarat (1985).
O Experience of the survivors of violence, and the process through which they had reformulated their lives.
The last section highlights the experiences of young widows within traditional societies, where they had faced intimidation from their kinsmen and threats of rape, abduction and death from the community if they were to identify the perpetrators of violence. Studies reveal that women had played a crucial role in social reconstruction, and in procuring assistance and justice. The speaker acknowledges the role of women in times of crisis and their contribution towards social transformation, in their lives and in the public sphere.
309. Enloe, Cynthia. Base women. Greenham and sexuality, P. 76-80. Bananas, beaches & bases: Making feminist sense of international politics. Berkley, University of California Press. 1989.
This section of the chapter refers to an all-women's peace. camp against anti-nuclear weapons in Greenham (Britain), where women protestors marched up and established a permanent encampment outside the naval base and protested against having nuclear missiles in that area. Despite their nonviolent protest, the women were portrayed as “unfeminine” in their behaviour by the popular media, causing a “threat” to their sexuality. As one of the pioneer women's groups against war, their principles were adapted by the British women to start a peace-action front. The action front held public demonstrations against keeping nuclear arms in Britain. This chapter of the book relates to the issue of female sexuality
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during military action, with special reference to the U.S. military bases in Britain.
310. Gabriela. Commission on Women's Political Rights. The Talagas. P. 13-18. The concrete effects of militarisation, and Gabriela's response to the needs of women internal refugees (1991 to 1995). Part II. The impact of militarisation on women. Manila. December, 1995.
This study relates to the effects of military conflict on indigenous women in The Philippines. The women evacuees became heads of households in the absence of men. They were engaged in handicrafts, farming, poultry/animal husbandry, sold cooked food etc. to earn for their family. Their duties also included work that was traditionally done by men. This has lead to the development of their potentials whereby the displaced women became spokespersons for their communities and initiated dialogues with government officials and human rights groups.
311. Lowilla, Lona James Elia. The role of Sudanese women in conflict prevention and resolution. IXth Codesria General Assembly, Dakar (Senegal), 30 October 1998. P.33; ref. Source: ICES Archives.
This paper deals with the historical milieu to the causes of the conflict in Sudan, and its effect on civilians, in particular women and children. While exploring the outcome of the civil war, it describes the peace initiatives of the Sudanese women's organisations and the role of women in conflict resolution and peace building. Women are seen as agents of change rather than passive recipients in conflict situations. Hence, the
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framework on gender development should incorporate women in designing strategies and decision-making for sustainable peace-building.
312. Martin, Susan Forbes. Refugee Women. Zed Books,
London 1991. P. 57; notes.
This volume discusses the socio-economic conditions of women refugees and the implication for their host countries. It shows the gender discrimination and violence from their own communities. Gender violence, in addition to armed conflict has affected their mental health causing emotional trauma. This book stresses on women's participation in refugee settlements in order to protect their own rights. It also surveys the current international commitment to refugees and offers practical recommendations for action.
313. Molina, Carolina Carbarrus et al. Guatemalan women refugees and returnees. Challenges and lessons learned from the refugee camps and during reintegration. Washington D.C., The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW). November 1999. P.45,; biblio.;
8 CX.
This report examines the views on social changes experienced by women refugees who lived in refugee camps in Mexico and returned to Guatemala. The main objectives of the study
8"6C:
O Develop policy recommendations and strategies for returnee women and women's organisations to sustain the achievements gained in camps.
O Recommendations towards NGOs and other organizations involved in the reintegration process and working with
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women refugees, returnees and survivors of armed conflict.
The paper recommends to international organizations, donors national NGOs and others involved in education and training to resume the training of women to ensure the continuity of their organizing capacity and participation in public life.
314. Rookey, Eilish. Women and local learning. Reflections from formative faultlines in the North of Ireland. P95101., biblio. Canadian Woman Studies. Vol. 19, No.4. Winter 2000.
This paper attempts to focus on how education may be used towards reconciliation and peace-building in war-afflicted societies. Based on the author’s experience in Northern Ireland, women have got together and developed formal and informal systems of learning, and created support systems in the context of a civil war. The Northern Ireland Women's Coalition and the Belfast-Based Women in Political Projects are described in detail. Also, a description of their educational initiatives to grass-root women on political participation and peace making is provided.
315. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Humanitarian assistance through Swedish NGOs. Woman to Woman. P. 18. Swedish humanitarian assistance: S DA Annual Report 1997, Stockholm.
This section gives an account of Woman to Woman, a network of women's organisations and individuals in Sweden who are against armed conflict and support victims of conflict. The
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organisation supports women's centres that create a forum for mutual understanding of women across ethnic and religious barriers.
Working with reconstructed societies in the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union Woman to Woman supports training of women in peace initiatives and works for democracy.
316. The Tibetan Women's Association. The trek to freedom. Tibetan Women and the refugee experiences. Dharamsala (India), 1995). Source: ICES Archives .
The Tibetan Women's Association is a “NGO in exile' which highlights the abuse faced by women under foreign occupancy in Tibet. Their activities are aimed towards leadership and political participation of women. This report was prepared by the Association for the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995.
317. Training conflict resolution. P. 1-2. Sudanese Women
Want to Live in Peace. Vol. 1, No.3. September 1999.
Sudanese women after having faced the atrocities of a civil war place peace training as a top priority among their needs. This newsletter provides information on training Sudanese women in peace building. Women's peace groups have been trained in basic conflict resolution, facilitation and collaborative decision making followed by a programme on Advanced Conflict Resolution, mediation and the Training of Trainers. ACCORD (The African Centre for Constructive Resolution of Disputes) has launched this programme in Nairobi and Cairo to train them.
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318. UNICEF. Women's participation in the new civil societies. P 100-104. Women in transition: The Monee Project. Regional Monitoring Report No.6. Florence (Italy), 1999.
This chapter highlights the participation of women from Eastern and Central Europe and in the former Soviet Union, in decision making and political leadership in transitional societies where the impact of armed strife and displacement have inhibited their social participation to a great degree. Women's NGOs of varied strength and autonomy are active in the following areas:
O Political concerns and rights
O Promotion of income generation and entrepreneurship O Social services such as health and education
O Activism in relation to gender based violence
319. UNICEF. Displaced women: The key issues. P 12-24. The gender dimension of internal displacement: Concept paper and annotated bibliography. Prepared by Judy A.Benjamin and Kadija Fancy. Office of the Emergency Programmes Working Paper Series. New York, 1998.
This part of the report stresses the need for participatory activities of women refugees in camps. “The greater the involvement of internally displaced women in planning, designing and monitoring of programmes, the less likely that abuse and exploitation will occur...”. Their active and meaningful involvement at different levels in the decisionmaking process would help them to access a fair share of resources, participation in relief programmes and to achieve the societal goals; such an involvement will improve women's health and also help towards better self-esteem and selfconfidence
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320. Vickers, Jeanne. Achieving visibility. P. 105-117.; ref.
Women and war. London, Zed Books. 1993.
Referring to the United Nations Charter, this part of the publication relates to women's social participation as decisionmakers. Recommendations from Article 12 of the UN declaration on the Participation of Women in Promoting International Peace and Co-operation are given in this context. It includes quotes from the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies and the UN Commission on the Status of Women stressing the integration of gender in the decision-making process.
Working towards a non-violent world: Teaching conflict resolution. P. 144-146.
This section of the chapter deals with conflict resolution and peace education, and the humanitarian assistance given to those seeking to launch such programmes. The roles of the International Peace Research Association (IPRA), UNESCO and UNICEF in promoting peace education for women are discussed here.
The book is an in-depth analysis of the major issues associated with the question of women and war in armed conflict and structural violence, attempting to establish women's rights as human rights.
See also Citation Nos. 27, 114, 160, 170 & 240.
2.42 Sri Lanka
321. Abeysekera, Sunila. Women and peace in Sri Lanka. Some observations. P. 7-8. Newsheet. Vol.XI, No.2, May/ June 2000.
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Women in Sri Lanka have been active in lobbying and campaigning to end the civil war, to respect the rights of all communities and for peace negotiations. With multi-ethnic, multi-religious participation, they are engaged in peace building at community-level in the North, South and the Hill country with a view to bringing the different communities together. This article deals with the role of women's groups in the country, in particular the Women's Action Committee (WAC), Mothers Fronts from North and South and Women for Peace.
- 322. Am para District N G O Consortium. Women, development and gender equality. P..... Voice of needy people. Ampara (Sri Lanka), l l February 2000.
Progress of women and girls affected by armed conflict is reported here. They have been mobilised in various societies and women-centred organisations which function as a forum for community co-operation, building self-reliance and em powering their status. Human i tarian agen cies are implementing conscious-raising programmes for women, to enhance their capacity for leadership that is a milestone in rural development. Their degree of social participation has increased and most of them have become social workers moving from the “private” to the “public” sphere.
323. Ampara District NGO Consortium. Programmes & activities of Ampara district. Akkaraipattu Sri Lanka), 1998. P.27.
This report summarises the relief assistance given to women in Ampara district. a consciousness-raising periodical called "Vidiyal” (dawn) is being published by Affected Women's Forum (AWF), a local women's NGO.
168

324. Asia Foundation. Collaborating within and across borders to advance women's political participation. P.13-15. 1998 Annual Report- Economic crisis in Asia: Meeting the challenge. San Francisco, 19...
This is a detailed article on the Women's Political Participation (WPP) programme of the Foundation. The programme is designed to build the capacity of civil organisations to increase women's active participation in decision-making in public and private life. In Sri Lanka national-level organisations have been trained through WPP workshops to provide women with strategic advocacy skills to develop campaigns for policy change. This workshop was aimed at training the trainers, to reach the community-based activists.
The WPP programme gives training in the following:
Strategic planning and advocacy training Leadership training
Organising for collective action Constitutional and legal reform Legal literacy and legal aid Advancing women's security Research, documentation and dissemination of lessons learnt.
325. Batticaloa Human Rights Desk. P8. Institute of Human
Rights Newsletter. No.38. February 1999.
The Institute of Human Rights is a local NGO which has set up a desk in Batticaloa to provide legal assistance to individuals who wish to lodge complaints on arbitrary arrests and detention by security forces, in particular women whose spouses have been arrested and detained by security forces under the Prevention of Terrorism (PTA) Act. Women are
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encouraged to make complaints regarding arrests of their family members. The newsletter cites the case of mothers who have made such complaints.
326. Centre for Society & Religion (CSR). Gender equality and Development Unit. P.23-24. CSR Annual Report 1997/98, Colombo.
The report elaborates the gender unit of CSR in alliance with other women's organisations advocating the rights of women in displacement and resettlements. Some of the significant activities of CSR towards gender in development are workshops on conflict resolution and demonstrations on stopping violence against women in war zones.
327. Centre for Women and Development. (CWD). A brief
outline of the programmes and projects). Jaffna, 5 May 2000. P.. Source: ICES Archives.
This unpublished document focuses on the work of the women's organisation for those affected by armed conflict in Jaffna. CWD conducts awareness-raising programmes on gender and social issues, followed by leadership training for rural women. This encourages the survivors of armed conflict in building a post-war society. In this context, the women's NGO conducts conflict resolution programmes beneficial to the family, community and the country through educational institutions and community centres. A monthly magazine named "Nangai' (Woman) bringing out articles on gender and related issues is being published. The major project of CWD is to assist working women and students through FEM-INN hostel that provides them food and accommodation at cost.
170

328. Community Aid Abroad and Oxfam Australia.
AWARE project in Sri Lanka. P2. "Saraswathy's story" A mother struggles to survive. August 1997. Source http://www.caa.org.com).
This write-up is on consciousness-raising programmes for. women living in war-afflicted zones in Sri Lanka. The project is assisted by Community Aid Abroad (CAA) in partnership with Virutcham, a local NGO based in the Trincomalee district. It focuses on enhancing the rights of women, rather than providing relief and rehabilitation for victims of violence. The programme aims at strengthening the members to confront the losses of their basic rights (food, shelter, health care and education) during armed strife. Further, it provides adult literacy classes and training in leadership, communication skills and group building.
329. Community Aid Abroad CAA. Oxfam in Australia. Functional literacy. P.. Integrated Community Resettlement and Development program: For assistance: from the Australian Community Resettlement Program (ACRP) in Sri Lanka. Colombo, 19...
This explores the literacy programme for women, particularly widows who are oppressed by the war and the patriarchal, ideology. The programme aims at addressing issues such as reproductive rights and sexuality through education for women. The initial component of the programme is an onthe-job training for teachers selected from the various communities.
330. The Consortium of NGOs in Trincomalee District. Eastern United Women's Organisation. P. 21. Trincomalee district non-governmental organisations:
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Activities profile: Background and Project information. Trincomalee, December 1999.
An outline of a community-based project for peace building initiated by local women’s NGOs in Trincomalee. This ongoing project in Kantalai and Thambalakamam has been implemented in September 1999 with the partnership of SEDEC.
331. de Alwis, Malathi. Motherhood as a space of protest: women's political participation in contemporary Sri Lanka. P185-199, notes. Resisting the Sacred and the Secular: Women's activism politicized in South Asia. Ed. Patricia Jeffrey and Amrita Basu. Kali for Women, New Delhi. 1999.
This chapter explores some of the strategies and rhetoric mobilized by the grassroots Sinhala women's organization, the Mothers Front, which was formed in July 1990 in the south of Sri Lanka to protest the disappearance of around 60,000 male kin during the JVP uprising from 1987-1989. Though the Mothers' Front's agenda remained very limited, notes de Alwis, “its few, brief, and spectacular appearances on the Sri Lankan political stage nevertheless placed a government on the defensive, awoke a nation from a terrorized stupor and indelibly gendered the discourses of human rights and dissent. It also created a space in which a much larger, non-racist, and more radical movement of protest could be launched to overthrow an extremely repressive and corrupt government that had been in power for 17 years, at the General Elections of August 1994.”
13 Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna
172

While the author seeks to understand the contingent usefulness of maternalized protest at a particular moment in Sri Lankan history she also stresses that such an attempt at a positive reading cannot ignore the complex interplay of power within this space of protest that also re-inscribed gender and class hierarchies and re-inforced majoritarian ethnic identities while those of minorities were erased.
332. De Silva, Gloria. Coping without men. Women headed household in Southern Sri Lanka. P. 65-75. Coping with diaster. Ed. Vijitha Fernando and Gloria De Silva. Colombo, Duryog Nivaran. 1997.
This paper examines the living conditions of widows in South
Sri Lanka, who are mostly heads of households and
traumatised by the JVP insurrection during the 1980's. It refers
to community-based humanitarian support provided by the
Centre for Family Services, a NGO initiating awareness
programme for women widowed as a result of armed conflict. The organisation has helped them to come together and form
support groups and a “Mothers' Front”, for better
communication of their problems.
333. District Planning Secretariat, District Secretariat. Survivors associated: Performance of the Vavuniya District NGOO on approved projects (01.01. 1999 - 31. 12. 1999) P. 29. Vavuniya District Performance Report 1999: UNHCR micro-projects, UNICEF and NGOO projects as at 31.12.1999. Vavuniya, 10 January 2000.
A programme for widows' empowerment conducted in 6 villages in the Vavuniya district is summarised in this table.
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This programme is funded by CIDA, that along with OXFAM assists a stress management programme for caregivers. Both programmes are in progress.
334. Family Rehabilitation Centre. P21. CHA Newsletter.
Vol.II, Issue 4. September/October 1997.
A brief outline on the humanitarian efforts of Family Rehabilitation Centre (FRC). FRC has planned activities for war widows, mothers and sisters of "disappeared persons', women detainees and other women exposed to armed strife. Women trained in skills through awareness programmes on women's empowerment, in turn reach out to other women in war-affected areas.
335. I FORUT. Puttalam: Managing the home and the organisation!. P. 5. FORUT Annual Report 1998. Colombo.
This is an account on displaced women being mobilised into development-oriented organisations, a major achievement of FORUT. The women have formed an organisation called “Women's Organisation for Development, Equality, Peace and Temperance (WODEPT)”. With a multi-ethnic membership WODEPT has expanded its services to 18 villages and "women have won the challenges over socio-cultural barriers and problems obstructing its activity in a very conservative society...”. Now WODEPT is a registered women’s NGO empowering women and leading to social reforms. The members have benefited from loans for income generating activities through their savings and credit practices.
336. Institute of Human Rights. Legal workshops. P. 8. institute of Human Rights Annual Report 1998/99, Colombo.
174

This report refers to legal workshops with women’s rights as a theme, conducted by the institute in Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Moneragala and Vavuniya. The participants included teaching staff, local government employees, state officials among the general public. This workshop was assisted by NORAD and conducted by legal personnel of the institution, in Sinhala and Tamil.
337. International Centre for Ethnic Studies. Education programme to empower women. P. 15. A directory: Violence against women: Organisations, activities and projects concerning violence against women in Sri Lanka. Colombo, September 1999.
A project for widows and families of disappeared persons during JVP insurrection is cited in this part of the directory. The project aims to develop awareness, leadership and social mobilisation skills. Organisation for the Parents and Family Members of the Disappeared (OPFMD) assisted by CIDA has launched this programme from 1998-2000.
Affected Women's Forum (AWF). P4.
This directory cites the training and awareness-raising programmes for women social mobilisers conducted by AWF since 1998. This programme is funded by CIDA and is situated in conflict areas to help women towards building community leadership.
Centre for Women and Development (CWDJ. P.10-11.
A women’s NGO in Jaffna actively working through conflict, conducting leadership training workshops and income generation projects for women affected by armed strife. CWD also gives legal counselling and assistance to those facing
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problems as a result of the civil war. These projects are being funded by CIDA.
CEN WOR (Centre for Women s Research J. P. 11-12
CEN WOR is a women’s NGO based in Colombo with a wide range of development activities. Funded by HIVOS, workshops on awareness building and skills training have been held in Akkaraipattu and Batticaloa for the internally displaced women. Themes presented in the workshop include communication and group dynamics, conflict resolution, skill development and entrepreneurship.
CIDA. Training and awareness raising for women social mobilisers. P. 14 sandJ P. 19.
This is among the projects for grass root women launched by CIDA since 1998. It aims to promote leadership qualities for rural, sub-urban women in Ampara district. The objective of this project is to empower rural women affected by the ongoing civil war, mainly through legal literacy and human rights education, particularly on women's rights as a tool to prevent gender-related violence. Workshops are held on leadership abilities and social mobilisation as “trainers training programme" for groups of women who would train more women. Gender violence, law and women's health issues are the main themes in these presentations. The project is funded by CIDA and implemented by the Rajarata Apada Sahana Sevawa, a community-based NGO.
Law and Society Trust (LST7. P.31
The Law and Society Trust has launched a research project to help women in detention, which encompass those held in custody under the prevailing Prevention of Terrorism Act. The project, duly completed in 1999 contains laws concerning
176

women's rights, rehabilitation measures and resources for assistance.
MIRJE IMovement for Inter-Racial Justice and Equality). Border villages programme. P.34.
This project mobilises war widows as a "Widows Peace Group” with an objective of publicising the violence faced by women under armed conflict and towards building a peace constituency in conflict zones.
Organisation for Parents and Family Members of the Disappeared (OPFMD). P.44.
This programme aims to empower women affected by conflict, war widows and women heads of households whose men have “disappeared” during the insurgency in Southern Sri Lanka. The programme is geared towards creating and raising awareness on leadership development and social mobilisation skills of those who are singled out in the wake of the conflict.
Sinhala Women's Development Organisation. Capacity building and self-employment. P53.
This project with the assistance of SLCDF (Sri Lanka-Canada Development Fund) was launched during 1997-98. Programmes were held in Trincomalee and Ampara districts to train women towards community leadership. The participants were encouraged to discuss issues pertaining to gender related violence and suggest preventive measures to combat such violence.
338. Maunaguru, Sitralega. Gendering Tamil nationalism: The construction of 'woman in projects of protest and
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control. P. 157-175. Unmaking the nation: The politics of identity and history in modern Sri Lanka. Eds. Pradeep Jeganathan & Qadri Ismail. Social Scientists' Association (SSA), Colombo. 1995.
This paper reveals how the multiple, shifting subject positions of women in the Tamil nationalist movements of Sri Lanka, are oppressive within themselves. This essay examines the “protest-positions” of Tamil women viz., wife/ brave mother and women warriors and the category of “new women” who question gender equality. It explores the control of sexuality within the militant movements where LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) women militants who, despite their uniforms have to relate their identity with reference to the traditional “sari’. Besides, the portrayal of women belonging to their suicide squad as “rape victims of war who avenge the enemy and purify themselves through the act”. The author also highlights the action of autonomous women's groups resisting the atrocities of armed forces and the brutalities of the militant
groups.
339. Palaniappan, V. Report on the evaluation of Rural Development Foundation (RDF) at Puttalam... s.l., April 1995. P.40; annex.
The objective of this report is to review the structural and organizational aspects, programme planning and implementation of RDF that is a community-based NGO working for the internally displaced in Puttalam. In an attempt to understand the women's participation as a 'women's wing” of RDF, it observes that the common programmes have more male participants. Women tend to be confined to women's programmes thereby leading to a segregation of gender in the developmental process. The report recommends that RDF as
178

well as donor agencies “should develop a clear understanding on the question of women in terms of their position and role in the organization...”.
340. Pinto Jayawardene, Kishali. Proportional representation, political violence and the participation of women in the political process in Sri Lanka. Seminar on Strengthening democratic governance in conflict-torn societies", Colombo, 21-23 February 2000. P. 16.
This paper is a study-in-progress on the obstacles to women's entry into politics in Sri Lanka. The paper delves into a case study on the Sinhala Tamil Rural Women's Network (STRAWN) a women’s NGO that aims to help the internally displaced women and other gender-related issues. Being unsuccessful in lobbying for grass-root women's development, STRAWN transformed itself into a political party. The paper relates the experience encountered when the members contested at the Provincial Council Elections in 1999, and the “relationship” between pressure groups and state attitudes towards gender issues.
341. Rajasingham-Senanayake, Darini. After victimhood: Cultural transformation and women's empowerment in war and displacement. Women in conflict zones Network: A comparative study of the issues faced by Women as a result of armed conflict: Sri Lanka and the Post-Yugoslav States, Hendala (Sri Lanka), 11-13 December 1998. P..
An attempt to trace the signs of empowerment in the lives of the displaced Tamil women through the ongoing civil war in Sri Lanka. Many victims of violence are emerging as heads
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of households, gaining greater confidence, mobility and authority. “Unlike in Afghanistan where the women's status has deteriorated, in Sri Lanka evidence suggests that despite the traumatic experiences and displacement, there is some change in their gender status towards empowerment...” previously restricted by the conventional patriarchal values. Humanitarian agencies working for them should integrate this emerging trend into their relief and rehabilitation programmes for the displaced.
342. Resettlement & Rehabilitation Authority of the North (RRAN) and Deutsche Gesellschaft for Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). From Rehabilitation. ... to Development. The role of social mobilisation. P. 7. Rebuilding lives: The Jaffna rehabilitation project Sri Lanka. June 1999.
This section of the report relates to rehabilitation programmes initiated by GTZ through RRAN. Social mobilisation of participants is achieved through awareness raising and selfhelp initiatives in the projects. The projects encompass sessions on gender sensitisation during the various training programmes conducted for the field staff and beneficiaries.
343. Samuel, Kumudini. Give peace a chance: Women's activism and marginalization in the peace process. P.3-8. Options. No.2 l. lst Quarter, 2000.
An exploration of the role of Sri Lankan women in conflict resolution within the context of the current conflict. Peace groups and protest movements such as Women for Peace, The Northern Mothers Front, Mothers & Daughters of Lanka and The Southern Mothers Front are dealt with in this context.
180

While focusing on their contribution towards the task, the author is optimistic that the intervention of women's movements in the path of peace making could help increase women's participation in political negotiations. Further, it could assist in determining the contours of a political solution.
344. Schrijvers, Joke. Manipulating vulnerability or building on the strength of refugees? Experiences from Sri Lanka. P47-53. ref. South Asian Refugee Watch. Vol. 1, No.2. December 1999.
The author observes that women's participation in camp committees and self-help groups were marginal. There were no refugee women's organisations either. Women took to whatever jobs that came their way and were creating new space with increased autonomy and self-esteem. However, none of the NGOs working with refugees has women's leadership and organisation skills in their agenda.
345. Sinhala Kantha bhivurdi Sang vidanaya (Sinhala Women's Organisation for the Welfare and Advancement of Women). Projects for women in armed conflict areas and outside. P.5. 1 June 2000. Source: ICES Archives).
This information gives the current projects implemented for women, widows and internally displaced in particular, facing a situation of armed conflict in the country. The projects aim to:
O Integrate rural community and encourage harmony O Eliminate fear psychosis and dependency O Promote women's empowerment
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“Women and Community Development” in Trincomalee
district attempts to raise awareness and promote capacity
building prior to rehabilitation. This project includes provision
of basic amenities and educational needs of women. A needs survey and a socio-economic profile of the beneficiaries are being done at the preliminary stage of the project.
346. Sivachandran, Saroja. Women's participation in peace building. P.25-28. Expert Meeting on Women's Human rights Under Armed conflict. Kyoto (Japan), 14-15 September 1999. Tokyo, Asian Women's Fund. March 2000.
This paper places the continuous sufferings and sacrifices of women in war-ridden regions of Sri Lanka, in the context of gendered peace building. Women affected by the civil war could be empowered through accelerated programmes on rehabilitation in the war-afflicted areas and encouraged to play an active role in politics. A women's network for "peacelobbying” is much needed to involve women in the peace building process at various levels.
347. Sri Lanka: Status of Human Rights. Chapter on Internally Displaced. A brief analysis on mass exoduses and relief operation mechanisms with regard to human rights of displaced community and specifically women. Law & Society Trust Review. June 1995.
This chapter reveals the condition of those displaced by the conflict, within applicable human rights and humanitarian standards. Internally displaced women are faced with economic and physical insecurity, as they become heads of households in the absence of males in the family. They need
182

to be given the capacity to voice their needs and views effectively. Their potential of leadership and decision making ability could be better used by humanitarian agencies as valuable human resources in managing refugee camps and during resettlement.
348. Survivors Associated SA). Empowerment programme for widows of war. P. 3. Survivors Associated Annual Report: January-December 1999.
This programme aims to enhance the potentials of women widowed as a result of the civil war. This covers grief coping, primary health care, first aid and economic development, conducted by health and legal personnel together with the Department of Social Services. Assisted by the SA Befrienders, sessions were held in Ampara, Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Mannar and Vavuniya. A programme on stress management for mothers as caregivers of children under psychological stress was conducted through Counsellors and Befrienders.
349. Survivors Associated SA). Empowerment of female heads of households. P.23-25. Evaluation of Survivors Associated (April 1996 to August 1998). Ratmalana (Sri Lanka), August 1998.
This is an overview of the empowerment programme for rehabilitation of women affected by conflict, in particular of widows. The programme is designed to address those of health, legal and socio-economic issues and to enhance their potential. Modified according to their levels of awareness and literacy, the programme was held in Mannar, Kantalai and Kalmunai.
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Subsequently support groups were formed within which the women are accepted as equals and respected. SA has conducted counselling sessions for wives of missing air force personnel in Colombo.
350. WODEPT (Women's Organisation for Development, Equality, Peace and Temperance). P. Sangamam. Vol. 1, No. 1. November 1999.
The report elaborates the origin and progress of WODEPT, a women's NGO comprising internally displaced women from the North resettled in Puttalam district. The women were mobilised through the FORUT Rehabilitation Programme in rural areas and identified as active participants in rural community development. WODEPT aims to develop leadership qualities among women, empower their socioeconomic status and promote peace building. Besides facilitating entrepreneurship, credit and saving among women who are involved in income generating activities, WODEPT has implemented training programmes for pre-school teachers and has launched a campaign against the use of alcohol and narcotics.
This tri-lingual publication reflects women's attempts in collaborating the displaced and local communities and networking of all three communities Sinhala, Tamil and Musilms in the region.
351. Women and war - Series of workshops. P.7. MIRJE
Newsletter. Vol.04/04, October 1998.
This is a briefing on a workshop series to promote women's participation in the peace process in Sri Lanka. The workshops held by the Movement for Inter-Racial Justice and Equality
184

(MIRJE) aim to clarify issues regarding the ethnic conflict, peace and women's rights in the peace process. Encompassing women from all parts of the country, the workshops cover topics such as nation state, patriarchy, nationalism, militarisation & women, media responses to women in conflict and the role of women in negotiating peace.
352. Women's Coalition for Peace. Statement from the Women's Coalition for Peace. Colombo. October 1998. P. l.
The Women's Coalition for Peace is a non-governmental women's group in Sri Lanka, attempting to seek redress to the ethnic conflict. This statement by the group calls for peace negotiations to the ethnic problem through a third party mediation. The group comprises women of all political, ethnic and social communities in the country working towards a durable solution for the ethnic issue and the ongoing civil war.
353. Workshop on Gender sensitisation for Women affected by armed conflict. Women's Education and Research Centre (WERC), Colombo, 19 April 1994. (Source: Women's Education and Research Centre).
This workshop was held to assist women in Batticaloa district, affected by the civil war. Participants were mostly teenagers and single parents. Some were widows while the rest were spouses whose husbands had “disappeared'. In both categories there were women heads of households. The common characteristics are:
O Physical and psychological ill-health and traumatisation
O Social stigmatisation
O Lack of financial and moral support from their extended
family members
O Experiences of sexual abuse
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The workshop helped them to speak out their problems and discuss social constraints related to being “single'. It also encouraged them to form “self-help groups” to face genderrelated and other problems.
354. World University Service of Canada (WUSC). Projects for Rehabilitation through Educational Training (PRET). P17-19. CHA Newsletter. Vol.III, Issue 2. March/April 1999.
The news item outlines information on PRET. This project is funded by CIDA and implemented in Eastern and Southern districts. Women heads of households, war-widows and those affected by the civil war were a target group of participants for this project.
355. World University Service of Canada (WUSC-Sri Lanka). Gender and Development. P... Project for Rehabilitation through Education and Training (PRET): Annual Report 1998/1999 (Final draft). Colombo, February 1998.
Consciousness-raising programmes on gender were held by WUSC for their partner organisations in the Eastern region of Sri Lanka. The humanitarian aid workers need to have a better understanding of women - displaced and resettled with dependents, involving themselves in income generating activities. They are the major beneficiaries of humanitarian assistance.
See also Citation Nos. 65, 76, 113, 260, 274, 277 & 294.
186

Abeysekera, Sunila
ACAS ACCORD
Adelson, May Ann et al.
Africa Rights AFRO
Ahavoli Christian Family Service Centre All-Women's Peace Camp against Anti-Nuclear
Index
Weapons in Greenham, U.K
Amarasekera, Paneetha ·
Ampara District NGO Consortium
Anderson, Mary B.
Annai Saratha Girls' Home
ARD
Asia Foundation, WPP Asia Pacific Centre for Justice and Peace
Austcare AWF
Baha” i International Community Centre
Baines, Erin K. Banerjee, Paula Baron, Nancy Bawa, Badriya Bhasin Kamla Brady, Bill
Bulathsinghala, Frances
Butalia, Urvashi CAA CAA, ACRIP
Canadian Council for Refugees
187
Citation Nos.
321
65
6,317
302
187,224, 235 207
309
87 188,217,322,323 2
51
103, 186
324
131
162,239 217,323,337 303
304
305
189
190
139
165
49
126 156,249,251,328 155, 329
163

Page 106
CARE Catholic Church of Madhu CCR
CEBEMO
CEDAW Centre for Family Services CEN WOR
CERRO
CHA
Christian Aid CIDA
CWD
CIDA Cockburn, Cynthia Cohen, Roberta
Community Services Foundation Consortium of NGOs, Trincomalee District
Coomaraswamy, Radhika
(Also see) UN Special Rapporteur on
Violence against Women Coy, Patrick Crawley, Heaven CRM
Crook, Sally
CSR
CVD CWD, FEMM/INN Darcy, James Das, Veena
DDF de Alwis, Malathi
60, 61,145, 172,240 214
306
61
19, 42, 44
260,332 260,278,337,339
61 12, 52, 64, 65, 95, 96, 97, 101, 103, 186, 192, 193, 197, 198,206,252, 257,258,259,267,334 95
159
160
3, 266, 337
307
50
260 51, 193,253,254, 330 127, 128, 129, 138
53
4.
111, 1 16
194
326 191,228,237,250,281,346 327, 337
5
308
230
54, 55, 56, 79 157, 199, 206, 331

De Fontgallad, Santhiapillai Guy
De Mel, Neloufer
De Silva, Gloria
De Silva, Mangalika
De Silva, Nil lika
De Silva, Wimala
De Soysa, Dharshini Anna
Demuz, Kerry
Deng, Francis M.
Dias Bandaranayake, Harini
District Plalnning Secretariat, District
Secretariat of Vavuniya
Donor/NGO Consortium of Puttalam
District
East-Asia-US Women's Network Against
Militarism
Eastern United Women's Organisation
El-Bushra, Judy
Enloe, Cynthia
Eurostep
Farook, Faiza
Farr, Vanessa
Federation of NGOs for Mental Health
and Well-Being
Federation of Trincomalee District,
Young Men’s Hindu Association
Fernandez, Jorge
Fernando, Vijitha
Fitzgerald, May Anne
FORUT
FORUT, WODEPT :
Foster, Yolanda
FRC
Foundation for Rural Women
Gabriela. Commission on Women's
Political Rights
189
61
255
332
25, 272
195
57
62
58 59, 63, 50, 109 60
196,256,333
124
130 330 6, 7 309 6
200 131
206
51
8
260
132 86, 193,201,261,262 335, 350
66 156, 209, 223,334 193
310

Page 107
Galapatti, Ananda Gammage, Sarath Gell, Fiona German Agro Action Global IDP Goodhand, Jonathan Government of Australia Government of Sri Lanka Government of Sri Lanka, Ministry
of Social Services Govinnage, Malini Grant, Katy GTZ GTZ, IFSP Guymer, Isabel Hadorn, Max Hammond, John Hans, Asha Harrell-Bond, Barbara Harris, Simon Hasci, Naima Hensman, Rohini Home for Human Rights HUDEC Hughes, Donna M. Human Rights Watch Human Rights Watch, Women's
Rights Project Hyndman, Jennifer
IAWID ICC ICCPR ICES ICRC
190
226
8
9
67
68, 69, 70 20, 71
134 72, 74, 202, 238
88 196,263 134 60, 193, 342 203
264
85
244
10
11 75, 76, 77 24
78
158 192, 197 135
108
154 13, 14, 15, 79, 136, 157, 199, 207
265
18, 152
44 158, 208, 266,337 5, 68, 70, 80, 81, 85,

ICTY
ICVA
HR
IFRCRC
Independent Commission on
International Humanitarian issues
Infotecka Medica Zenica
InterAction
International Service for Human Rights
IOM
IPRA
IRC
IT Sri Lanka
IWIRAW
James, Sister Victorine
Janz, Fredrica
Jayasinghe, Indralal
JDCSI, KWEP
John Snow Research & Training Institute
Jorge, Fernandez
Kaalam
Kane, June
Kirkby, John
Korn, David A.
Kottegoda, Sepali.
Kyle-Botejue, Christine
Lautze, Sue
Lawyers Committee on Human Rights
Loganathan, Bhawani
Lomo, Zachary
Lowilla, Lona James Elia
LST
Mahasakthi Foundation
191
90, 107, 109, 1 1 0, 116,123, 137, 174,213 141,154
174 83, 95, 325, 336 17, 242
82
16
173
18
167
320 144, 172, 241 84
19
210
85
21
209, 268 144, 172
8
217
21
22
23, 243
86
269
244
24
25, 272
26
27, 311 138,271, 337,347 21 7

Page 108
Manikavasagam, P Manikavasagar, R. Marie Stopes International Marsden, Peter Martin, Susan Forbes Maunaguru, Sitralega Menon, Ritu
MERLIN Methodist Church of Sri Lanka Migrant Women's Association, Sri Lanka MIRJE
Mother & Childcare Society of Akkaraipattu
Mother & Childcare Society of Ampara
Mothers and Daughters of Lanka
Mothers’ Front
Moulina, Carolina Carbarrus
MSF
Mukarubuga, Cecile
Musse, Fouzia
Nadjeh Association, Lebanon
Naga Mothers’ Association (NMA)
Nerseian, Paula
NEST
NGOs Consortium, Trincomalee District
Nick, Lewer
Nikolic-Ristanovic, Vesna
NORAD
Northern Ireland Women's Coalition
NOVIB
NYSC
O’Connor, Ronald W.
OCHA
OFERIR
Office of the United Nations
Coordinator for Afghanistan
192
212
287
144, 172
64
28, 312
338
39
259
252
89 1 11,337,351 27
217, 274
343 321, 331, 332. 343 313 81, 87,123,212,214,215 7
140
245
305
16S 209, 216
330
71
142 29, 89, 209,336 314
218, 275 256, 273,297 166
30, 90
284
167

Oloka-Onyanga, J. OPFMD Oxfam
Oxfam GB
Oxfam UK/Ireland Oxfam, ACRP Oxfam, GADU Oxfam, Sri Lanka Palaniappan, V. PBI Perera, Sasanka
Physicians for Human Rights
Pinto Jayawardene, Kishali Piza-Lopez, Eugenia
Poore, Peter
Population Services Lanka Pre-school Development Educational Centre Psychiatric Association of Sri Lanka
PTIDO Quick, Diana Rahman, Tahmina
Rajarata Sahabagithwa Sanwardena
Padanama - Rajaratnam, Siron
Rajasingham, Anusha Rajasingham-Senanayake, Darini Ramakrishna Mission Ravindran, Sundari T.K.
RDF Rebaza, Ana Maria
Redd Barna, Sri Lanka
Refugee Women's Group, PNG
RHR Consortium
193
3
337 170, 185, 219, 220, 276, 277, 328,333 9, 10, 32, 58, 76, 86, 91, 92,95
93 156, 243, 251, 329 34
94
339
53
221
33, 169
340
34
142, 168
188
252
187,224, 235
279
143
170
222
278
98 102, 341 61
171
339
35
279
245 145, 172, 236

Page 109
Rooky, Eilish RPN RRAN
SA
Sachlithanandan, Shanthi A. SAFE Samarasinghe, Gameela Samath, Fizal Samuel, Kumudini Sangaman
SAPSIRI
Sarvodaya
Sarvodaya Women's Forum Satkunarajah, Bavani SCF
SCF, Norway
SCF/ UK
Schak, Bo
SCHR
Schrijvers, Joke
SEDEC
SEED
Sen, Sumit Seneviratne, H.L. Seva Lanka Seva Lanka Foundation Shanmugam, Gethsie Shanthilham
SIDA Siddique, Masud Hassan
314
245 52, 60, 70,99, 100, 101, 284, 342 199,232,290, 291, 348, 349
280
36
225, 226
107
343
350
209 61, 196,252,253, 256, 270
253
159,281 170,253, 77, 93,276 76, 91, 92
04
174 105, 106,283, 344 282, 330 212, 256
37
109
290
67, 248, 283
285
209
38, 175,247
145
Sinhala Women's Development Organisation 286

See also
Sinhala Kantha Vibhurdi Sangvidhanaya
Sivachandran, Saroja
Sivarajah, N.
SLAVC
SLCCA
SEDEC
SLCDF
SLRCS
Somasundaram, Daya
Sooriyakumari, S.
Sorensen, Brigitte
Sphere Project
Srishanmugarajah, M.
SSP/IC
Starvropoulou, Maria
STRAWN
Sudanese Women Want to Live in Peace
Suriya Women's Development Centre
Suveendran, A.
Takazato, Suzuyo
Tambiah, Stanley J.
Thiruchandran, Selvy
Thunnalai Women's Society
Tibetan Women’s Association
Tiruchelvam, Neelan
Trincomalee District Development
Association
Trincomalee District Islamic Development Society
Trincomalee District Refugee
Welfare Association
Trincomalee District Women's
Welfare Organisation
TRO
195
288,337, 345 228, 346
227
61
192
193
288
103
229
287 146, 173, 246
74
230
284
109
340
317 160,231, 289 292
176
293
233,294
261
316 1 10, 111, 234
254
254
254
254 103, 197, 198,259

Page 110
Tucker, Beverly
UN Commission on the Status of Women
UN Refugee Convention - 1951
UN Special Rapporteur on Violence
against Women
UNCHS
UNDAW
UNDP
UNDP, PRODERE
UNECOSOC
UNESCO
UNFPA
UNHCR
UNHCR, BWI
UNHCR, CBO
UNHCR, CIT UNHCR, FEM/GENDER FOCUS UNHCR, ORC
UNHCR, POP
UNHCR, RWI
UNHCR, WAR UNHCR, Women's Club UNHCR, WVV
196
83 320 148
128
167
81
197, 198,252 8, 59
234
320 135, 142, 161, 181, 224, 236 5, 10, 13, 15, 23, 31 43, 44, 45, 50, 51, 59, 60, 69, 70, 72, 87, 100, 104, 109, 110, 111, 1 12, 1 17, 122, 123, 134, 142, 146, 147, 149, 153 162, 179, 180, 181, 193, 196, 212, 236 239, 240, 243, 253, 256, 257, 267,269, 295, 296
248
22
143
295
90
14
248
133
245
132, 136

UNICEF
UNICEF, Monee Project
UNICEF, Office of Emergency Programme UNICEF, Women's Rights Programme
UNIFEM
United Nations General Assembly United Nations International Working
Group on Sri Lanka USCR Uyangoda, Jayadeva Van Brabant, Koenraad Vasquez, Norma
Vehilihini Development Centre (VDC) Vehilihini Sanwardene Kendraya (VWC)
Vickers, Jeanne VOICE
Voice of Somali Women for Peace.
Reconciliation and Political rights (VSWP) Voutira, Eftihia VSWP WAC Walker, Bridget Wanasundara, Leelangi Waszak, Cindy WERC WFP WFP, PRRO WHO WIB Wickremasinghe, Maithree Wickremasinghe, Nira Wijeti lake, Kamalini
197
39, 40, 73, 74, 109, 113, 114, 115, 150, 178, 196, 202, 256, 318, 319, 320, 333 77ן
41, 42
72
241, 243,303
15
1 6 70, 117, 118, 237
19
94, 120, 121
47
298
298
320
174
302
46
302
321
182
122
183
353 23, 38,97, 167 70 167, 178 48, 307 255
123 124, 298

Page 111
Woman to Woman 75, 315 Women Entrepreneurs Association,
Sri Lanka 72 Women for Peace 321, 343, 352 Women. In Need 89 Women in Political Project Belfast 314
Women, Law & Development International 153 Women's Commission for Refugee Women
and Children, USA 144, 172 Women's Peace Centre, Brundi 306 Women's Caucus for Gender Justice
in the ICC 152 Women's Coalition for Peace 352 Women's Health and Development
Programme, Liberia 184 Working Women's Development Forum 252 WSP 221, 246 WSP.PSIP 21 Wulf, Deirdre 185 VUSC, GADU 299 VUSC-Sri Lanka, PRET 299,300,301,354,355 VVL 258 Y - Gro 252 YMCA 254 ZOA Refugee Care 125, 254
198

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