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Scientific Tamil Pioneer
Dr. Samuel Fisk Green
Gravestone of Dr. S. F. Green Rural Cemetery, Worcester, Massachusetts
U.S.A. . ܫܸܪܸ ܨ
gâ] இகீrே
2.50

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Other publications by Ambi:
1.
Greenin Adichuvadu: Biography (Tamil) Yarl Literary Circle, Jaffna, Ceylon. 1967.
Ambippaadal: Children's Poetry (Tamil) North Ceylon Tamil Publishing House. Chunnakam, Sri Lanka. 1969.
Veythahlam Sonna Kathai: Stage Play (Tamil) Seiyud Kahlam, Colombo 6, Sri Lanka. 1970.
Konjum Thamizh: Children's Poetry (Tamil) Colombo Thamizh Sangam, Colombo 6, Sri Lanka. 1992.
Ambi's Lingering Memories: Poetry (English) College of Distance Education Konedobu, NCD, Papua New Guinea (1993).
Ambi Kavithaikahl: Collection of Poems (Tamil) Mithra Publications 375-10, Arcot Road, Madras-24, India (1994).
Maruthuva Thamizh Munnoedi:Biography (Tamil) Saiva Sithantha Works Publishing Society 154, T.T. K. Saalai, Madras-18, India. (1995).
Ambi's Lingering Memories: Poetry (English)
(Revised and Enlarged Edition): Dhuhlasi Publications Korobosea, NCD, Papua New Guinea (1996).

SCIENTIFIC TAMIL PONEER Dr. Samuel Fisk Green
تھ
Dhuhlasi Educational & Cultural Publications 109/4, Manning Place, Colombo 6, Sri Lanka.
iii

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Scientific Tamil Pioneer Dr. Samuel Fisk Green
Author :
C Copyright:
First Edition :
Printers:
Pages:
Price:
Cover Design:
Publishers:
Ambi - (R. A 'bahar)
R. Ambihaipahar
ISBN: 955-8193-00-3
November 11, 1998
Unie Arts (Pvt) Ltd. 48B, Bloemendhal Road, Colombo - 13.
130 + Xνi
RS.198.00
Premi Sivananthan
Dhuhlasi Publications
109/4, Manning Place, Colombo 6, Sri Lanka.
IV

Acknowledgments
Had my mentor Rasikamahni Kanaga Senthinathan been alive today, he would have been happy that the seed he scattered in 1960 had not fallen on the path, on rocky places or among thorns; for, what he emphatically told me still echoes in my mind's ear:
"Manipay Green appears to have done a lot to introduce medical science in Tamil, but no one seems to bother. It is worth seeing what he did a hundred years ago. You ventured
to write science in Tamil before any others did, so may be you should".
That is how it all began. Thirty seven years have passed by, may be snail's pace but assessment has to be in context - who, how and with what resources? Whether the product is thirty, sixty or a hundred times will depend on the measure used to evaluate.
During this long period of time, there were many who motivated me and sustained my interest. It is not possible to list all and specify how they did it but there are some whom I can't miss.
When I commenced my research in 1960Mr.I.P.Thurairatnam's guidence and Mr. K.S. Selliah's assistance helped me to have access to all Green material at Jaffna College library. It is sad that neither of them is alive for me to thank them for their valued contribution.
When I was working as Program Officer, Population Education, at the Curriualam Development Centre Ministry of Education, I feel that it

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was providence that took me to the University of Connecticut in 1974, for a course of study. For, it was in Hartford that I met Dr. Mc Odell of Amesbury M.A., and Ms. Anne Crawford-historical reporter to The Westender- who familiarized me with American research techniques. They assisted me, through the American Antiquarian Society, to locate Dr. Green's grave at Rural Cemetery in Worcester MA and through The Westender to make contact with Mr. Thomas D. Green, a grandson of Dr. Green. For me, this experience was a silent morale booster.
Early in 1990's, Mr. R. Muthucumaraswamy, Managing Director of Saiva Sithantha Works Publishing Society in Madras re-kindled the flame by insisting that I should update my findings and showing keenness to publish my work, as it was in his opinion, a historically significant contribution.
In 1997, the 175th Anniversary Year of Dr. Green's birth, I had two occasions to visit Worcester. On these two occasions, the encouragement and assistance I received from Mr. Thomas Green, his daughter Ms. Julia Green and Dr.K.Konesapillai (Columbia University, NY) are in my treasured memory.
I am grateful to all of them. A special word of thanks is due to Ms. Nancy E. Gaudette, Librarian, Worcester Collection, Worcester Public Library whose willingness to assist me was spontaneous, during the days I spent there for research.
In conclusion, I am thankful to the Rt. Rev. Dr. S. Jebanesan, Datuk Dr. K. Somasundaram and Dr.Devanesan Nesiah for their valued
contributions which add 'status' to my work and "Unie-Arts' management for an excellent work done in a very short time.
5ß?. Clm6üßaipañaw
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Contents
Bishop's Message
Preface
Foreword
1. Prologue 2. Childhood & Education 3. Batticotta Assignment 4. Arrival at Batticotta 5. Hospital at Manipay 6. Medical School 7. Genesis of Medical Tamil 8. Science Literature in Tamil 9. Medical Books in Tamil 10. Technical Terms 11. Standardisation of Technical Terms 12. Translations 13. Modernizing Tamil 14. Dr. Green's Dedication 15. Medical Evangelist to the Tamil 16. Science & Religion 17. Epilogue Appendix 1 - Obituary Appendix 2 - Dr. Chapman's Letter Appendix 3 - Dr. Green's Preface to Technical Terms References
Bibliography
vii
ix xii
xiv
12 18
24
29
37 48
62 72 78
85 92 97
103 108 112 116 119 122
126 129

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Message of Rt. Rev. Dr. Jebanesan
1998 is the Ter-jubilee Year of Green Memorial Hospital, Manipay. It is significant that a Commemorative Stamp for Dr. Green is issued on the 11th of November this year, by the Ministry of Post, Telecommunication & Media.
Dr. Samuel Fisk Green Commemoration Committee zealously worked to make this a reality. The American Ceylon Mission and the Jaffna Diocese of the Church of South India are very much indebted to Mr.R. Ambihaipahar, the spirit behind the Committee. Over three decades of research on the life and work of Dr.S.F. Green has made him to admire and adore the American Physician. As Auvaiyar wisely said "it is pleasant to see good people, pleasant to listen to their good words, pleasant to speak of their goodness, to associate with them is also pleasant".
The Tamil community in Sri Lanka owes much to the American Ceylon Mission. Mr. N.Sabaratnam, the former editor of Eelanadu in one of his judicious editorials stated "At the dawn of the 19th century the American Missionaries came to Jaffna to preach Christian Gospal, but in actual fact they propagated the ideals of a new nation, pulsating with life".
Among the many bequests of the American Ceylon Mission the establishment of the Medical Mission was of paramount inportance. In 1820, Dr. John Scudder, the first Medical Missionary of America arrived in Jaffna and set-up a Dispensary and Medical School at Pandatherrippu. He served there till 1833 and moved to Madras when the East India Company lifted the ban on American Missionaries.
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Medicine was taught at the Collegiate Institution at Vaddukoddai from 1833 to 1846 by Dr. Nathan Ward. In 1847 Dr.Samuel Fisk Green came to teach medicine at this Collegiate Institution, viz., Batticotta Seminary. But in 1848, Dr. Green shifted his medical students and dispensary to Manipay. It was in the year 1864 that he started the famous medical education in Tamil medium. Dr. Green served the people of Jaffna from 1847 to 1873, with a five-year break in between.
Anybody reading the philosophy and religion of Dr. Green would reckon him as one of the most illustrious personalities of the 19th century. He was well versed in Western Science and remained a deeply religious person to the end of his life. "The Lord bless you and keep you, the Lord make His face shine upon you and be gracious unto you, the Lord lift up His countenance upon you and give you peace - peace based upon pardon, pardon based upon penitents" were the last words spoken by him before he departed this world.
He was a 19th century missionary but in evangelistic methods and theological understanding, he was well ahead of his time.
In the colonial period educational policies in South Asia were largely influenced by the thoughts of Lord Thomas Macualay, who in 1836 stated "I have not found an orientalist who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth a whole native literature of India and Arabia".
Dr. Green believed that "Tamil was one of the copious, refined and polished languages spoken by man".
He started translating the books on Western Medical Science into Tamil. In his Medical School at Manipay, Tamil was made the medium of instruction in 1864.
Prof. TPMenadchisundrama former Vice Chancellor of the University of Madurai in his lecture on "Ceylon and Tamil" at Annamalai University in 1963 said that the translations of Dr.S.F. Green should be reprinted and made available to the people.

With the decline of the British Empire, indigenization of the Church became a popular subject among the Christian Theologians. He served at a time when people in Jaffna were raising questions about Christian Evangelical enterprise and Dr. Green was quite clear of the distinction between Christianity and Western Civilization. While he was in Jaffna he wrote:
"I begin to think that change here will be from a waistcloth to pants, from a scarf to a coat, from a turban to a hat, from vegetarianism to carnivorism, from huts to houses and so on, till many while yet un christianized may be denationalised. I would rather here see Christian Hindus than Hindus Europeanized."
If only the Church had paid heed to his wise words many problems of the present church in our country would have been averted.
Dr. Green's work had a tremendous impact on infant mortality rate and death rate of women during childbirth.
The Physicians trained by Dr. Green went to serve in Government Hospitals and it was in 1870 that the Government in Ceylon established its own Medical College. Medical Education given by Dr. Green helped to change the attitude of the people towards the sick, disabled and the bereaved. They began to realise that germs and not the wrath of God were responsible for the spread of diseases.
So, letus be thankful to Dr. Samuel Fisk Green for having infused Western Medical Science into our culture and let us be grateful to Mr.R. Ambihaipahar for highlighting Dr. Green's achievements and telling us how the whole process took place.
The Rt. Rev. Dr. S. Jebanesan Bishop of Jaffna, Church of South India, Vaddukodai.
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Preface
I must congratulate Mr. Ambihaipahar for his excellent research into the life of Dr Samuel Fisk Green in Jaffna from 1847 to 1873. This work was carried out by him over many years with visits to Dr Green's home town Worcester, Massachusetts USA, where valuable documents. and manuscripts of Dr Green were found preserved with pride and reverence in the Worcester Public Library and in the home of his grandson. Many of these were written in Tamil.
Dr Green is a familiar name to most of us who have lived in Jaffna, but unfortunately many are unaware of the magnitude and significance of his work. He came as a doctor for the American Ceylon Mission (ACM) unsure of what to expect and what he was capable of contributing beyond the set task of doctoring the sick.
The many years he spent in Jaffna must have been due to his increasing commitment to activities other than caring for the sick. This required time and dedication.
He saw the need to learn Tamil language to translate English medical books, which up till that time lacked Western medical terminology. He is a pioneer in teaching of Western Medicine in Ceylon. This no doubt must have been the stimulus to the Tamils of Jaffna to pursue this new profession in increasing numbers for generations to come. Doctors of Tamil origin all over the world in a sense owe their gratitude to him.
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It is my sincere hope that Mr. Ambihaipahar's book Scientific Tamil Pioneer will be widely available and that it will inspire the medical reader to uphold the tradition and sincere dedication and concern for the sick and poor that Dr Green truly exemplified.
The practice of our profession and the monetary and ethical values unfortunately has shown very sad and disturbing trends in the last few decades. The life and contribution of Dr. Green should make us take stock of our professional life and values that go with it.
I thank Mr. Ambi for giving me the opportunity to express my thoughts and sentiments to his valued publication.
Datuk Dr. K. Somasundaram Consultant General & Pediatric Surgeon Soma Surgery Tawakal Specialist Centre, Jalan Pahang,
53000 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
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Foreword
Iam privileged to write this Foreword to this excellent publication. Ambi has been writing prose and poetry, in English and in Tamil, for children, lay adults and scholars for many years. His first literary work was on Dr.Samuel Fisk Green, as is this book, surely his masterpiece. We find in this pages a scholarly, well researched documentary on the life and work of a great American Christian Medical Missionary of the 19th century.
Many writers are boxed in within narrow confines by boundaries of language, religion, nationality, political affiliation and other categories. Ambi, a life long Hindu with a broad outlook and varied skills and interests has crossed many boundaries in undertaking this path breaking venture. In pursuing this initiative Ambi has been driven by a sense of mission and displayed a deep commitment to his task sustained over many years.
Over the centuries there have been differences of opinion within and criticism from outside the churches on the manner in which they sometimes use their material resources to benefit non-Christians. The record is mixed, but in Ambi's case it is pertinent to note that at no time during his twelve years on scholarship at St.John's College, Jaffna was any suggestion made to him to convert to Christianity. In the event, even from the narrowest parochial viewpoint, Ambi's research, publications and other contributions to commemorating the life and work of Dr. Green is rich dividend for the modest investment that the church made in awarding that scholarship. But, perhaps the objective of the Anglican church in this instance was Christian in a broader and more generous
Χίν

sense. Ambi's manifold contributions in the fields of science education and Tamil literature surely justify that investment just as much as his work related to Dr. Green.
The subject of this biography is a person of extraordinary qualities and skills. He was a deeply conscientious medical practitioner and a highly committed Christian evangelist. Gripped by a sense of destiny from a young age, as soon as he qualified in medicine, he sought to sail eastward halfway round the globe to work as a missionary "in a land of darkness" "to enlighten the minds of some error bound people."
Dr. Green was assigned to Jaffna, and there he discovered not only darkness and errors but also people who spoke what he described as a magnificent language. The young missionary quickly gained a mastery of that language and, over the years, developed such an extraordinary degree of loyalty and commitment to the welfare of the people who spoke that language that he chose to be remembered by the inscription on his tombstone "Medical Evangelist to the Tamils".
Overall, Dr.Green appears as a rather serious minded person, humble in his own way but driven by powerful and unshakable convictions as to where his duty lay, what course he needed to chart and which values he and, indeed, all of his faith need to uphold. The letter of advice he wrote while yet in his teens to his elder brother Andrew is revealing of the exacting standards that he set himself and which he had no hesitation in urging others too to adopt.
Dr. Green's observation on the skills required for good translations reveal clear thinking and keen analytical skills. He never faultered in his single minded dedication to the carefully thought out and sharply analysed objectives of the development of Medical and Scientific Tamil and Medical Education in the Tamil language though these were much against the current of opinion of those in authority and the professional, educational and local community elite at that time. The college of western medical science that he founded in Jaffna was the first in an Asian language.
ΧΥ

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f': 'r' 'ye :
Su. akaderseyerance againstall odds led to Dr. Green making "unparalleled and herdic contribution" in this field. The effective, though not always popular, initiatives he took to counter the brain drain of medical skills and to produce "barefoot doctors" to serve the local community reveals both idealism and pragmatism; so too Dr. Green's preference to introduce modern knowledge and ideas to the local people in their own language, so as to maximise the spread effects, rather than to do so through English medium education which can cater only to a small elite class. The policies he advocated and the arguments he marshalled to justify them showed him to be, as noted by Ambi, a pragmatic missionary a century ahead of his time.
Although judging by his photographs as well as his writings, Dr. Green may superficially appear to have been a stern, forbidding figure who set impossibly high standards for himself and for others, he revealed a flash of humor in his endorsement written on the copy of the Rishi Akastiar's "Gunapaadal" that he gifted to his kinsmen addressed in the traditional manner, as "Maha Kanam Porunthiya Dr.J.Green" and signed "Dr.S.F.Green alias Pachayappan".
Akastiar'sola leaf"Gunapaadal", now a proud possession ofWorcester Public Library in Massachusetts, is witness both to the rich cultural heritage that could be accessed through the Tamil language and the life and work of one of the greatest of the distinguished group of Inissionaries who came over to South Asia in the 19th century,
Ambi deserves our gratitude not only for researching and detailing Dr. Green's outstanding contributions to the well being of the people of this region and to the development of Medical Education in the Tamil language but also in discovering and introducing to us Samuel Fisk Green, the man.
Dr. Dewanesan Nesiah.
xvi

ஆங்கிங் േ5ിട്ട്"
ബ
(#1ہ , سہیہمعہ۔ (ت
,. تاہمواج --سید سہرہ, تو مجڑیں گی۔ مسلمونیہ ‘ ”من“” -
Dr. Samuel Fisk Green, M.D.

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1. Prologue
"Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our life sublime
And departing leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of time....."
Great men leave footprints on the sands of time, footprints that the winds of change cannot erase. They engrave a permanent impression with a silver lining and fluorescent glow that shines and guides future endeavors.
Dr. Samuel Fisk Green was one such great man who toiled with a will and left his footprints on the Jaffna soil by his devoted service to the Tamil people and the Tamil language, a hundred and fifty years ago.
Now, who was this man, Dr. Green? Why is he considered a great man? Was he born great or did he achieve greatness? What did he achieve by his devoted service? What footprints has he left, on his departure?
These are questions that will arise in any mind that is inquiring, alert and critical. Providing answers to some such questions is the aim of this book.
"Whatsoever will remain of mortal man in generations to come is that which appears in black and white upon the printed pages of books. A century hence even the greatest of this generation will have been forgotten, unless historic pages contain some reference to him and his deeds....."

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2 Prologue
Dr. Green's life and deeds are worthy of preservation on the pages of history of the Tamil people. Hence, here is a concise account of his life and deeds and more specifically, his pioneer contribution for the development of western medical and scientific literature in Tamil.
Dr. Green (1822-1884) of Worcester, Massachusetts, USA, was an American medical missionary doctor who served the American Ceylon Mission (ACM) in Jaffna, during the period (1847-1873).
On arrival in 1847, after a brief period of medical service at the ACM Centre at Vaddukoddai, he was moved to Manipay in 1848, by a delirn of the mission. At Manipay, he established the first hospital and a medical school to teach western medicine to the natives. Thus, Manipay enjoys a pride of place in Ceylon history as the venue of the first hospital and the first medical school, thanks to the ACM, and in particular to Dr. Samuel Fisk Green.
There stands at Manipay the Green Memorial Hospital, which brings to revered memory the pioneer services of this great medical evangelist, and the ACM - now known as the Jaffna Diocese of the Church of South India (JDCSI). It celebrates the 150th anniversary of the Green Memorial Hospital and the ACM medical mission, in October this year.
The continued service of the medical mission over a period of 150 years and its timely contribution to the Jaffna society are definitely milestones reached by the mission and need special focus and dissemination of historically important information. That is not all.
As mentioned earlier, in addition to the hospital, Dr. Green established a medical school at Manipay. That medical school has another first to be proud of. It was in that medical school that Dr. Green introduced Tamil language as the medium of instruction of western medical science-in 1860s.
Why did he decide to introduce Tamil as the medium of instruction of western medical science at a time when the society was not prepared? Dr. Green's feeling was that it was the only way in which he could get

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his students to settle down as physicians in the villages of their own people.
It was the period of colonial rule. There were hardly any natives qualified in western medicine, except those who were trained by him. Qualified doctors had good prospects of government employment. Hence, once trained as doctors in the English medium by Dr. Green, his students left their villages for greener pastures-government employment.
That defeated Dr. Green's aim- his primary purpose. His aim was to educate and train natives as doctors, to serve the people in the villages. Thus, in his attempt to keep his students in their villages to serve the people, he switched over to the Tamil medium, which by no means was an easy task.
To teach western medicine in Tamil, he had to prepare technical terms in Tamil, translate western medical books into Tamil and write medical books in Tamil. This meant the development of medical and scientific Tamil as different from literary Tamil. There was also a need to write medical treatises in simple Tamil for the benefit of the common manthe layman. He boldly and with confidence, undertook all these challenges.
Here is an overview of his pioneer undertakings and accomplishments at Manipay during the twenty-five year period 1847-1873.
He taught western medicine to Tamils in English. He learnt the Tamil language and mastered it. He prepared medical vocabulary in Tamil. He wrote and translated medical books in Tamil. He introduced Tamil as the medium of instruction for western medicine. 8. He guided his students to translate medical books into Tamil. 8. He edited and published medical books-over 4000 pages. 8. He wrote simple treatises in Tamil to educate the layman
ΦO0.0.O

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4 Prologue
It is a fact that all mission evangelists did sacrifice their lives for the benefit of greater humanity. They have to be remembered and their services have to be acknowledged, appreciated and respected.
In the case of Dr. Green, he was not just another evangelist. He was very much more, and his secular contributions were unique and unparalleled.
Dr. Green's work in introducing western medical science in Tamil was the first ever attempt to render western medical science into Tamil. His work was the pioneer work in thatfield. The foregoing overview would amply portray the magnitude of Dr. Green's undertaking.
Dr. Green lived amongst the Tamils of Jaffna and laboured for the Tamil people and developed medical and scientific Tamil - as different from literary Tamil. He made pioneer efforts to gear the Tamil language to the needs of a world in which science and technology made rapid strides.
His life was dedicated to the Tamils. Even in his last days, ten years after leaving Jaffna, he expressed his wish to be remembered as Medical Evangelist to the Tamils. He had expressed this request in his last "will".
The request was observed and the inscription engraved on his gravestone. Today, his gravestone in the Rural Cemetery at Worcester, Massachusetts bears testimony to his love and affection towards the Tamils amongst whom he lived and to whom he dedicated his entire life.
Dr. Green's pioneer contribution towards the development of scientific literature in Tamil, scientific and technical nomenclature in Tamil and his original Tamil treatises for dissemination and popularization of science knowledge amongst the layman-is noteworthy, praiseworthy and historically significant.
Given the period of time and the society in which he faced the challenge and accomplished his pioneer task of rendering scientific knowledge in Tamil, makes his achievements even more significant. Placing his

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 5
undertakings and achievements in perspective, and viewing in the light of and the status of prose literature in Tamil during mid-nineteenth century gives a new dimension for evaluation of his contribution.
Taking cognizance of the fact that he was an English speaking American to whom our language was alien, we see the 'real' Dr. Green when we pause with gratitude to recapitulate his pioneer undertakings and achievements, and his determination and commitment to leave behind something permanent.
At one stage, in 1855, he was suffering from cholera and his sister wished that he returned home and recuperates. He firmly replied thus:
"I have spent too much time in getting the language and in getting here, to run home before having really accomplished Something. If I can leave behind a series of medical text books in the vernacular, I shall feel as if something permanent has been done. If I can stay out my ten years, I would prefer to do so."
That says it all about his commitment and dedication, though there are more instances to quote. He stayed on, risking his health and life.
Thus we see in Dr. Green an extraordinary scholarly personality with the heart and dedication to serve mankind in whom he saw God. He was a great man who was born great and demonstrated his greatness by his achievements as well as his determination and will.
It is unfortunate that we, the present Tamil generation, have failed to pause in gesture and reflect on his endeavors with a sense of gratitude and thanksgiving for his valuable and priceless contributions. Even the institutions of higher learning have not given due recognition to his pioneer work. Most of them are still unaware of his pioneer efforts and achievements. The volume of Dr. Green's contribution, given the period of time and the society in which he undertook this venture with confidence, deserves much more recognition and research.

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6 Prologue
He was a man with vision on a mission but, may have been a century too early in our country. This is his 176th year of birth, the 151st year of arrival in Jaffna and the 150th anniversary year of his hospital and medical school.
It is but fitting that we bring back to memory this great evangelist to the Tamils, look at his ventures in relation to the then Jaffna society and his pioneer contribution to the development of medical and scientific Tamil.

2. Childhood and Education
"Good Fortune will unerringly find its way to the man of indefatigable energy"
-Thirukurahl.
Samuel, son of William E. Green and Julia Plimpton, was born on October 10, 1822, at Green Hill, Worcester, Massachusetts. He was the eighth child in a large family with eleven children.
As a child, he was sickly. He lost his mother when he was eleven years old and hence, grew up under the care of his father and an elder sister.
He had his early education at public schools and in spite of frequent absence from school, did fairly well in his studies. He was always keen to be useful and worked in whatever capacity that was available.
As a result, he was even away from both home and school for about a year, at the young age of fourteen. He is said to have been so faithful and exemplary a student in school that one of his teachers had commented that he was a perfect gentleman.'
He was industrious and in addition had a home environment that was favourable to studies. He had a natural taste for reading and was well disciplined. He kept away from undesirable associates and bad habits. Discipline, was to a great extent, was an important key to his success.
By the age of eighteen, he showed an interest and gave himself to the service of Christ. The guidance of Rev. Dr. Skinner of the St. Presbyterian Church, with whom he had a clerkship, influenced his

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8 Childhood and Education
way of life. It gave him the opportunity to develop his interest. He attended church meetings and took Sunday school classes.
His duties at the Mission House were light and so he found time to attend some dentistry classes. Soon, he was a student of medicine under Dr. John A. McVickar. There he had the opportunity to witness surgery and to listen to medical lectures. These experiences motivated him to take the study of medicine seriously.
In October 1841, he joined the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, and thus undertook the study of medicine in earnest.
Even when he was young, he did not hide his inner feelings about life, wealth and the Will of God.
In November 1841, when he was a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, he makes this trait explicit in a letter to his brother Andrew, when the latter left the family to work in Lesser Antilles. Here are some extracts from that letter, which reveal his thinking:
"Dear Brother Andrew,
"I want to say a few words to you now, even after you have left me far behind, together with all your earthly friends. You are now among strangers, who have comparatively but little interest in you, and who not having known you before, take you as you first appear to them. This, then, is the time to take among them and among all a decided stand for Christ....
"You are going into the midst of thick temptations, and it becomes you to take earnest heed to yourself that you do not fall. Trust not for one single moment to your own strength, but as a little child walk, led by Jesus' hand; if you trust in Him, He will guard and guide you......

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 9
"You leave us now with the hope and expectation of getting wealth. If God sees it to be best that you become rich, He will send abundant prosperity; but if not, if He sees that prosperity would be hurtful to you, He will in mercy withhold it, and you should pray that He would, for it will profit nothing to gain the whole world and lose one's soul.
"If He gives you prosperity, pray that He will at the same time grant you grace to bear it well.........
"You will doubtless be strongly tempted to follow the practices of those among whom you may be known, in regard to the Sabbath particularly, but do not give way to the temptation......
One may find it difficult to believe that this was an advice and guidance from a younger brother who had just turned twenty, to his elder brother who went in search of wealth in a foreign environment. His faith in God and God's Will sound like that of an experienced adult. This, in short, introduces and portrays the real young Samuel. Though his letter starts on an emotional plane, it soon comes down to a rational level.
As a medical student, he had some extraordinary qualities of selfdiscipline. Here is an extract, which gives details and sets them out clearly, and I quote in full because of its usefulness:
"He did not allow his professional course to preventearnest efforts at general improvement. At the outset he began the study of German under a teacher to whom it was vernacular. He gave attention to Latin, Geometry, and Natural Science; read Philosophy, History, and Poetry.
"He desired to have his mind so well disciplined that all his powers would be under control. For his age and opportunities, he had a rare perception of what was necessary to such discipline, and a rare determination to attain it.

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10 Childhood and Education
"He read with attention, reflected on what he read, and often made his thoughts definite by writing. This practice clarified his mind, and enabled him to take enlarged views and to form quick and accurate judgements. He thus gained a good degree of power to set his mind at work whenever and wherever and on whatever subject he desired."
When he completed his studies at the Medical College in March 1845, he was offered a place to work at the New York Dispensary. Since he was keen to work in his hometown, he declined the New York offer.
He commenced his practice at Worcester in April 1845 but his thoughts of missionary work were getting stronger and stronger.
In 1846, his inner urge raised a serious question and the question was:
"Why is it not better for me to go where I can be very useful, as well in my profession and otherwise, at once-go to a land of darkness and heal the bodies and enlighten the minds of some error bound people?"
In a few months' medical practice in Worcester, he recorded his inner urge, feelings and thoughts as follows:
"If it prove best that my sphere should be enlarged here, I hope I may be enabled to devote all my influence to the great cause, and make all tell for good upon the welfare (in the broadest sense) of my fellow creatures. For self is not worth living for; such living is not worthy the name of life; it makes one meaner and still more mean; true livingbenevolence-is a constant expansion of soul.
"It is certainly very pleasant to have extended business influence, to have many under one's pay, to be the means of their subsistence, to be the medium of relief to suffering, to have a large share of this world's goods and dispense bounties to all around.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer ll
But it is as certainly pitiable to see one blessed with all these powers and turning the good to curse by a grasping, avaricious spirit, - acting the miser, starving his soul, and laboring to tie a golden weight on his neck.
He was a lover of Nature and on one occasion made this observation:
"The casual observer looks at an object, the scientist looks into it, the Christian looks through it to its Creator"
He saw God in nature and in man; and so was keen to serve mankind as his service to God.
The thought of missionary service preoccupied his conscious mind. He was determined to dedicate himself to the service of humanity in the name of the Almighty and longed for it.

Page 17
3. Batticotta Assignment
"Having resolved of a course of action after deliberal irri vigorously pursue it without wavering and without delay"
- Thiruku rahl.
Having decided to serve mankind in the name of the Creator, Dr. Green was waiting for an opportunity to make it a reality. In November 1846, Dr. Green had the opportunity, thanks to the American Ceylon Mission (ACM).
The ACM was established in Jaffna about thirty years before Dr. Green was assigned to the Ceylon Mission. It has a permanent place in the history of Jaffna and its development over the years.
The activities of the ACM in Jaffna, north Ceylon, is said to be the result of the then colonial masters - the British - coercing the early American Missionaries who arrived in Ceylon at the dawn of the nineteenth century, to set up their mission in Jaffna. Whatever the reasons, it was a blessing.
The ACM's activities were many and humanitarian. It is true that they were on a mission - a mission to spread the Christian faith-but it was coupled with other activities in the fields of education, health, communication and others that were essential to redeem the people from suffering and ignorance.
They established their first school in 1816 at Tellipalai and it was a school that provided free education. Soon they established more schools

Scien rific T7 , il Picareer
at leading mission centres - Waddukoddai (which they called Batticotta), Pandatharippu, Uduviland Manipay. Within three decades, the number of schools in different parts of Jaffna peninsula exceeded a hundred.
In addition to the elementary schools and high schools to provide general education to the young, education a collegiate level was also provided at an institute of higher learning at the Batticotta Seminary. Several scholars, both foreigners as well as Ceylon nationals, have left their trails there of pioneer Tamil publications of books on literature, logic, algebra, astronomy, science and Tanil-Tamil and English-Tamil dictionaries,
The first printing press-ACM Press-was set up at Tellipalai in 1820 to satisfy a need, the need to publish their missionary propaganda literature, in the for Ill of books and tracts. Within the next two decades, the first Tamil newspaper called Uthayatharakai and an English version of it called Morning Star rolled out of the ACM printing machine, in 1841.
፳፻፶፰፻፷፰
፳፻፳፻፳፻፳፻፶፰ 靈 წ 繳 წწწწწწწწწწ. W
燃
* 繳 燃
Dr. John Scudder and Mrs. Scudder

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14 Batticotta Assignment
The ACM, unlike other missions, decided to provide health and medical services to the people of Jaffna in addition to educational facilities. Dr. John Scudder established the first medical centre at Pandatharippu in 1820. He came to Ceylon with his wife and children and within two years had faced a testing time with irreparable personal loss and suffering.
In spite of the loss of beloved ones, trials and tribulations of a personal nature, he continued his sacred mission showing love and affection to his patients and winning their hearts. In addition to treating and looking after the sick and the suffering, he also undertook the teaching and training of nationals to equip them with a basic knowledge western medical practices, dispensing skills and treating methods.
In 1836, Dr. Nathan Ward came as missionary physician to replace Dr. John Scudder. After serving a ten-year term in Jaffna, Dr. Ward returned in 1846 and Dr. Samuel Fisk Green was appointed to take his place. And how did Dr. Green win the mission assignment?
As mentioned earlier, Dr. Green had decided to serve as a missionary doctor and was waiting for an opportunity to make it happen. In November 1846, several missionaries of the ACM who were on holiday in America were preparing to leave Boston and sail for India to resume their service. This group included Dr. Scudder, the Rev. Levi Spaulding who was returning to Ceylon and the Rev. E. P. Hastings who was also sailing to Ceylon to take up a new assignment with ACM.
Dr. Green took this opportunity meet Dr. John Scudder, had disririons with him and offered his services to the Board of American Missions. In course of time, the Board of Missions appointed him as acting missionary physician in Jaffna. His place of work was to be Batticotta Seminary.
Dr. Green was now thinking of his departure from home and separation from his family and friends. He records his thoughts and emotions in a touching manner in poetic language:

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 15
"I wondered late beneath the moon, whose pensive light seemed in friendly sympathy with my spirit. I saw her rise from the hazy East and, awake but dreaming, pictured all those scenes, unknown to me save by description, where my destiny with unwavering finger points my path, and the future is speedily beckoning me away.
"I looked upon the fair orb of night, and felt myself towards her growing in attachment; for she will surely hereafter, as now, shed beams of softest influence on my soul when lonely I may stray to think on kindred far away, and feed, as I must on memory's shades of scenes too dear, too sacred, it would seem, to leave, - I hear the tones of millions call; I may not stay."
This record reveals his heart, his love and attachment to the society he lived in and his native soil. He dreams of his life in a foreign setting, away from home and beloved ones and accepts it saying that it is his destiny.
Soon he closed his practice and medical centre at Worcester and set about making preparations to sail to Ceylon. He was unsure as to when the next ship would be available to sail and so he took lessons in drawing and Daguerreotyping.
Having come to know that he was to work amidst Tamil people, he was also engaged in the study of Tamil language under a returned missionary who had knowledge of Tamil.
He was told about the Tamil language and the number of alphabets and that it was a difficult language to learn, but since he had learnt other languages such as Latin, Greek, French and German, he had the confidence that he could learn and master it. He, in fact, expressed his confidence to one of his sisters saying that "others have learned it and so can I.
He settled his emotions by accepting that it was God's will. In a letter to his sister Lydia he expresses his feelings...and faith like this:

Page 19
16 Batticotta Assignment
"My Dear Sister Lydia,
”...•••••••••••••• I cannot account for it, that one who does really love his friends as much as I do can yet be away from them as I now am without feeling irrepressible longings for their society; how ever, I can little tell how I shall yearn to see their faces after a three year's absence from them all.
"I never have been totally divided from them in my life, but on this theme my pen must stophere. I am not to allow myself in painting dismal hues, I do not believe in them. I believe most cordially that the Lord will cheer any path we may tread if be pursued with a trustful leaning on Him.
"Let us rejoice in that ours is the hope that we both have the Almighty for our friend, reconciled to us through the beloved redeemer. We can butcry with the apostle - "Thanks be unto God for His unspeakable gift'.
"I should be glad, it seems to me, if I could get my heart in a state contented with nothing short of heaven, and I hope I am satisfied with all my friends, - to regard all partings with them here as but of very trifling importance, and to look for a full enjoyment of their company above only."
Before concluding the letter he makes a brief mention of his wish about a life companion:
"When I can find one with many of your features of character, I shall be likely to try for a matrimonial arrangement............................
On the same topic, marriage, he wrote to another sister: his realintention.
"I won't get married, if I can help it, till I have explored the Indies myself alone first."

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 17
After taking a well thought out decision, Dr. Green did not hesitate to pursue it with determination. Thoughts of his people and fraternal love were lingering in his memories, when the Jacob Perkins steamed out of Boston harbour on April 20, 1847, with Dr. Green on board.

Page 20
4. Arrival at Batticotta
"The wealth of the wise Friar who cares for the world is like the village tank that is ever full with water"
-Thirukurahl
Jacob Perkins set sail on its long and tedious journey from the east coast harbour of America-Boston-to the South Indian harbour-Madras, Even before the ship was off anchor, Dr. Green had taken his desk out and was getting ready to work.
He had one fellow passenger about whom he plainly said that he had "no religious sympathy' and felt the same of the officers on the ship and the crew, Even under those circumstances, he tried "to be the nearls of good" to everyone on board. His firm belief was that "faithful dealing towards others is a most powerful means of grace to one's self'
He spent the time in the ship usefully trying to equip himself with new knowledge. He continued the study of Tamil, read science and literature and at times, dissected things he collected from the sea.
The voyage took more than four months. From the records he kept on his experiences at sea we find that he "snielled the spicy breezes which seened like a faint perfiume ofheliotrope" on the 30th of August and on the next day "the coast of Ceylon revealed itself".
He landed in Madras on 4th, September and was rowed from the ship by about a dozen men "naked except a cap or turban and a piece of cloth around the loins". On arrival, he had the pleasure of reading several

Scier risic Tamil Pioneer 19
PORTRAIT OF LOR, SAMUEL FISK (GREEN
Takic Abi LIL 1847

Page 21
20 Arrival at Batticotta
letters from home and friends, and letters of welcome from missionaries in Ceylon.
He spent about two weeks in Madras. He listened to Rev. Henry Scudder preach in Tamil and attended a love feast in the evening. During his stay there he visited several places of interest to him-the Dispensary, the Eye Infirmary, and the Institution for paupers, lepers, idiots, and the insane.
After a period of rest, orientation and making new acquaintances with ACM missionaries, he prepared for his journey to Jaffna. The journey was by no means easy. He had to travel about 200 miles by land before crossing the sea to reach the shores of North Ceylon.
He purchased a horse for his land travel and left Madras with one Mr. Hunt of the ACM and some servants. After travelling about thirty miles, Mr. Hunt took leave of Dr. Green and returned to Madras.
Dr. Green traveled on horseback, through villages, crossing broad streams and desert plains, enjoying the natural scenery and the village customs. This journey was over on the 3rd of October.
He crossed Palk Strait and landed at Point Pedro on 6th of October 1847. On the same day he went to the mission house at Valvetty. The very next day he had a lesson in Tamil. That was his spirit even after a long and tiresome journey of about five months.
That evening he left Valvetty, visited other mission centres at Tellippalai, Pandatharippu and Manipay and finally settled down at his destination to begin missionary work in earnest.
On October 9th 1847, he wrote about his safe arrival in Jaffna to his father, other members of his family and friends, from Vaddukoddai'
"Here I am, having been mercifully preserved through a long and tedious voyage and a wearisome journey.............

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 21
"Am going to investigate what there is here in my department, and get things in train as soon as may be. . . . . . . . ...
"My next to you will be my Genesis of my missionary life.
"Just in time to begin my next quarter of a century, -am twenty-five tomorrow....."
Yes, Dr. Green celebrated his twenty-fifth birthday in Jaffna in a really fitting manner and that was by beginning his long awaited missionary life - the Genesis of his missionary life.
He wrote that he was in Jaffna "just in time to begin my next quarter of a century". In reality, it so happened that it was the beginning of his next quarter of a century in Jaffna, to serve the Tamils and popularize western medical knowledge in the Tamil language.
In the record on the journal he maintained he made the following entry:
"Spared by Divine Mercy Icomplete today my twenty fifth year. I commence my second quarter of a century in commencing my missionary life.
"If permitted to see the close of another period equal to that passed, may it be with the retrospect of diligent, faithful and successful exertion in my Great Master's cause......
"May the flight of time be more clearly attended to by me, how briefit is, how quickly it passes, and how momentously it terminates."
Yes, time passes quickly indeed if you are involved in any activity with real interest and to your liking. It hangs on you, if you are disinterested or you are involved in some activity that doesn't give you satisfaction.
He was conscious that time was a resource and that he had to plan clearly and make optimum use of it, attend to it with care without wasting it.

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22 Arrival at Batticotta
Thus, Dr. S. F. Green commenced his long awaited mission service as a missionary doctor at the ACM Seminary at Vaddukodai, at the dawn of his twenty-sixth year.
He treated patients and derived satisfaction-but patients did not come to him in large numbers. He treated missionaries who were sick and Tamils who came to him for treatment were only those who in some way were connected with the mission.
Something that changed the whole scenario happened within two weeks of his starting work at the seminary. A detailed account of what changed the situation is made clear by a letter written by an old student when Dr. Green died in 1884.
This is the letter written by his old student Dr. E. Waitillingam:
"In the year 1847, there were very few English doctors, and none among the Tamils of Jaffna who had any idea of European medical practice. The Jaffnese would not dare to gainsay their own physician.... So there was prejudice and ignorance for the new Doctor to overcome.......
"Mr. Mutatamby, a Tamil and Sanskrit Pundit (my uncle), who was generally the Tamil teacher of the missionaries, got fever and was suffering from it for a long time, under my father who was a native physician.
"Fever grew worse and worse daily and suddenly turned out to be something else. The patient was left for a few days without treatment, to see what was the cause of the bad state. All hopes of recovery were lost...Other native physicians were equally unable to solve the difficulty.
"I suggested to my father to have recourse to the European doctor, and alluded to Dr. Green, who was then in Batticotta a few days after his arrival. After great hesitation and consultation, it was decided that Dr. Green can be invited, because he was a missionary.....

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 23
"People had crowded on account of the serious state of the patient and for curiosity's sake. Dr. Green was taken to the patient, and the crowd was dispersed. Dr. Green pronounced that there was an abscess in the abdomen, and advised immediate operation.
"Ibravely responded to it, and the patient also was willing. He discovered the abscess and cut it open. The patient got free and was a hundred times better than he was. Dr. Green dressed the wound, and attended very carefully and cured him.
"The people heard about the success and the fame of the Doctor was spread very soon throughout the peninsula of Jaffna. The people began to talk that the English doctor had removed the bowels out, adjusted them, and refixed thет.......
"From the day forth Dr. Green was considered a demi-god by the people, who all flocked to him afterwards from all parts of Jaffna."
It is appropriate to mention here that Dr. Waitillingam was one of the three selected by Dr. Green in his medical class at Manipay Medical School in 1848. At the time of Dr. Green's death, Dr. Waitillingam was an Assistant Colonial Surgeon in Ceylon.
After the first surgical success and the news spreading throughout the peninsula, the patients approaching Dr. Green for treatment increased daily. Since his knowledge of Tamil was limited, he had an interpreter to facilitate communication with the ever-increasing number of patients.
He was a lover of the world and so, literally and metaphorically, he was like a village tank with water up to the brim-so useful to all around, to those in need.

Page 23
5. Hospital at Manipay
SLL LLGLLL LLLL LLLL LLLLC LL CLLLLLL LLLLLLaL LLLLLL is F7 zruch greater" tlharz the h4*hole Mvorld"
-Thirukurahl
Early in February 1848, by decision of the mission, Dr. Green was shifted from Waddukoddai seminary to Manipay. It is not clear why this step was taken but the increase in the number of patients may have been one of the reasons. In addition, the fact that the seminary was a busy centre of academic activity may have been still another contributing factor.
SSSSSSSSS3
溢滋
Dr. Green's First Hospital at Manipay
 
 

Whatever the reason, the fact is that Dr. Green established the ACM hospital at Manipay to continue his medi-care services to the people and to this day it continues to be an important centre of the mission's
Scierrrific Trzyril Pioneer
medical work.
As a missionary doctor, Dr. Green had three main duties to perfor II at
the time he came to Manipay. They were:
l,
It was a time when people depended on native doctors who were not qualified in western medicine. Diseases were many, Apart from the more deadly diseases like cholera and smallpox, Dr. Green identified others that were common and the cause for each of them. He had listed
To attend on the missionaries who needed medical assistance
and treat native patients who approach him for treatment.
To supervise and help the medical assistants who had been trained earlier by Dr. Scudder and posted at different medical centres of
the mission.
To teach Western medicine and train natives and thus implement the policy of the mission which was to gradually reduce foreign
aid.
Somme of thel, thus:
"The itch was very prevalent and of a virulent kind, but no disgrace was ever supposed to accompany it.
"Cancer of the mouth is a very common disease here, arising from the habitual use of quick-lime with the Betel գաid.
"In the dewy season there is much of fever and lung affections. Even the sheep die of pneumonia in that season, So very lying is the change from the hot days to the chilly. nights. So poorly clad are the people that their liability to these troubles is greatly increased. Often on a dewy morning have I--from the cold regions of the North-gone by almost chilled in flannels, while little children of the tropics stood stark naked by the roadside.

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26 Hospital at Manipay
"Fever--and--ague is very common in the eastern parts of the Province, and the miserable victims of its long continued attacks are very frequently seen - with enormous bellies, shriveled members, bloodless tongues and eyelids. The spleen becomes really prodigiously enlarged, in many cases reaching over to the right side and nearly or quite down to the hipbone.
"Many of the wealthy die of diabetes, the effect of their vegetarianism, license, and luxurious indolence combined. The corpulency some of them attain is wonderful.
"The force of action in the physical system of this people is very small. I have been surprised on feeling the pulse, to find a man, under a recent severe injury, even in the stage of reaction, icy cold.
He felt that in most cases the illness was due to the ignorance of the people and their diet. They were not aware of healthy food and healthy life. About the then Jaffna man's weekly "oil bath, he said:
"Although a Tamil gets sick by his weekly bath of fifty or a hundred baskets of water, yet he will not lessen the quantity".
He became aware that there was 'secret vice' among some natives. In an attempt to counter act, he prepared and published a tract on that subject. Later, he felt that it was "timely and useful enough to repay abundantly the time and expense on it'.
Though his duties were consuming both his time and energy, he did not neglect the study of Tamil. He undertook systematic study of Tamil to gain mastery of the language. His daily communication with patients required a basic knowledge of spoken Tamil. This created a need to learn Tamil, gave the opportunity to increase his vocabulary and improve his pronunciation. He made good progress in the study of Tamil during the first year but continued studying with a desire to master it.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 27
Within a few years he learnt to speak Tamil with grace and write with ease and later made pioneer contribution for the development of the Tamil language as a scientific and technical language.
Just as he studied Tamil, Dr. Green studied the society and his shifting to Manipay helped him in the process. The famous Pihllaiyaar temple at Manipay and the rites, festivals and practices of the people gave him a glimpse of the real situation which, of course as a missionary, he did not approve or appreciate, and that is understandable.
He came from America where Hinduism was probably not heard of at that time. Anyone who was not a Christian, Jew or Muslim-one who did not follow a religion which was well known to them-was generally classed a heathen.
His mission had the specific objective of spreading the Christian faith and the word of the Gospel. Hence, one would not expect him to approve or appreciate the age-old Hindu way of life, which had some practices not acceptable even to Hindus.
When he found that it was difficult to make the people accept the Christian faith, Dr. Green used the medical cards to disseminate that knowledge. He gave hospital cards with both directions in regard to health as well as extracts from the Gospel printed on them.
The patients were required to keep the cards safe and bring them to him when they came again. He was of opinion that they would read them and benefit from both the health content as well as the religious COntent.
Within a few years he was again shifted to a new house at Vaddukoddai but later he was back again at Manipay. Even today, Green Memorial Hospital at Manipay reminds us and brings to memory that it was the centre of Dr. Green's medical practice and medical school.
The determination with which he worked is revealed in two letters he wrote from Manipay in 1849. Here are extracts from a letter he wrote from Manipay to his brother John, in January 1849. 12

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28 Hospital at Manipay
The first part of that long letter reveals his determination and conviction:
"My Very Dear Brother John,
"I received a letter from you two days ago .................. You say in your letter, 'come home'. Now, I can give you more reasons why I should not come home....... I feel more and more convinced the longer Istay here, that here I Ought to stay; that God has shown me it is both my duty and my privilege to remain here so long as I have health to be useful. That I did not enter the missionary work rashly, without previous sober reflection you may be assured. That I shall not rashly leave it, or so conduct as to be expelled from it, I look for God's help....................... 戟
The following extract from that letter gives us an idea of the load of work he had in the thirteen-month period at Manipay:
”............................. Let me tell you a little what I am doing. I came out here to take medical care of, 1st, the missionaries, and 2ndly, of whoever of the natives applied to me for aid. I began registering the names, residence, diseases, and treatment of these, on the 14th December, 1847. The number on the register today is two thousand five hundred and forty four in thirteen months. Many of these surgical cases, perhaps one-third or more."
The following part of the letter describes in detail the types of surgical cases he attended to:
"I have removed lots of tumors, have operated for cataract several times, for strangulated hernia once, amputated the arm once, removed several cancers, amputated... portions of the hand several times,....attended some very bad cases of child-birth etc........"
Thus, it is evident that Dr. Green had served the people at a time when they needed it most. It was not commensurable.

6. Medical School
"Carefully determine the capacity and the means a person has
to accomplish a task and entrust it to him."
-Thirukurahl
One of the policies of the mission was to educate and train native physicians in western medicine so that, in course of time, they could run the medical centres without foreign assistance. In fact, a few had been trained earlier by Dr. Scudder, and they were in charge of mission dispensaries in the different mission centres. Whether their level of education and training was equivalent to that of Dr. Green's students is not clear.
In keeping with the policy of the mission, Dr. Green had selected two students to follow medicine within two months of his arrival. After a few months, he had one more. The three native students who studied medicine in the first ever-medical class organized by Dr. Green (1848 - 1850) were:
Joshua Danforth J. Dennison J. Waittilingam
Thus, Dr. Green established his regular medical school at Manipay in 1848 with three students and it was the only one of its kind in Ceylon until the establishment of the Ceylon Medical College in Colombo, in 1870.
The question that now arises is whether there were students who could follow a course in western medicine at that time. In order to ascertain

Page 26
3()
Mezrict Schoer")
2
5
f
 

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 31
that, we have to have an idea of the education system available at that period of time.
We are aware that one of the major contributions of the different missionaries in general, and the ACM in particular, was in the area of education. At that time the colonial government did not concentrate on education. They were satisfied with cheap subordinates and loyal subjects.
The ACM had first established free Tamil schools and later on, the bilingual schools and even boarding schools. At the time Dr. Green came to Jaffna, there were more than a hundred ACM schools, not to mention schools run by other missions. Some of them were English schools.
In Colombo, in contrast, only a few had the facility for English education at that time. It appears that it was available through the Colombo seminary and also some scholarships to England. It was the Colebrooke Commission that pointed out that the ACM Schools in Jaffna were run efficiently and that the government schools were unable to compete with them.
Capable and pronising Jaffna students had the opportunity to continue their higher education in Madras. We are now aware that some well
known Tamil scholars from ACM Batticotta Seminary, like C. W. Thamotharampillai and Carrol Viswanathapillai, graduated at Madras University in mid-1850s.
Even recently, a government foreign ministry official has in an interview with a foreign journal pointed out how the then ACMschools elevated Jaffna. Tamils: 1
"...thc British...elevated Tamils who had been quick to learn English from American Missionaries to dilute Sinhalese роWeГ............... and that by 1947, the minority Tamils held 60% of the most lucrative government jobs."

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32 Medical School
It is a fact that the Jaffna Tamils gained immensely from all missionaries, not only ACM, who built schools and educated the people, but the intention of the missionaries was not diluting Sinhalese power. The truth is that the Tamils made optimum use of the available opportunity and resources.
Hence, with ACM schools providing English education, Dr. Green wouldn't have had difficulty in selecting capable and interested students to follow his medical classes in English. But then, why did he think of teaching western medicine in Tamil?
Dr. Green was keen that his students, on completion of training, should settle down in their villages and serve their people. In a letter, which he wrote after Dr. Green's death, Dr. W. Chapman said that 'Dr. Green had a view to educate and give a physician to every ten thousand of the ten million Tamil population.'
As time passed he saw that it was not happening. His students were not returning to their villages but looking for more lucrative positions under the colonial government. That was one reason why he wanted to switc over to the Tamil medium. He wanted to make the change since he fel that that was the only way to get them to settle down as physicians i the villages of their own people."
In course of time, the representatives of the American Board who came to determine what changes, if any, should be made in the methods of carrying on the mission work, approved his plan.
They decided that as for the teaching of medical students, 'English should to be excluded as far and as soon as practicable'. Dr. Green was happy about it.
The decision to switch over to the Tamil medium was by no means easy, not because he couldn't do it but because of the attitude of his students and that of the then government.
About the attitude of his students towards such a change, he wrote:

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 33
"My boys are quite unsettled by the change from English to the vernacular, thinking their prospects of getting a salary from government less promising......... the aim is henceforth to get doctors to settle down and live in their villages. I gave the class a vacation often days to settle whether they will proceed with their studies or go to some other occupation."
We see that he was firm. His intention was clear. Though he started some oral instructions in 1855 in preparation for the Switchover, it was in 1864 that he implemented that in full. The delay was because of his being on leave for five years-1857 to 1862.
At the time of switchover, he expressed his desire thus:
"I hope, by going into Vernacular education, to get some doctors who will in native dress start off afoot in response to calls, and not demand a horse and carriage to be sent and a heavy fee also in addition. This aping European habits is very well in moderation, but young Jaffna overdoes it"
By referring to the aping European habits', he expresses his opinion based on the observations he had quietly made of the then society that was slowly getting Europeanized. In fact, the 1800s was a period of several social changes, not only in Jaffna but the whole of Ceylon. The English educated elite was, and has been described as truly cosmopolitan. He had observed the changes that were taking place, with disappointment:
"I begin to think that the change here will be from a waistcloth to pants, from a scarf to a coat, from a turban to a hat, from vegetarianism to carnivorism, from a hut to a house and so on till many while yet unchristianized may be denationalized. I would rather here see Christian Hindus than Hindus Europeanized."
He talked of aiming to produce 'some doctors who will in native dress' go and attend on patients, when need arose. The photograph of his first

Page 28
34. Medical School
group of students shows their dress at the time of his arrival and he had seen that style change during his time. He did not want to see people Europeanized. He was cautious not to contribute towards a wrong notion of civilization. His feeling was that young Jaffna overdid it. The English educated youth wanted government employment. Dr. Green would surely have gauged the situation and seen the changes during his days.
He worked hard with commitment and by the end of his two ten-year terms of service in Jaffna (20 years in all), he had educated and trained sixty-two Tamils in the practice of western medicine.
29 doctors Educated in the English medium. 33 doctors Educated in the Tamil medium.
They were all fully qualified doctors. Initially, they had their instruction in English and later on, when Dr. Green was ready with the necessary technical terms in Tamil, he introduced Tamil as the medium. Apart from these sixty-two doctors, a class of twenty students was following his classes at the time he left Manipay.
The standard of the doctors must have been quite high and to his satisfaction. Early in 1866, when Dr. Danforth had completed the translation of a book on Surgery, Dr. Green sent an application to his old medical school, the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, requesting that an honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine be conferred on him. He wrote:
"I do not intend to apply for those unworthy, nor for those who would not earn it by doing a bona fide service in the cause of Tamilizing Western Medicine...."
The College agreed to his request and conferred the degree on Dr. J. Danforth.
Here is a full list of Tamils educated by Dr. Green between 1848 and 1873.17

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 35
Class of 1848 - 50. Joshua Danforth, J. Dennison. J. Waittilingaum.
C. Class of 1851 - 53. J. Town. N. Parker, C. Mead. A. C. Hall. S. Miller
Class of 1853 - 56. T. Hopkins. G. M. Reid. C. McIntyre, A. McFarland.
Class of 1856-59. J. H. Bailey. A. Blanchard. J. P. Harward. F. Latimer
J. Wilson. J. Ropes. J. Flud D. P. Mann.
Class of 1861 - 64.
Karthekaser; alias M. Hitchcock,
Ethernayakam, C. T. Mills,
Swaminather, S. W. Nathaniel,
Kanakadatinam, yw L. S. Strong,
Vaittilingam, - mt. D. W. Chapman,
S. Navaratnam, ff Sivappirakasam,
A. Appapilly, 77 William Paul,
J. B. Shaw, ff L. Spaulding.
Class of 1864 - 67. The FIRST in the Tamil Medium.
K. Elyapillay, Kandapper S. Sittambalam, A. Sivasidambaram. V Sittambalam. S. Sinпарри,
Samuel David. Daniel Vettivalo. R. S. Welopilly.
S. Mandalam. Samuel H. Murugasu.
Class of 1867 - 70.
A. Appapillay. A. Appackиttу. Arитиgат,
S. Sarawanmuttu. V. Senivasagam, S. Saminather;
S. Kandavanam Edward Lovell, V. Vannitumby.
Visuvanathan. S. Vinasitamby.

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36 Medical School
Class of 1871 - 73.
J. Amerasinger. S. Arunasalem. M. Ramalingam. V: Catheravaloo. V Sadasivam Bates. S. Sarawanamuttu. S. Sinnatamby. S. Sinniah. K. Tilliampalam. K. Vaittilingam. K. Wellopilly.
Class of 1872 - 75. A. Amerasingam. R. Ambalam. T Kanagasaphy. C. Kumaravaloo. Richard S. Adams. Benjamin Lawrence. V. Sellappah. N. L. Joshua. N. Tambinuttu. M. Nannitamby. V. Ponnambalam. K. Ponnambalan S. Ponnambalam. Mutiyah S. Ropes. Abraham V. Nitsinger N. Mutatamby. V. Vettea wanam. Joshua K. Pereatamby.
米 The class of 1872 had not completed their course when Dr. Green
left Ceylon.
冰 Though some names are misleading, all were Tamil students.
The names they used were their Christian names.

7. Genesis of Medical Tamil
"Firmness in action is nothing else but the fortitude of his mind"
-Thirukurahl
The interest with which Dr. Green applied himself to master the Tamil language needs no elaboration. He made sure that he was well conversant with spoken Tamil as well as written Tamil. Soon, he attained such a level of proficiency in Tamil that he was able to critically evaluate the language spoken by the people.
In 1850, he was able to record this comment:
"I have now got sofar that I can begin to enjoy the language, and see the ludicrous usage of the uneducated natives as it differs from the pure classic speech of the refined.
"A vast amount of labor has been expended in polishing the language of this people. Having naturally acute minds, fond of metaphysics, and knowing no true science upon which to expend their powers, they have lavished thought and ingenuity on their vernacular tongue.
"It is said a man may be a diligent scholar in Tamil for fifty years, and yet meet with works in the language which he cannot read."

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38 Genesis of Medical Tamil
This comment by Dr. Green appears to reflect the level of proficiency he had attained and a situation where reading was a common problem. The problem in reading may have been mainly due to the highly convention-ridden style and grammatical combinations of words in written Tamil. As for the written works that were on palmyrah leaves, the reading difficulty would have been more due to the handwriting itself.
This is not surprising since even today we come across so many of our educated people who cannot read some classical works easily and comfortably. This again substantiates the common belief that written Tamil is made complex to the common man by grammar and conventions.
No problem could deter Dr. Green's urge to introduce medical science literature in Tamil. It in fact reinforced his thinking. Late in 1850, Dr. Green strongly felt that he should not only be satisfied with teaching western medicine in English but also should, in course of time, provide medical literature in the Tamil language.
He was of opinion that it was the most constructive means of redeeming them from some of their undesirable practices and way of life, which had been the heritage of successive generations.
He had, in fact studied the society and the social system. He had recorded some of them with his observations. In one of his records he had made a comment. like this:'
"Akustier, a fabulous person, is the famous medical author among this people. He wrote ages ago, and they say he is now composing works on some mountain far in the West: that he is but a cubit high. They follow his prescriptions unchangingly, not knowing the effect of each ingredient, but only that of the compound."
This is not all. In September 1997, I had the opportunity to visit the Public Library at Worcester. Since they were aware that I was referring

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 39
to Tamil works of Dr. Green that were available there, I was shown a document written on palmyrah leaves. With great interest, I opened it up and read it. It was a copy of "Guna Paadal" by Akastiar.
There was an introduction by Dr. Green, also written on palmyrah leaves, in his handwriting, which reads thus:
"The author of this book was Agastia Moony, or Rishe (Yogee) a celebrated hermit or learned devotee who flourished in India many hundred years ago. He has written many books on religion, medicine, philosophy, and some other sciences.
"He is thought to have traveled to various countries and even to Europe (Greece, Italy) in search of knowledge. In corroboration of this idea, he has written of himself that he resided in the country of the franks, eighteen years. He has in one of his works written about the necessity of a Savior for mankind and it appears from his writings that he had obtained some knowledge of Christ.
"This book on symptamatology is also one of his productions. In Tamil this is named Goona Paadal. Though it is called symptamatology, yet various medicines and their compositions with the diseases to which they should be administered are described in this book...."
It is possible that he was fully aware of the systems of native medicine that were popular among the people. Dr. Green had not only mastered the language of the people and the medical practices, but also studied the social system. He had been alert in mind to study the beliefs and customs and how they were interwoven with the society and the social system.
He had recorded most of his findings and some of them are given here in his own words. He describes the system that was in place with astrologers determining the auspicious days and times to build a new house or to embark on other major initiatives:

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40 Genesis of Medical Tamil
"The Hindu religion is interwoven in all the social system. Not a house must be built but the astrologer must predict the favorable day for commencing; and for a long time will a frame stand unthatched till a propitious time shall arrive for tying on the first leaf; it may then be finished at leisure."
He had also known about the people piercing their ears on an auspicious day to wear earrings and breaking coconut to commence the earpiercing ceremony:
"The custom of putting two ear-rings in each ear, when the people are able, must be observed on an auspicious date, and one part of the ceremony is to break a coconut to Puliar."
He had been aware of pasu thaanam' at the time of death. It had been a custom until early this century amongst those in the villages and who were rich enough to perform it. I can still recollect my grandmother mentioning about it in mid 1930s. This is how Dr. Green describes it:
"When a person is dying his friends send immediately for the Brahmin, who comes running to the house with sacred grass in his hand, sprinkles with water a place on the ground beside the sick, spreads out his handkerchief and sits down upon it, calls for divers articles needed in the ceremonies; Several Brahmins stand around and respond to the muntras as he repeats them. Just at the last gasp the tail of a crv', previously brought and backed up near the sick man, is put momentarily in his hand held by some one; then the cow becomes the property of the Brahmin.
"The belief is, that, if the man at the last moment gives the Brahmin a cow, the Brahmin will cause the cow-goddess in the other world to come and convey the soul safe over the fiery river; and this faith seems implicit, even among educated, polished people."

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 41
We see that he had not only observed or learnt about a custom but also inquired and found about why or with what belief a particular custom was observed. His record about the age-old traditional belief about 'Moothevy and Seethevy' and the one about 'stretching legs' while sleeping, in the direction of the temple, are also good examples.
"Mootayvi is the personification of darkness, and her presence brings misfortune; and Eluchvome her younger sister, is the personification of light, and her presence brings prosperity.
"If a child blows out a lamp by his mouth he is reproved for want to respect to Eluchvome; the child is taught to fan out the flame by waving his hand.
"The people are particular to light the lamp early in the evening, so that Eluchvome may enter; if the house be dark, Mootayvi will enter."
"I observed that all the patients in the bungalow headed in one direction-towards the Puliar temple. None would presume to point their feet thither. One boy, who had been educated in one of the Mission schools, disregarded the position and lay sidewise to the temple.
Dr. Green had also come to know the different stories in the villages and about some incidents and customs that arose therefrom. Here is one such story:
"In Batticotta, the women will, and the men will not, kill the centipede; for once, as a woman tried to poison her husband by mixing poison in his soup, a centipede, falling into it from the roof, prevented his eating it and thus saved the man's life." -
Here is one comment about the practice about kodumpaavi, of which I am also personally aware. It is about dragging the great sinner, when there was a prolonged drought.

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42 Genesis of Medical Tamil
"A man sings and prays for three days in a temple, and, if in that time rain does not come, he threatens to cut off his head. For two or three nights at sunset the people drag about the great sinner- an effigy of the one who so offends Indra that he will not give rain, - and in the darkness burn it in some wilderness".
These examples illustrate how much he knew of the society. So, as soon as he acquired a good command of the Tamil language, he seriously thought of introducing western medical science in the Tamil language. He felt strongly that western medical literature was essential so: . Tamil people in their own language as it was in English.
Today we take pride in claiming that our language has a glorious past with rich literary as well as great linguistic traditions. It is in fact a heritage which we cherish and endeavour to safeguard and enrich, and pass on to generations to come. But, what is the history of Tamil language?
Tamil language has a past glory and rich literary traditions, acquired Over a period of two thousand years but at that time, mid-nineteenth century, they were endowments of age-old Tamil poetry. Tamil was, until the nineteenth century, the language of the poets and pundits.
At a time when writing was tedious and confined to palm leaves, the poetic form was convenient and an asset. One had to memorize the contents and the poetic form did help memorize and recall. This did not help the common people who were not scholars. As a consequence, there was no development of prose literature in Tamil.
The poetic works were such that they were not for the common people, since the grammar and convention-ridden style did not suit the common people. Even the "Nihandu"- our early form of lexicography -was in verse, until the missionaries introduced the dictionary system. Records reveal that Dr. Green was beginning his work on his Tamil Medical Dictionary just as Mr. Levi Spaulding was publishing his Tamil and English Dictionary.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 43
In Ceylon, there was little or no attempt to develop Tamil prose until the arrival of the Christian missionaries and the pioneer contributions of the great Sri Aarumuga Naavalar. An important development during the last century was the development of Tamil prose. Naavalar's efforts coupled with the activities of the various missionaries and the setting up of the printing press gave the layman a long awaited relief from exclusive experience of poetry.
Though a devout Hindu, the credit of providing a standard translation of the Holy Bible into readable Tamil prose goes to Sri Aarumuga Naavalar. That was a few decades into the nineteenth century, a few years before the arrival of Dr. Green at Batticotta Seminary.
The Batticotta Seminary had produced elementary Christian prose literature but medical and scientific literature had yet to be developed. Dr. Green extended the scope of Tamil prose by developing scientific literature to satisfy a need.
Dr. Green visualized the need and was confident that it could be met. Hence he ventured without hesitation, because of the greatness of the undertaking'. He was aiming at something wisely chosen.
"Aim at something wisely chosen, and seek to accomplish it in a hearty, thorough manner; don't merely glorify God in a general manner; live to a purpose."
He was soon engaged in preparing the necessary nomenclature. In 1850, he recorded the step he took as follows:
"I am about starting a vocabulary, defining the English and Latin terms in Tamil. Many words already exist in the language that are good medical terms. Many may be drawn from the Sanskrit through scholars in that language and many must be coined by giving the sound of the already existing name in Tamil letters."
Literature in any specific discipline needs appropriate nomenclature. The lack of suitable nomenclature to express new science concepts

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44 Genesis of Medical Tamil
and ideas was his primary problem but he was determined to overcome that. The tasks involved in introducing western medical science in Tamil Were:
8- Preparation of a set of medical and scientific terms in Tamil.
Ο
& Translation of medical literature or writing them in Tamil.
Ο
& Developing scientific Tamil as distinct from literary Tamil.
d
Φ
With these tasks ahead of him, he was conscious of the fact that it was a difficult venture. He probably was also aware that Tamil prose literature was a recent development. In his attempt to gain profiriency in the language, he would have studied the history with interest. As a missionary and as a keen student of Tamil, he would have been briefed about the translation of the Holy Bible into Tamil and the controversy that followed the translation.
He was probably aware that there was little scientific literature in Tamil. He wished to lay the foundation for medical literature in Tamil and so started his project with a definite plan and objectives.'
"I wish this work as the foundation, the beginning of medical literature in Tamil. I hope to write some small pamphlets on the more important branches of medical Science, perhaps accompany them with the gospel, or some good religious advice, on the reverse of every leaf, and distribute them gratuitously among the people."
Here we see his foresight, aim and courage. He wanted to lay the foundation for the development of western medical literature in Tamil. He not only wanted to coin terms and prepare academic material but was also thinking of the layman and the need to produce material suitable to them.
Vocabulary had to be prepared for all areas of medical science-anatomy, physiology, the practice of medicine, surgery, chemistry, pharmacy, midwifery and diseases in women and children and medical jurisprudence. He knew that he had a resource to tap on-his medical students who had qualified as medical practitioners and current students.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 45
Dr. Green planned to prepare them all according to priority. What was needed early in the medical course was prepared first. Slowly but surely, he wanted to bring about a desired change by introducing western medical science in Tamil.
"......... So step by step I hope to get true scientific medicine really planted in the land which being done I have no fear as to the result; but confidently expect it to displace or greatly modify the now prevailing practice.--So much for the plan, which may be more or less varied by experience and circumstances.
He arranged with those who had graduated to take each some special branch, and do the best he could with it. By comparing his own work of putting English into Tamil with their work of expressing in Tamil what they had learned in English, he secured the best test possible of the correctness of his own composition and translation.'
We see that he was realistic and conscious of the fact that formative evaluation may necessitate variation of plans. He did not propose to complete the coining of terms and then attempt translations. As soon as the set of terms required for translating Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene was almost ready; he wanted to attempt translation. This was in 1851.
The first book selected for translation was Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene by Dr. Calvin Cutter. The aim was not a direct translation of the original book but an adaptation of it into an elementary treatise in simple language. A fuller translation was left for a later date, by which he would have acquired a wealth of experience that would make him an experienced translator.
He needed an able personal assistant to help him in his pioneer work and so Dr. J. Evarts (a Tamil), who was an old student of his, was relieved of his medical duties from one of the medical centres, to assist him with the translation.

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46 Genesis of Medical Tamil
In the list of students who studied in the First Medical Class, we do not find the name Evarts. In that list, we find the name J. Waittilingam. Later on, we find reference to Dr. E. Waittilingam (Evarts?), Assistant Colonial Surgeon, writing about the first surgery that made Dr. Green famous within days of his arrival in Ceylon. At that time, it is said that most of them had two names-one, their original name by which they were known amongst their village people and the other, their Christian name, by which the missionaries knew them. We find that Evarts has the initial J, which is the same as the initial of the student Waittilingam. Hence, there is reason to conclude that all three names J. Waittilingam, Dr. E. Waittilingam and Dr. J. Evarts refer to the same person.
The translation, which was undertaken by Dr. Green in 1851, was completed, with the assistance of Dr. Evarts, in June 1852. When it was completed Dr. Green had a 'twofold' satisfaction. He said:
"In my six months' work on this I have hit two birds-put a good thing into the vernacular, and gained much in Tamil: for I have from the interest of the thing, applied myself more closely than I should, had I been working at the language merely-without any specific object in view".
When the book was printed in 1854, Dr. Green received an order from Tinnevelly, South India for over a hundred copies and he was pleased. He felt that "it was proof that his work had not been undertaken too soon'.
In late 1854 thousands were affected by cholera and Dr. Green produced a revised version of his write - up on cholera and instrucled doctors how to deal with it. Yet, the dawn of 1855 was disastrous. Rev. Daniel Poor of the seminary had an attack and died. Dr. Green had an attack and was fortunate to survive. His sisters Julia and Mary appealed that he should return home to recuperate. To his sister Julia, he wrote:
"I have spent too much time in getting the language, and in getting here, to run home before having really accomplished something. If I can leave behind a series of medical

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 47
textbooks in the vernacular I shall feel as if something permanent has been done. If I can stay out my ten years, I would prefer to do so."
To his sister Mary, he wrote about his conscience and expressed the view that he had mastered the language, known about the customs, habits, diseases and the medical system and hence he was determined to stay on and contribute his best.’
"In regard to my return to America, I have thought to wait awhile, and working as easily as I can, see how my strength rises; and, if I gradually improve, to complete my ten-year career here, and then close up all my affairs completely, so as to be able to stay thereafter in America or return to Ceylon.....
"I have my suspicions that my conscience will never leave me easy in such a decision........... I am in some respects better fitted for it, having pretty free use of the language, a knowledge of the customs and habits of the people, of their constitution and diseases; and of their medical system.
"I am just beginning to get hold so as to grapple with it, and do my best to improve in it what is good, and to combat what is decidedly bad............
Even at a time when he was fighting for survival he wouldn't drop the idea of establishing western medical science in Tamil.
Dr. Green translated and supervised translations of books to a total of over 4500 pages details of which are given in detail in chapters that follow. It can be stated here that the greatness of Dr. Green's later achievements can all be attributed to his will and determination.

Page 35
8. Science Literature in Tamil
"It is easy for anyone to say a thing but rare indeed
to match practice to precept"
-Thirukurahl
In the modern world, 'science' is a term that is used in many different disciplines. We talk of medical science, physical science, biological Science, agricultural science, veterinary science, health science, home science and several others. Hence, it is but fitting that we have a clear idea of what is really meant by Science Literature in Tamil.
It may be argued that Thirukurahl, the Sangam Literature, the works of Siddhas and other such ancient Tamil literature communicate some specific science concepts and ideas in Tamil. It may also be argued that the different vaakadam documents used by generations of native doctors are also, in a sense, medical science literature in the Tamil language.
It may be recalled that while writing about Guna Paadal, Dr. Green had said "though it is called symptamatology, yet various medicines and their compositions with the diseases to which they should be administered are described in this book. "It gives symptor Jiseases as well as prescriptions. One of the opening verses in Guna Paadal States:
"There are eighty types of rheumatism. Forty of them are above the waist and forty are below the waist."
Apart from Guna Paadal, it is appropriate that reference be made to historically important Tamil books such as Sekarasasekaram and

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 49
Pararasasekaram. These books were written about five hundred years ago during the period of King Sekarasasekaran and King Pararasasekaran of the Jaffna Kingdom. These are also works similar to that of Guna Paadal.
These Tamil works on native medicine and astrology were in verse, written on palmyrah leaves. It is understood that they were printed later, after printing facilities were available. In the present context, the aforesaid and other similar works are not the type of science literature we are concerned with.
The ambit is restricted to modern science literature in Tamil prose and includes both scientific and technological literature for academics and professionals as well as science literature written for popularization of science among the layman. Hence, science literature connotes modern science literature.
The termscience includes all areas of modern science and technologymedical science, physical science, biological science, engineering and so forth. It is in this context that Dr.Samuel. F. Green is acknowledged as the Scientific Tamil Pioneer-the first ever to plan and introduce medical science literature in Tamil and attempt to develop scientific Tamil.
A brief review of attempts made by others will prove beyond doubt that Dr. Green was the pioneer. At the time Dr. Green undertook the task of rendering western medical science in Tamil, there were missionaries in South India who were also involved in similar undertakings.
Dr. Green had worked in close consultation with them, assisting them whenever necessary and getting their critical comments, by way of formative evaluation of his own work. Here are some extracts from letters and records available:
*John Murdock, LL. D., was agent of the Christian Vernacular Education Society. in Madras. Here is a letter from Mr. Murdock to Dr. Green.

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50 Science Literature in Tamil
Madras, Dec. 19, 1855.
"My Dear Sir,
"In Ceylon I was informed that you had prepared a work on Anatomy and Physiology. It occurred to me that perhaps you would kindly aid the School Book Society, with which I am connected, in the preparation of a few lessons on Physiology and Health.
"We are publishing a series of books for elementary schools, and deem it very important that some information should be given on such subjects....... It is proposed to print the regular series first in English and afterwards in as many of the vernacular languages of India as we can
Inanage. . . . . . . . . . . ... I should feel much obliged by your informing me that you will kindly undertake the taskBelieve me...........
John Murdock
Here is another letter from Mr. Murdock which confirms that Dr. Green did accept the responsibility and undertook the task of writing the proposed series of School Books:
Madras, Jan. 8, 1856.
”........................................... You have undertaken a very important assignment in our proposed series of School Books, and I hope the good which will result may repay you in some small degree for the labor it will cost you.
"I beg you will have the goodness to let me have the lessons first in English. We propose to print about two hundred copies of the series of Books in that language to be circulated in India and Ceylon among friends for criticism.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 51
"The Third and fourth books will probably be printed in Tamil before the publication of the large English edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
"I am happy to learn that you expect to get out a large edition of your work on Physiology. The woodcuts are lying in Mr. Hunts' office. The treatise on midwifery is calculated to be very useful. ......... Your obliged friend,"
John Murdock.
*Here is a letter from Dr. Lowe who was working for the mission in Travancore, South India, in which he solicits advice and assistance.'
Nagoor, near Nagercoil, South Travancore.
August 23, 1865. "My Dear Dr. Green,
”- •••••••• I have heard a good deal about you and your interesting work, and feel assured that it would be a great advantage to me, in carrying on my work, to enjoy the benefit of your experience and advice...... Irejoice in your success and trust that ere long, as the results of your efforts, the Senior Medical Class in Trevandrum and my class in connection with our Medical Mission here will be provided with good practical Text books in the Vernacular......
"If we are to train Natives to be efficient assistants and fellow-laborers in the medical departments of Mission work, the publication of such works.....is of such importance that, if necessary, I should consider that what funds we could spare (and I am thankful to say our Medical Mission is very liberally supported) would be well spent in aiding you.....Friends in Scotland are deeply interested in this experiment, and have helped me much......
John Lowe

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52 Science Literature in Tamil
Dr. Lowe assured financial assistance from any funds he could spare.
Now, here is a record by Dr. Green about a request from Madura Mission, in February 1866:
"...the Madura Mission have voted Brother Lord fifty pounds a year for a Medical Class. He inclines to conduct it in the vernacular. As I have one and a half year's start in this line I respond offering to put copies of all our available manuscript at his disposal..........
Dr. Lord wrote to Dr. Green in March, 1866:
0 0 8 0 V Your long letter, with curriculum and suggestions as to Medical Class, I prize more than I can tell and it decides to drive the class in Tamil only...... The vocabularies would be almost a necessity, and as you have sofar the start, that I think your terms etc., must take the lead in Tamil works..........
Mr. Capron of Mana Madura wrote to Dr. Green in 1869:o
"His Excellency the Governor has been visiting Arcot, and praising and helping Dr. Scudder. Here is one sentence, half of which belongs to you:
"In conclusion, I beg to call the attention of Government to the good service which the American Mission is rendering to humanity, and enlightenment by the education of native Medical Students and by translation of Medical Works into the vernacular of the country.'......
"His Excellency refers to page 6 of the report where you are cataloged."
Here is a letter written by the then Professor of Vernacular Literature at Presidency College, Madras regarding the rules to be adopted for the rendering of technical and scientific terms on a uniform system.'

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 53
Presidency College, Madras, October 22, 1871.
S. F. Green, Esquire, M. D. etc., etc.,
Sir,
"The accompanying papers are sent to me by the Director of Public Instruction, Madras, asking for my opinion regarding the rules to be adopted for the rendering of technical and scientific terms on a uniform system.
He also leaves me the option of consulting any friend whom I may consider qualified to pass an opinion on the matter.
"Though a stranger, I have heard from various quarters of your professional and scientific skill, and firmly believe that you are an authority upon philosophical and scientific questions of this nature; and therefore I have ventured to ask your valuable opinion on the subject, which will be forwarded in original to the Director.
"I take this opportunity also to make your acquaintance of which I shall ever be proud....."
D. Sashilugar Professor of Vernacular Literature.
Here is a letter from Dr. James Loos, Colonial Surgeon at Colombo, at the time. He gives his opinion of Dr. Green's contribution for the development of medical literature in Tamil, when Dr. Green said adieu to Ceylon Tamils, in 1873:*”
"........You have loosened the foundations of quackery, and I trust it may please God to bless us also in our efforts to place the medical practice among the natives of this Island on a more rational and scientific basis. Your Tamil works on Medicine will remain a memorial of you after you are

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54
Science Literature in Tamil
gone, and you will not soon be forgotten. We, as natives of this Island, are much indebted to the American Mission for their efforts in the cause of Christianity, civilization and science, although these have been confined to a part of the Island....."
James Loos.
The letters and records quoted above are self-explanatory and as a whole, serve as a yard stick by which we can measure or estimate Dr. Green's pioneer contribution to the development of science literature in Tamil, a hundred and fifty years ago.
At this point, it is necessary to record the works of a few other scholars who also produced scientific literature in Tamil from Batticotta Seminary. They were all contemporaries of Dr. Green.
Xo
C
х»
Rev. Henry. R. Hoisington: Inthu Soethy Saathiram. (1848)
Rev. Hoisington first wrote this book in English for his students. Then, he translated the book and published it with the title Inthu Soethy Saathiram. He expressed his opinion thus: "Students who study under us and assist us have to work in the language of the people and hence need to learn Hindu Astronomy in its real perspective."
W. Nevins Sithamparapillai: Niyaaya Illakahnam.(1850)
This Tamil book on Logic was published with the title Niyaaya Illakahnam.
Carrol Visvanathapilai: Veesa Kahnitham. (1855)
This was a pioneer effort to introduce algebra in Tamil. Letters
of the Tamil alphabet were used to write algebraic symbols and expressions. The title of the book in Tamil was Veesa Kahnitham.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 55
* J. R. Arnold Sathasivampillai: Vaana Saathiram. (1855)
The author had written several books, one of which was the book on Astronomy. The Tamil title given was Vaana Saasthiram.
The Batticotta Seminary produced several other scholars who had contributed a wealth of Tamil literature. Apart from the authors mentioned above, scholars of the calibre of C. W. Thamotharmpillai, Wyman Kathiravetpillai and Evarts Kanagasabaipillai had each written several works which, since they are not science literature, have not been listed here.
Dr. Samuel Fisk Green had attempted to render western medical science into Tamil and introduce science literature from 1850s. He had attempted to achieve some specific goals that he had set at a time when the common people in Jaffna was really not ready for it. It is true not only of the Jaffna people but of the Tamil-speaking people as a whole.With the departure of Dr. Green and the closure of the Batticotta Seminary, science literature in Tamil was almost forgotten. The period of colonial rule had not inspired or motivated any attempts in that field.
inadequate for communicating science knowledge, though science and
technology were fast developing in the western world. No serious
ಇಲ್ಲ was made to develop and gear the Tamil language to meet the
eds of a modern language.
မျိုး the English educated Tamils considered that Tamil was
t was a time when only the English educated studied science. They ere not proficient enough in Tamil, to contribute towards the evelopment of science literature. Those who were proficient in Tamil had no exposure to science. As a result, Tamil language did not keep abreast with changing times and keep pace with developments. Thus, while literary Tamil continued to develop, scientific Tamil was totally ignored.
It was about four decades after the departure of Dr. Green from Jaffna that Bharathy, the poet of Tamil renaissance, sang out thus:

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56 Science Literature in Tamil
"Go out in all directions and bring home the treasures of scientific knowledge"
The dawn of this century was a time at which the Tamil communities in Ceylon and in India were under the painful necessity of borrowing the English language to learn the sciences. During the period of colonial rule the English educated were a different class and took pride even in adopting English as their home language. It was at that time that Subramania Bharathy, a poet with foresight, expressed his feelings and sang out aloud:
"Sciences are fast developing in the western countries. Some fool said that science knowledge cannot be communicated in Tamil and that Tamil is incapable of that function. They say that Tamil will die in course of time and that the western languages will rule the world.
"I do not want to hear such painful opinions. Go, go out in all directions, and bring home the treasures of scientific knowledge and develop the language to embrace all the sciences."
He drew the attention of the patriotic Tamils towards an urgent the need to develop the Tamil Language and prepare it to meet the needs of a modern language.
Thanks to the labour of those with foresight, the old order chang yielding place to new. The treasures of scientific knowledge, whic until then were regarded the possession of the English educated gradually yielded to the advances of the Tamil Language and herald the drawn of a new era.
Articles on science topics in Tamil journals published in South India had been, it is said, the first step. The language in which such works had been written was to some extent, it is said, unfamiliar to the present generation.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 57
This should have been expected as the language of early 1900s has changed over the years and the content of the articles was new. Creative writers who had the benefit of English education would have spearheaded the attempts and their knowledge of Tamil would also have been limited. It is also said that the articles for layman were elementary and there was no uniformity in the usage of technical terms.
"In 1917, an association by name “Tamizhar Kalvi Sangam” brought out a journal to spread scientific knowledge. This journal appeared for about ten years and Mr. P.N. Appuswami. one of its editors, was a pioneer in science writing in Tamil. For a period of more than forty years he had written numerous lucid essays in various fields of science."
In mid 1930s, Chennai Maahaana Thamizh Sangam, and others made a serious attempt to prepare a uniform set of glossaries of scientific nomenclature for all branches of science. When this was published, attempts were made to write and publish science books in Tamil. One book was written by Rajagi but what was the response from an ungrateful section of the people?
"Well, Rajaji has proved that science can be written in Tamil but it has not been proved that what is written can be understood".'
This was the comment by a prominent critic who had earlier, in a subtle way, ridiculed the dedicated endeavor and planned attempt to prepare glossaries of scientific nomenclature. It was a problem of attitudes and the manifestation of negative thinking of a section of those who considered that the Tamil language was inadequate to express science concepts and practices.
Well, a baby does not walk about, run around and play as soon as it is born. One doesn't learn to swim unless he plunges into water. Similarly, a start had to be made somewhere to introduce science in Tamil, and perfection could be achieved in course of time, as writers gain experience and expertise.

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58 Science Literature in Tamil
Science was formally introduced in Tamil by the governments of India and Sri Lanka during the middle part of this century. It was only after independence that both governments decided on 'official languages' for their respective countries and action was planned to effect the change over from English to the official languages. At that time, the policy of introducing the mother tongue as the medium of instruction for all subjects in the school system and the universities necessitated the introduction of science in Tamil.
In India, there had been some advance planning. There had been an urge to introduce science literature in all the regional languages and for that purpose a central committee was set up in 1940 to decide on general guidelines for the preparation of scientific nomenclature. Following that, state committees were set up to prepare scientific nomenclature in the different state languages.
The state committee appointed to prepare technical terms in Tamil published the glossary of "Technical and Scientific Terms' in 1947. The scientific nomenclature for use by Sri Lankan Tamils-“Glossaries of Technical Terms '-was prepared and published by the Department of Swabasha in 1955.
Since the two glossaries of technical terms were prepared by two committees appointed by two different governments and were prepared without consultation, today we have two different sets of scientific nomenclature in Tamil. That is a different issue.
The fact is, the Tamils in South India and Sri Lanka are still divided in the very name of Tamil that unites the Tamils around the world and in the name of science that unifies the entire world. Whatever the result, in Sri Lanka and Thamil Naadu, it is just four decades or so ago that state attempts were made to introduce Tamil as a medium of instruction for science and technology. The plan was to implement the decision to switch over in stages. At the time of the switchover, there were many misgivings in the minds of the people as to the suitability of the Tamil language for that purpose-using Tamil as the medium of instruction of science subjects.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 59
Parents, teachers, educationists and politicians expressed conflicting views.
Do we have suitable science books in Tamil? Are there standard scientific and technical terms in Tamil? Is it possible to communicate modern science ideas in Tamil? Have teachers attained proficiency to teach science in Tamil? Will not the standards be lowered when we teach in Tamil?
0.
X
ΟΟ Х»X
0.
o
KM)
These were the types of doubts that haunted a reasonable cross section of the people. This was the situation in the middle of the twentieth century. It is against this background that we should assess and estimate the first ever attempt by Dr. Green, an American, to render medical science into Tamil during 1850s. Some of our people had, we are aware, been Europeanized and some had even adopted English as the language of the home. In such a society, it was more a problem of attitudes and an attempt to maintain their social standing.
Though Tamil language had a glorious past with a wealth of literature, it had not been developed as a scientific language. We have to remember that literary Tamil is different from scientific and technical Tamil. There had been no genuine effort to develop scientific literature in Tamil and gear the Tamil language to meet the needs of a modern language for a long period of time. Dr. Green had undertaken that venture, one hundred years before we ventured.
Some Tamil journals have, over the years contributed significantly towards the development of scientific Tamil and dissemination of scientific knowledge. The monthly magazine Kalaikathir has been endeavouring in this field with a certain amount of determination. Other magazines such as Ahnukathir, Vignani and Ihlam Vignani also have made their contributions. It is not possible to list the names of all, but the contribution of G. R. Damotharan of Madras cannot be missed or under estimated.
Two magazines that attempted to popularize scientific literature in Sri Lanka, Arivohli and Naveena Vignani, had also helped develop

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60 Science Literature in Tamil
scientific Tamil. Nudpam, first edited by Maavai Nithiananthan and published annually from 1968 by the Moratuwa University Thamizh Sangam provided a suitable forum to several motivated technical writers in Sri Lanka for many years.
The contributions of Annahmalai University and Madras University are worthy of special mention and record. The former published science books in Tamil in early 1940s. The latter organized a scheme to award prizes in 1938 and thus encouraged writing and publication of science books in Tamil.
It was only in 1940s and 1950s that the Tamils in South India and Ceylon made determined efforts to popularize scientific knowledge in Tamil. Here is a list of early writers (1950s and 1960s) on science topics as found in a research paper on Scientific Literature for Laymen read at the Second IATR Conference/Seminar held in Madras in 1968
In addition to P. N. Appuswami, eminent Tamil scholars like R. K. Visvanathan, T. S. S. Rajan, E. T. Rajeswari Ammaiyar, K. P. Sandhosham, N. K. Velan, K. S. Mahadevan N. Subbu Reddiar, Paa Balasubramaniam, A. Krishnamurthy, T. A. Karuppanan, A. Natarajan, G. Shanmugasundaram, K. Buvaneswari, and P. Savarimuttu are said to have made substancial contributions in Thamil Naadu. V. Sivaguru, Nandhi, Ambi and Murugaiyan are acknowledged to have written frequently and effectively in Ceylon."
We are aware that Tamil has not replaced English as medium of instruction of the sciences, in the universities. We cannot pretend that scientific Tamil has been developed to the level required for that function. About a decade or so ago Dr. T. A. Gnanamoorthy, in his Foreword to a research book said:
"....The Colleges and Universities in Thamizh Naadu have not reached a situation in which they could make Tamil the medium of instruction. This is regrettable....."
It is also appropriate to quote the view expressed by the Vice-Chancellor of Bharathiar University, in his keynote address' at an IATR conference about a decade ago. Here, I quote:

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 61
"When we introduce a language for a specific purpose we have to make certain that the language introduced can fulfil the needs of the concerned society in a more effective way. If the language does not fulfil the needs, then it becomes obligatory on the part of the planners to take effective measures to modernize it.
"When Tamil was introduced in the field of science and technology for the first time, a big gap was there and this was really responsible for not making use of Tamil in the domain of science and technology as it was aimed at."
The above brings to sharp focus the real problems we have to face in developing Tamil for science. Here is a more specific statement;
"In the formation of Tamil for science, though the coinage of technical terminology is considered as an important aspect, it is the discourse part of the language meant for science that indeed occupies a prominent role. Discourse is a particular linguistic pattern orexpression through which a concept is explained without any distortion or break. This type of narration or description of a particular scientific concept has to be formed by using necessary technical terms in a simple, easily adoptable and accessible way, keeping in mind for whom the communication is really meant.
"This in a way is a kind of standardization of sentence patterns. In this type of description adequate care has to be taken to avoid ambiguity of meaning. This is very important because ambiguity found in scientific discourses may lead to misinterpretation or misconception."
This guideline leads us to the concept of scientific Tamil as different from literary Tamil. In this context, it is appropriate to mention that consideration may also be given to relaxing grammar and conventions, in scientific writing. All these will necessitate adequate planning and systematic review to maintain uniformity in laiiguage use, technical terms and rendering proper nouns into Tamil.

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9. Medical Books in Tamil
"Embark on a venture after careful deliberation, It is reproachful to deliberate after deciding"
-Thirukurahl
Embark on a venture after carefully considering all tasks involved and advance planning. That only will assure success. To do otherwise is a misdeed. The success of Dr. Green's undertakings in his pioneer venture to introduce medical and scientific literature in Tamil, may be attributed to his advance planning, before commencing work on his proposed plan.
As mentioned elsewhere in this book, the first work selected for translation, towards the end of 1851, was Dr. Calvin Cutter's Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. Dr. Green did not attempt a direct translation but instead, decided to use the selected book as a guide and basis for an elementary treatise. His aim was to put it as simply as possible into the Tamil language.
He was keen to include illustrations and so requested Dr. Cutter, who was also from Massachusetts, to help by furnishing with illustrations, as without them the students would find it difficult if not impossible to understand the text.
Illustrations would not only make a science book attractive but will also facilitate clear understanding of new ideas. To ensure all possible support, he wrote to the Secretary of the Board of Missions for some assistance with illustrations.'

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 63
"Some gifts of cuts illustrative of the structure and functions of the human body would be most acceptable and useful; with them we could print illustrated books and make them pleasing and intelligible to all the large reading community what without them would be a difficult and dark science because so utterly novel here."
Well, we can imagine the task of describing a human skeleton and naming the parts without an illustration! It is but natural that he wanted to use all possible cuts of the illustrations in the original book. Dr. Cutter's prompt and generous response made him feel happy and then his only concern was the long and hard job of translating/ writing. He recorded his feelings, expressing it like this:
"The undertaking will be a long and hard job, but a most interesting one, I anticipate, and one that in its results will amply repay the labor expended on it. I hope to see the time when European Medical Practice shall become indigenous here and mostly if not quite displace the native system, with the decline of which much superstition will be removed from the burdened necks of the people. I cannot but hope that European Medicine is gaining ground among the Hindus........"
In June 1852 his work on Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene was ready for the press. He was satisfied with what he achieved in a period of six months and felt that he had hit two birds - one, put a good thing into the vernacular and two, gained much in Tamil. Since he undertook writing for the specific purpose of introducing scientific ideas in Tamil for the first time, he had applied himself more closely.
The book was in the mission press at Manipay for three months and needed his close attention, He had to read the proof sheets, and superintend the preparation of the illustrations of the human body and its parts -the bones, the arteries and the nerves. He registers his experience thus:

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64 Medical Books in Tamil
"I did not begin to imagine the difficulty of getting out a new and strange subject in a foreign tongue; but found the process, though toilsome, no less profitable...... The plates were received from Dr. Cutter too late to be bound in the earlier portion of the first edition, but were inserted in the remainder, with explanations in Tamil."
It is recorded that a quarter of the whole edition was nearly disposed of in about a week and Dr. Green was happy to learn that the native doctors too were reading it eagerly. It would definitely have been a novel experience for native doctors of the nineteenth century. Thus started Dr. Green's venture into scientific Tamil. On a later date he recorded his feelings about his works, like this:
"In regard to popularizing medicine, I have written and put into Tamil three little pamphlets for the Christian Vernacular Society: The Soul's Abode, The Mother and Child, - a tract which is now being struck off in an edition of three thousand, and which will comfort myriads, I hope, - and Domestic Medicine.
"My main work has been on books strictly scientific and largely technical. This is pioneer work and most important work and will tell towards the death of superstition."
Dr. Green completed his undertakings by working on some of them even after he left Manipay. One of his students, Dr. Kanakarattinam (alias L. S. Strong) recalled an earlier incident, when he learnt of Dr. Green's death in 1884:
"When a respectable native gentleman remarked to him that all which could be spared must be spent in English medical education, he replied: "I must have the satisfaction, at the close of my work, of leaving behind this very useful study to the Tamil nation in their own tongue, as an abiding thing, and not in a foreign language which may in the lapse of time depart from the land'"

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 65
Dr. Greei's desire of leaving behind this very useful study to the Tamil nation in their own tongue and foresight that English as a foreign language may in the lapse of time depart from the land are contentions that give food for thought in the light of our experience in the post independence era. If our community had continued to follow Dr. Green's trails, today the Tamil language would have developed like one of the modernized languages.
The following list is provided as the medical science works published in Tamil as a result of Dr. Green's planned undertaking:'
1. Cutter's Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 204 pages 1857 2. Maunsell's Obstetrics. 258 pages 1857 3. Druitt's Surgery. 504 pages 1867 4. Gray's Anatomy. 838 pages 1872 5. Hopper's Physician's Vade Mecum. 917 pages 1872 6. Wells' Chemistry. 516 pages 1875 7. Dalton's Physiology. 590 pages 1883 8. Waring's Pharmacopoeia of India, 574 pages 1884
Vocabularies
1. Physiological Vocabulary. 134 pages 1872
Vocabulary of Materia Medica, Diseases of Women and Children, and Medical Jurisprudence. 161 pages 1875
Popular Treatises
1. Secret Vice. 24 pages · 2. The Soul's Abode. 44 pages 3. The Mother and Child. 44 pages
Original Treatises
l. The Eye. l l pages 2. The Ear. 1 l pages

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66 Medical Books in Tamil
3. The Hand. l l pages 4. The Foot. 12 pages 5. The Skin. 16 pages 6. The Mouth. 12 pages 7. The Body. 15 pages 8. Be Clean. 04 pages 9. Hints for Cholera Times. 20 pages 10. Government Tract on Cholera. l l pages 11. The Way of Health. 04 pages
Religious Tracts
1. Lot's Choice. 22 pages 2. Lucy and her Chickens. 12 pages 3. The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain. 56 pages 4. The Believing Tradesman. 28 pages
Copies of the following books were available for perusal at Jaffna College library, the former site of Batticotta Seminary, in 1960.
Details of the books that were available, and relevant extracts from Dr. Green's INTRODUCTION to each, are given below:
1. MANUSHA ANGKAATHIPAATHAM. 900 pages. 1872
Manipay Mission Press
Human Anatomy:
O
X
Compiled from Gray, Horner, Smith and Wilson and translated by Daniel W. Chapman. Supervised and edited by Dr. S. F. Green.
Extract from Dr. Green's Introduction:
"It took about three years to translate and one year to edit. Some years before this book was published, an abridged edition was published for school use. Since it was not sufficient for use by medical students, this revised edition is published in 1872."

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 67
MANUSHA SUKARANAM. 134 pages. 1872. Manipay Mission Press
Human Physiology: By Prof. John C. Dalton.
Translated by Daniel W. Chapman. Revised and Edited by Dr. S. F. Green.
Extract from Dr. Green's Introduction:
"Since the publication of the planned book on Physiology was delayed, the preface, illustrations with relevant description and the glossary of technical terms in Physiology are published to aid students and teachers."
MANUSHA SUKARANAM. 590 pages. 1883. Manipay Mission Press
Human Physiology: By Prof. John C. Dalton.
Translated by Daniel W. Chapman. Revised and Edited by Dr. S. F. Green.
Extract from Dr. Green's Introduction:
"This edition of the book on Physiology was the one originally planned. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I wish this book serves as the beginning of the flow of medical knowledge amongst the future Tamil generations. Let the flow be equivalent to what we had earlier witnessed amongst the western people."
. ITAHINA VAITHIYAM. . , , 504 pages. 1867.
The Science and Art of Surgery By Erichsen and Druitt. Translated by Joshua Danforth. Revised and Edited by Dr. S. F. Green.

Page 45
Medical Books in Tamil
Extract from Dr. Green's Introduction:
"The "Science and Art of Surgery" by Erichsen and Druitt. is not only necessary in the Tamil language but it is also necessary that it suits the customs and practices of the Tamil people and hence I have included whatever I thought was relevant.
"I am also thankful to Dr. Lowe of Travencore and others who contributed so much towards the preparation of the book..."
VATHYAKARAM 918 pages. 1872. Naagarkoil London Mission Press.
Hooper’s Physician’s Vade Mecum Translated by William Paul. Revised and Edited by Dr. S. F. Green.
Extract from Dr. Green's Introduction:
"This book is intended to describe precisely and clearly all matters a physician needs to know about treating a patient. The disease, the symptoms and the instruments necessary for diagnosis are all described in two parts.
CHEMISTHAM 520 pages. 1875. Naagarkoil London Mission Press.
Chemistry By David A. Wells. Translated by Dr. S. F. Green.
Extract from Dr. Green's Introduction:
"This book is intended to clear the minds of all people and expose
the wrong notions such as those prevalent amongst the Tamils......

Ο 0x8
Scientific Tamil Pioneer 69
VAITHYAM 920 pages. 1875. Manipay Mission Press
Practice of Medicine. Written by Dr. S. F.Green.
Dr. Green wrote this book so as to provide a suitable handbook to the medical practitioners. It was produced to suit local conditions.
Two of the books mentioned in the list were not available for perusal at Jaffna College Library in 1960. They are:
2.
0.
Х»
Maunsell's Obstetrics. 258 pages 1857 Waring's Pharmacopoeia of India. 574 pages 1884
According to Dr. Green's records in 1857, the book on Obstetrics. was handed over to the mission press at Manipay around the time he went on leave at the end of the ten year term. Dr. Green's grandson, Thomas D. Green of East Hartford, CT, made a copy of the other available in 1974.
Waring's Pharmacopoeia of India. 574 pages 1888 Strong and Ashbury Printers, Manipay.
Daniel W. Chapman translated this and Dr. Green edited this when he was at home. The book was printed after his death in 1884.
Vocabularies
All appropriate vocabularies were given in the textbooks. In addition, the following were printed as separate glossaries.
1.
Physiological Vocabulary. 134 pages 1872

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70 Medical Books in Tamil
2. Vocabulary of Materia Medica,
Diseases of Women and Children, and Medical Jurisprudence. 161 pages 1875.
These include TAMIL->ENGLISH and ENGLISH->TAMIL glossaries.
8- POPULAR TREATISES, RELIGIOUS TRACTS and
ORIGINAL TREATISES
Y A tick in the following lists indicates popular treatises, religious tracts and original treatises that were available for perusal at the PUBLIC LIBRARY at WORCESTER, in 1997. One had been printed in Madras, others at Manipay. The marked prices were a cent or half a cent.
Popular Treatises
Y 1 Secret Vice. Jaffna 24 pages ------------
w/ 2.The Soul's Abode. Madras 44 pages One anna
Y 3.The Mother and Child. Manipay 44 pages -------------
Religious Tracts
Y 1.Lot's Choice. Manipay 22 pages Half cent
Y 2.Lucy and her Chickens. Manipay 12 pages Half cent Y 3.The Shepherd of
Salisbury Plain. Manipay 56 pages One cent Y 4.The Believing
Tradesman. Manipay 28 pages One cent
Original Treatises
W 1. The Eye. Manipay 11 pages Half cent Y 2. The Ear. Manipay 11 pages Half cent Y 3. The Hand. Manipay 11 pages Half cent W 4. The Foot. Manipay 12 pages Half cent W 5. The Skin. Manipay 16 pages Half cent

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 71
Y 6. The Mouth. Manipay 12 pages Half cent Y 7. The Body. Manipay 15 pages Half cent Y 8. Be Clean. 04 pages w/ 9. Hints for Cholera Times. 20 pages Y 10. Government Tract on Cholera. 1 l pages Y 11. The Way of Health. 04 pages
Popular treatises, religious tracts and original treatises are booklets of a few pages, designed to provide elementary science knowledge to the reader.
In 1869, Mr. Murdock had suggested that Dr. Green should send copies of all his works to the following libraries:50
8. The Museum and Medical College Libraries in Madras. 8. The American Oriental Society Library. 8. The British Museum Library, and 8. The Royal Asiatic Society's Library.
Chances are that if Dr. Green had sent them, copies may still be available in one or all of these libraries.

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10. Technical Terms
"An endeavour not undertaken with appropriate strategy will fail even if it is supported by many"
-Thirukurahl
In pursuance of his plan to render western medical science in Tamil, Dr. Green's first step in 1850 was to attempt compiling a set of technical terms. Since the discipline of medical science was new to Tamil, he felt the need to adopt definite rules to coin Tamil terms. His wish was to lay the foundation for the beginning of medical literature in Tamil.
"I am about starting a vocabulary, defining the English and Latin terms in Tamil. Many words already exist in the language that are good medical terms.
"Many may be drawn from the Sanskrit through scholars in that language and many must be coined by giving the already existing name in Tamil letters. I wish this work as the foundation, the beginning of medical litelalult in Tamil...."
Though Dr. Green started work on the vocabulary, he was conscious that it was just a step forward and that time may necessitate changes. He prepared the terms and said:
"They are offered in the hope that they may prove a step in progress to better terms and to treatises on the subject concerned...."

He had formulated rules for the preparation of the technical terms. The
Scientific Tamil Pioneer
rules specified the procedure he adhered to in the process:
88
0. 0x8
Dr. Green expressed an opinion which in many respects appears to be
Preference was given to any Tamil term that was in common use. As the next step, the English term was used to coin the Tamil
ter
If this was difficult, the next step was to Tamilize the Sanskrit
term.
valid even today:
Dr. Green made the best use of his medical students, for consultation.
"The direct introduction of the Western Terms into Tamil is desirable, as affording the readiest communication of the knowledge they embody. The Tamils themselves freely practise it..........
"It needs but to determine, what sounds and forms existin the English, unlike those in the Tamil and the Sanskrit, and to agree upon a uniform manner of rendering them into Tamil...."
He also solicited opinion and advice from all possible sources.
For example, when he was engaged in the preparation of technical terms in chemistry and natural philosophy, he consulted Rev. Webb of the Madura Mission who was in Ceylon for a few weeks for rest. He had, through Mr. Murdock of the Madras Christian Vernacular Society, endeavored to get opinions of other competent missionaries in India.
The following letter from Mr. Murdock to Dr. Green, on June 24, 1865,
from Nellore, South India, substantiates this:
t
o e s I have your paper on the rendering of scientific terms, and the other lists etc. It will give me much pleasure to discuss the various points with the parties named, and let you know their opinions. Some weeks must elapse

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74 Technical Terms .
before I can reach Madras and see Dr. Paterson and Mr. Percival, but you may be assured that the matter will not be forgotten....."
He had sent to Dr. Lowe, a missionary who was involved in similar project in Travancore, and later in December 1865 wrote to him thus:
”••••••• If all can agree to use and spread the same vocabulary, I should be encouraged and rejoiced".
A modernized language is one that can express the ever-developing sciences and technology, clearly and effectively. Experience has shown that technical terms and scientific language are essential for that purpose. At the time science was fast developing in the west, some Tamil scholars endeavoured to render and communicate science concepts and ideas in Tamil whilst others doubted the suitability of Tamil for such a function. The latter was an opinion, mainly because their limited knowledge and the absence of technical terms in Tamil.
From the dawn of this century Tamils with foresight and confidence had made several genuine attempts to prepare glossaries of technical terms. These attempts were determined efforts to satisfy an urgent need, the need to develop Tamil and modernize it. The early attempts were all in small groups by motivated Tamil scholars and that was the most practicable way to give a start. It is not intended to list or elaborate on all such attempts but here is a concise account of the more important attempts.
Sri Rajagopalachariar (Rajaji) appears to have made the first in attempt in 1910s to coin scientific nomenclature in Tamil, and this, during the lifetime of Barathy. An association had been formed with the primary objective of popularizing science in Tamil. Rajagi and Sri Venkata Subbaiar had published a monthly journal in Selam, South India. The first issue however had been in English and this is said to have earned the displeasure of Barathy.'
A dedicated effort followed within a couple of decades. In June 1934, a decision was taken at a conference of Tamil scholars of Madras to

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 75
prepare glossaries of technical terms in Tamil. As decided at the conference, committees were soon set up to coin technical terms. The objective was to prepare glossaries of terms required to teach the different science subjects in Tamil, upto the higher secondary level.
Subject committees were set up to prepare terms relevant to different subject areas. In this venture were involved representatives from the Madras University, Department of Education-Ceylon, South Indian Teachers' Association, The Saiva Sithantha Publishers of South India and other leading organizations.
The chairpersons of subject committees included scholars of the calibre of C.Rajagopalachariar (Physics) and Swami Vipulanantha (Chemistry). The latter, a scholar of repute from Ceylon, was elected chairman of the general conference.
After several meetings and careful deliberations, the final list of technical terms was accepted at a conference in Madras, in 1937. Preparation of the terms, it was said, was the first step and terms required for use at University and Research levels were to be published in due
COllSe.
As a result of this conference, about ten thousand terms were coined for nine subject areas. In coining the terms all subcommittees observed two basic guidelines."
1. The terms should be precise, clear and meaningful. 2. The terms should be identifiable with Tamil and sound Tamil.
There were no other restrictions as to accepting terms that had been borrowed earlier and already in use or borrowing new terms from other languages. A word of caution said: "Though the terms may sound new and a little difficult to those who are accustomed to using English terms, these terms are essential for the future development of knowledge in our country." Chennai Maahaana Thamizh Sangam published the glossary of technical in 1938, with financial assistance from Madras University, University of Travancore and the then Chief Minister of madras, Sri C. Rajagopalachariar.

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76 Technical Terms
When the Governments of India and Ceylon, in the recent past, faced the question of technical terms in Tamil, both chose to be independent. They were government efforts by two different countries and as such there was no co-ordination of work between the two.
The terms prepared by the sub-Committee appointed by the Indian Government are direct transliterations preserving the accent and sounds of the English terms, using Grantha characters if necessary. Here is an example to illustrate: the Tamil term used for oxygen is aaxygen
(ஆக்ஸிஜன்).
Sri Seenivasa Sasthriar headed the committee and, it is said tinal originally there were no Tamil representatives. Eminent Tamil scholars like Sri S. Vaiyapuripillai, Sri R. P. Sethuppillai and others had been incorporated later, after Tamil organizations registered their protests.'
When the terms were published there seems to have been severe criticisms. Critics had pointed out that far too many terms were English and Sanskrit terms. Tamil terms were few, it was claimed. That is a different issue.
In Ceylon, technical terms were coined independently, by the Department of Swabasha and later, the Educational Publications Department. The technical terms were coined, observing grammatical rules and conventions, and avoiding Granta characters.
The basic rules observed by the Department of Swabasha in Ceylon
Were:
1. Preservation of Tamil intonation. 2. Observation of basic grammatical rules and conventions, and, 3. Avoiding Granta characters.
We see that principles underlying grammar and convention underlying the structure of Tamil terms had been observed and as a result the Sound of the Tamil terms differ from that of the original English term. Here is an example to illustrate: The term for oxygen is odsyson (9&s si).

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 77
Though many scholars had contributed towards coining terms, the following need special mention: Dr. V. Ponniah, Dr. S. Sinnathamby, Prof. A. W. Mylvaganam, E. Rathinam, A. V. Mailvaganam, V. Sivaguru, S. Velayuthapillai and E. Murugaiyan.
During the last two or three decades, there has been renewed interest and activity in India with respect to coining of technical terms and introducing Tamil as medium of instruction in higher secondary levels but it is not intended to elaborate them here. The above account is given to provide a background of our undertakings and achievements against which we may assess Dr. Green's efforts and pioneer contributions, a century and a half ago.
Having made a survey over the main attempts to coin scientific terms in Tamil, it may be interesting to see how the different terms compare. Four different terms are given for comparison:
ENGLISH GREEN'S THAMIZH MADRAS CEYLON TERM VOCAB SANGAM GOVT GOVT
Oxygen அக்சிதம் தீயகம் ஆக்ஸிஜன் ஒட்சிசன் Hydrogen 8055th நீரகம் ஹைடிரஜன் ! ஐதரசன் Sulphate g 6613, கந்தகை ஸல்பேட்டு சல்பேற்று Sulphite || SF6ů6îs, கந்தசை ஸல்பைட்டு சல்பைற்று Sulphide 6ö6JLb கந்ததை ஸல்பைடு சல்பைட்டு
The rules formulated by Dr. Green are found in the Preface to Vocabulary of Meteria Medica and Pharmacy, and other medical books that were published. The Preface to Vocabulary of Meteria Medica and Pharmacy, is reproduced, as it may be of interest to researchers or
be of historical value."
Appendix 3

Page 50
11. Standardization of Technical Terms
"Undertaking what ought not to be done is ruinous Not executing what ought to be done is also ruinous"
-Thirukurahl
When Dr. Green undertook the pioneer work of rendering medical science in Tamil his desire was to plant the great store of scientific knowledge amongst the Tamils. He had prepared the technical terms that were needed, and translated and published books on medical science, under trying circumstances.
In his historic attempt, he was very keen to bring about uniformity in the usage of technical terms in Tamil. He attempted to bring about uniformity between the Tamils in Ceylon and in South India. We can visualize the types of problems he would have had in communications. Nevertheless, he tried his utmost to consult others around him and also scholars in India who were in a position to help him achieve his objectives. Mr. Murdock of Madras and Dr. Lowe of Travancore were two who provided assistance.
Here are two letters that provide proof and insight that Dr. Green took such steps. The first reads:'
Madras, July 31 1865.
My Dear Dr. Green,
”.............................. I have showed the list of books, and rules for translating technical terms. Messrs. Lord and Lowe took

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 79
copies of the latter. Mr. Chester seemed to think that changes are taking place so rapidly in medical science, students must know English to keep up with the times, vernacular books soon becoming obsolete.......
"Although a few Europeans who do not know Tamil may throw cold water on your plan of getting out a series of textbooks, I hope you will persevere. I am persuaded that in time the people will appreciate them. If spared to meet Dr. Patterson, I shall be able to encourage him by an account of what I saw in Jaffna....."
J. Murdock.
The other letter is one that was written by Dr. Green in 1965. Dr. Green had sent to Dr. Lowe, who was involved in a similar project in Travancore, his terms and books and later in December 1865 wrote to him thus:
"I feel much interest in awaiting the result of my Terms and Vocabularies - to see how Medical Missionaries to the Tamils will receive them.
"If all can agree to use and spread the same vocabulary, I should be encouraged and rejoice".
Here we see that this non-Tamil pioneer worker had endeavored to establish uniformity in Technical terms throughout the Tamil-speaking world as early as 1865.
Now we shall glance into the attempts made during this century to achieve uniformity in the usage of Technical terms in Tamil.
As mentioned elsewhere, Chennai Maahaana Thamizh Sangam had representatives from Ceylon in the committee they appointed. In fact, Swami Vipulanantha of Ceylon served as chairman of the sub-committee for Chemistry and also as chairman of the general committee. This was the only instance when an attempt had been made to bring about

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uniformity in usage of technical terms between Ceylon Tamils and Indian Tamils. By including representatives from Ceylon, a sincere attempt had been made to bring about uniformity. To date, there is no record of any other such attempt.
At present the term oxygen is odsyson (9'égoir) to Ceylon Tamils and aaxygen (-gldier8gs) to Indian Tamils. Both these terms have been coined basically by the process of transliteration.
The main differences amongst the two sets of technical terms arise from two factors:
8. The use of Grantha characters. 8. The local pronunciations in the two countries.
This type of a difference is seen in almost all the terms and ultimately leads to the use of two different sets of technical terms. There is a difference of opinion amongst the Tamils regarding the use of Grantha characters. One school of thought advocates transliteration using them whilst the other insists on pure Tamil forms avoiding them.
The question is whether this difference of opinion should be pressed too far, far enough to maintain a permanent division in the use of technical terms. It is desirable that this matter of preparing a uniform set of standardized technical terms be entrusted in the hands of a competent international body, preferably at the Inter-University level, in which all schools of thought regarding language renaissance and modernization are adequately represented.
A permanent division in the use of technical terms is definitely undesirable for future development of scientific literature in Tamil. If we fail to maintain uniformity in the use of technical terms amongst the people of the same linguistic group, wherever they are, then the development of science in that language will be handicapped. As such, a uniform set of standardized technical terms is essential for the development of science in the Tamil. It is sad that we have so far failed to provide this essential requisite.

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The need for uniformity in the usage of technical terms was felt and expressed four decades ago, in 1959. It was stressed that a combined effort was necessary between Tamils in Ceylon and India. The popular Ceylon Tamil Daily - Veerakesari - supported this contention in an Editorial.
”...•••••••• The researches and findings of Indian Tamil scholars should benefit our people. Likewise, our publications should benefit the Tamils around the world. The method of achieving this is, as suggested by Ambihaipahan, a combined effort by Tamil scholars in Ceylon and India."
Science has united humanity and annihilated space and time. Tamil language has bridged the Tamils in India, Ceylon, Malaysia and elsewhere. Are we going to divide that unity in the very name of science that unites the entire world and in the name of Tamil that builds up a felling of oneness amongst the Tamil-speaking people around the world?
It is natural that during a period of transition such handicaps are bound to occur but surely a period of half a century is not insufficient to consider seriously the preparation of a uniform set of standardized technical terms. Tamil has to become the medium of instruction in the universities, and won't it be an anomaly if Universities in Ceylon and the Universities in India use two different sets of technical terms?
We find an encouraging comment in a book on "Technical terms' in Tamil (1985) by researcher-author and an Associate Professor, Dr. Ratha Chellappan, of Madras.'
"In general, it is evident that there is no uniformity in the technical terms which are in use in Thamizh Naadu and Ceylon. A combined effort by the two can rectify the situation. At a time when science and technology are making rapid strides, it is essential that we maintain uniformity in the usage of technical terms."

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The need for such uniformity in the usage of technical terms has been expressed in several International Seminars/Conferences of IATR. This topic had been raised at the first such conference held in Kuala Lumpur (1966) and subsequently, in most other conferences; IATR conference at Madras in 1968, at Madurai in 1981, conference in Kuala Lumpur in 1987 and at Mauritius in 1989 but concrete action has not been forthcoming. Uniformity can be achieved only by standardization of technical terms.
We must not conclude that there is NO interest in this matter but, as expressed by two different sources at two different periods of time, the question appears to be: "WHOIS TO BELL THE CAT?"
"After a very long discussion on this topic of standardized technical terms, in which scholars like Sri Iraavatham Mahadevan, Prof. Subramaniam, Dr. Ratha Chellappan, Mahnavai Mustafa and several others contributed positively, it was resolved that an action committee, including university representatives and other scholars be appointed to pursue the issue."
The next day, the Malaysian Tamil Daily Thamizhnesan reported the proceedings with the caption WHO WILL BELL THE CAT26
It is appropriate that we bring to memory the word of caution by Mr. R. Murugaiyan, an educationist and established science writer who had been involved in the coining of science technical terms in Sri Lanka, in 1967. He said: 6
"As for the demand for a set of uniform technical terms in Tamil, it is desirable that it be achieved immediately, if possible. We do not know WHO WILL BELL THE CAT But there is a danger that the majority may dominate and suppress the minority............... In this country several thousands of terms have been rendered into Tamil. In certain subject areas, terms required for university education and research have been coined. This pioneer

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work should not be wasted. If an International Organization for Standardization of Tamil Technical Terms is established, our work has to be carefully looked into. We should also be adequately represented there......
In Sri Lanka, terms required for university education and research had been coined thirty years ago. Tamil has been introduced in higher secondary and to a small extent, at university levels. Hence, his contention needs serious consideration.
As for the question who will bell the cat, the answer is simple. Only an International Committee can achieve this. We have precedents to follow; organizations that guide us.
To name a few, we have on record the works of established bodies like,
Ο 0.
The Commission on the Reforms of the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, and The International Congresses for Botanical Nomenclature.
Φ
These Conferences and Commissions were held at various times to bring about International Uniformity in Technical Terms. The Tamils too should at a Conference decide on a common basis to bring about a uniform set of standardized scientific nomenclature and establish an International Co-ordinating Committee to fulfil the task.
No language can be expected to keep pace with the world on its march and progress in scientific thoughts if there is going to be a duplication of work due to non-uniformity in the usage of technical terms, phrases and language. At a time when Tamil is increasingly used in higher education in our countries, the absence of standardized terms and duplication of scientific literature in Tamil will definitely be handicaps for Tamil speaking people.
The necessity for a competent body to co-ordinate the work need not be stressed any further. India and Sri Lanka have made considerable

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progress independently in this field. Advocating any one of them is not the issue. Discussing the merits or demerits of either set of terms will be the task of an authoritative body. Such a body, preferably at the Inter-University level, must be appointed and entrusted with the responsibility- to co-ordinate and control the coining of Scientific and Technical Nomenclature in Tamil.
A university with a strong science tradition - e.g. Madras University or the Tamil University in Thanjavoor that takes the lead in several Tamil language related ventures may be the one to give the lead. The authoritative body should have representatives from all schools of thought and its decision should be final and binding. All governments concerned should give their fullest support and blessings for such a Venture.
Well, we were able to achieve consensus in changing the traditional alphabets in the recent past. Is it impossible to achieve consensus in preparing and accepting a standardized set technical terms?

12. Translation
"A good alliance yields success
Purity in action assures all that is desired"
-Thirukurahl
The world we live in is changing rapidly as a result of the developments in the field of science and technology. There has also been a marked change in the attitude of the ordinary citizens with regard to awareness and acquisition of knowledge of science. He realizes that knowledge of science is essential for his daily life. This realization has in turn created new demands in the field of scientific literature-both for the elite as well as the common man. The demands must be met and that means an output of more and more printed literature in our language.
Translation, we know, is the main means of providing scientific literature to Our people in our language. A new era dawned early in this century when some who were fortunate enough to have English education, attempted to provide scientific literature in Tamil. During the last few decades we have had science literature written in Tamil and also translations of English material. Textbooks in the various science disciplines have been translated and books on science and technology written for the layman. A scrutiny of these articles and books will convince the reader that perfection has yet to be achieved.
When we talk about translation, two languages are involved; the language of the source material and the target language. Any one who undertakes the task of translating has to be proficient in both the source language and the target language. In addition, he has to be thoroughly

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conversant in the subject matter too. As a result of his experiences, Dr. Green had in no uncertain terms expressed this requirement.
Dr. Green had engaged his graduates and students in the work of translation. He had occasions to praise them; he also had occasions to criticize them. As mentioned earlier elsewhere, he had praised Dr. Danforth's contribution towards translation of medical books and had recommended him for a higher degree. At the same time, he did not hesitate to criticize whenever he had to, merely to avoid embarrassment.
There were occasions when his assistants failed to render satisfactory translations. As leader and supervisor of the pioneer undertaking, he had used such occasions to enlighten his assistants and guide them on matters related to translation. "Their translations were apt to be grammatical but too literal, and too full of technical terms or of inadequate circumlocutions". He had expressed his opinion by way of constructive criticism and revised all translations to his satisfaction.
He was not satisfied with direct translations of the English originals. He made omissions, additions and alterations, since adaptations needed some creativity. Based on his experience in revising the translation of Physicians Vade Mecum, by his student Dr. Evarts, he identified two main problems or general weaknesses of the translators:
8 Insufficient knowledge of English to get the author's meaning. & Failure to translate satisfactorily, what they did correctly
apprehend of English.
The first of the two problems is understandable. It was a time at which English education had just been undertaken and proficiency in English would have been limited. Grasping what an English author meant would not have been an easy task for Tamilians, who had only a basic exposure to, and superficial glimpse of, the English language. The fact that the contents of the books, which they had to translate, were scientific and medical material would also have added a new dimension to the problem.

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The second of the two problems would have arisen from the level of proficiency in the native language. It would have been a problem of selecting the appropriate words and expressions, and of structuring sentences to express new scientific ideas clearly and effectively. This is not an easy task even today, though we have had several decades of education and language development. Rendering a good translation requires a good knowledge of the subject and mastery of English as well as Tamil in several respects - correct meaning of words and expressions, idiomatic usage, identifying nuances, figures of speech etc., and the subject matter.
It is a fact that after years of colonial rule and English education, Tamil scientists highly proficient in both English and Tamil were produced in our society, at one time. As we are aware, that is fast becoming history.
In this context, it may be appropriate to quote the view expressed a few years ago, by an eminent Tamil scholar of Thamizh Naadu, Dr. Avvai Natarajan: o
"We are in a period of transition when a few are still available, born in our portion of the land, steeped in its culture, but also trained by excellent Englishmen and capable of writing English, whether prose or verse in a way many English men may feel proud of.
"Such men must be made use of for translations. To spend money lavishly on second and third rate translations will not only be a national waste but will project to the outside world a bad picture of our culture......
This was not the situation during the days of Dr. Green. There would have been none who had training under excellent Englishmen. Against this background, it is possible to visualize the type of difficulties that would have confronted a translator during the period of Dr. Green. Nevertheless, as translators, they were of great assistance to him and Dr. Green acknowledged them.

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88 Translation
As soon as the translation of a book was complete, Dr. Green had to undertake the task of revision, and this consumed a lot of his time. The record of his experience in revising the translation of Physician's Wade Mecum shows that by the time it was revised and ready for the press, changes were so many that the translation virtually became his own.
Dr. Green had begun the revision of the Physician's Vade Mecum, (the original consisting of 791 printed pages) in April 1869. It had been translated by one of his old students, Dr. Evarts. Within a couple of weeks of undertaking the revision, Dr. Green said:
"Translation requires so much alteration that it amounts to ploughing one's way, rather than a walk of survey over the field."
The term ploughing and the expression walk of survey, tell us of Dr. Green's concept of translation and his expectations. After working on the revision for about four months, in August 1869, he said:
"It is the hardest revision I have yet grappled; the translation is bad and the subject obstinate, but I am well into the second chapter, and hope by prayer and pains to gradually work through. I can only hope to go on with it by availing of the best helps attainable. I am having multiplied by a copyist a little paper on the Tamilizing of English words. I wish to send it to some ten or dozen individuals, in hope to influence aright this matter, which assumes importance now the push is great to put the Western sciences into this magnificent language."
His appreciation of Tamil as a magnificent language and his desire to guide and lay the foundation for proper translations are indicators of his genuineness. After a few more months of painstaking revision, in January 1870, made his feelings clear:
"My disappointment as to Evarts' aid is relieved by the fact that the case demonstrates that NO Tamil man can do this work.

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"Dr. Evarts' translation is generally the English words in grammatical Tamil. What is wanted is the idea in idiomatic Tamil.
"Through his translation one can see the Englishman; one should see only the Tamilian."
In the first statement he expresses his judgement based on his experiences and in the other two he clarifies his concept of translation. In April 1870, after having spent about a year on revision of the book, he expressed this view:
"The only path to the real accomplishment of our series is that of persistent personal endeavour. Experience demonstrates that both languages must be represented, each by its native, in order to achieve a satisfactory result; and that my expectation that Western ideas can be transplanted in their integrity by even the most accomplished Tamilian is illusory. I have to do over about nine tenths of all the translation prepared for my revision by the employees."
It was about fifteen months after starting revision, in September 1870, that he was able to complete the task of revision. He recorded that with a sigh of relief:
"I am feeling quite relieved by the completion of the version (or rather re-translation, very few sentences have escaped re-translation) of the Physician's Wade Mecum."
This substantiates the common saying that good material is not written but re-written. In the midst of this hard work, he had also tried a controlled experiment on translation.
He selected a long test paragraph and got it translated by Dr. Evarts, and also by Mr. Nevins, the Munshi. These were considered two of the best-educated and endowed men in the community. He got the same. paragraph translated by Dr. Paul. With the help of another native, he himself translated it.

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90 Translation
He got the four translations assessed, without divulging the names of the translators, by several good scholars. He found that his own translation with a native's assistance was selected as the most appropriate translation.
"I keep these four versions to show in proof of the necessity, in work of translating Western Science, of having the English and Tamil represented in the process, by each its own native born worker."
Dr. Green's contention that for a satisfactory translation, both the source language and the target language must be represented, each by its native, is self-explanatory. Why did he conclude that western ideas couldn't be transplanted in their integrity by even the most accomplished Tamilian?
We may justify Dr. Green's view if we analyse some important aspects of translation of science material as listed by, Dr. R. Subbayyan, vicechancellor of Bharathiar University.
Over a century after Dr. Green's departure, Dr. R. Subbayyan draws our attention to the following aspects related to translation of science material:
"Translation of science texts has to be carried out with utmost care and at the same time without losing any information in the target language. Many factors play a major role while translating science texts.
The phonological expression should be precise. The lexicon should be comparable to that of the source form. As far as possible, it should be simple and easily assimilated. The pattern of discourse and the effective communication should be maintained.
«ΟCΟKO
This helps us visualise the problems that would have confronted a native translator one hundred and fifty years ago. From his experience,

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 91
Dr. Green concluded that western ideas couldn't be transplanted in their integrity by even the most accomplished Tamilian.
A few months before he returned to his home country, he assessed the volume of his work by that point of time and re-iterated his view on translation, thus:"
".... The Lord has prospered me to produce nearly if not quite, three thousand octavo pages in Tamil, which will effectually graft western science, in several of its branches, upon this sturdy Tamil language.
"One very great want in translation is a pure literature, idiomatic, simple, and instructive.
"For half the work of producing this, at least, the Foreigner must inevitably be responsible."
While trying to interpret Dr. Green's opinion, we have bear in mind the period of time and the society in which he lived, and the limited exposure his assistants would have had to the use of English language

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13. Modernizing Tamil
"For those who deliberate with chosen associates and act there is no task too difficult to be attained"
-Thirukurahl
In his attempt to render western medical science in Tamil, Dr. Green ventured into a relatively new field of scientific Tamil. The problem faced by Dr. Evarts in translating the assigned text was probably one of scientific Tamil. The comments made by Dr. Green pinpoint the same shortcoming in different expressions.
Months before his departure, when he said, "one very great want in translation is a pure literature, idiomatic, simple, and instructive", he almost touched on scientific language.
Dr. Green had expressed the view that translation was ploughing through a field and not a walk of survey. By this he meant that the underlying concepts or facts had to be brought out clearly by the translation.
The basic requirement in a translation is that it should render the content of the source material into the target language, clearly and fully, without distortion or ambiguity. Dr. Green would have expected these qualities in Dr. Evarts' translation and when his expectation was not met, he felt that the translation was bad and the subject obstinate. He would have expressed his suspicion that western ideas couldn't be transplanted in their integrity by even the most accomplished Tamilian, because he had considered Dr. Evarts as one of the best-educated and endowed man in the community.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 93
Dr. Green was not happy with the language and style used by Dr. Evarts in his discourse. It may have been literary Tamil and not medical or scientific Tamil. Dr. Green attempted to get the best possible translation by availing of the best helps attainable. In his endeavour to find consensus, he prepared a paper on Tamilizing of English words and conducted an opinion survey.
Tamil with its rich heritage is not incapable of serving as media of expression of thought, including scientific thought. The problem in general is that over the years, Tamil had developed as a literary language and not as a scientific language.
The question may then be asked whether there is such a Tamil called scientific Tamil? If not, why are we unable to teach and communicate scientific ideas and knowledge in our language at higher levels? Why are we not introducing Tamil as medium of instruction in the universities?
Language we know is a medium of expression, a vehicle of thought. No language may be found unequal to the task of expressing the developing sciences. How did English, Russian, Japanese-any language that enjoys the pride of place as a modernized language, become a modernized language? The answer is simple.
The English speaker who developed the sciences in his own country. quickly brought home the discoveries and inventions of those speak jig other European languages. He rendered them in English and developed a scientific language. When the need arose, he even accepted foreign terms and assimilated them.
Thus, from the sixteenth century, all scientific thoughts and developments available in the West were rendered into the English language. Today, it is hailed as a modernized language.
The same is true of the Russians and the Japanese who developed their languages, some years later. After years of planned effort, their languages have in course of time, become efficient vehicles of

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expression of scientific thoughts and also made science available to the common people.
Tamil language, as we need it for scientific literature is different from the literary Tamil. We have to develop scientific Tamil and modernize our language to communicate the sciences and technology effectively.
In literature, a pun on the words adds life and merit to the literary piece. It induces much appreciation too. In the case of science and technology, the position is entirely different.
Words used should be carefully selected. Ideas expressed should be clear, exact and precise. Expressions should covey exactly what is required. Statements should be simple and unambiguous. No relevant information should be missed.
{X(d x-Х»x
X
X
More could be listed. In this respect, scientific and technical language is new to Tamil. If we are to modernize our language to communicate the sciences and technology effectively, scientific Tamil has to be developed as distinct from literary Tamil.
Our language has not kept pace with the changing world but that was not due to any inherent defects in the language. The fact is that we failed to gear it in time to meet the needs of a scientific language, to communicate the sciences and technology. We watched on as science marched with rapid strides. For far too long, we depended on English alone to communicate scientific and technological knowledge.
Today we ponder as to what fundamental changes need be made in our language structure and use, to develop scientific Tamil and modernize it. We are so wedded to conventions and grammar from which we are unable to extricate Tamil and ourselves.
An important aspect of scientific Tamil is the style of narrating or expressing the science concepts and ideas instructured sentences. This was probably the we ness in Dr. Evart's translation, which prompted

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Dr. Green to say that western ideas couldn't be transplanted in their integrity,
If the Ideas expressed are not clear, exact and precise, there could be ambiguity. That will give room for misinterpretation. Dr. Subbayyan, in his research paper, asserts that a critical review of the present day text books shows such ambiguity, use of long sentences, use of purified and more archaic usage make scientific communication difficult to understand. If this were the situation in 1990s what would it have been in 1860s?
There are other aspects such as sentence structure, Tamilizing proper nouns and technical phrases, expressing symbolic expressions, etc. that cause problems.
For example, a > b is read "a is greater than b". The symbol > stands in between a and b, for the English phrase is greater than. Is it possible to replace > by a phrase in Tamil, without violating existing grammar and convention?
Again, in transliterating some proper nouns, conventions and grammatical rules have to be violated, to preserve the (phonetic) sound of the original names. Issac has to end with the consonant and this violates grammatical rules concerning word endings. Devy and Loney, begin with such (phonetic) sounds of alphabets which by convention cannot be used at the beginning of a word in Tamil.
In Sydney, Australia, in a letter to parents, the NSW Department of Education translated the name BOSTON as POSUTHAN : They had also translated the month JULY as AADI (gg) and the month AUGUST as AAVAHNI (golgof) "
These may be due to incompetence but, as Dr. Avvai Natarajan pointed out, second and third-rate translations will project to the outside world a bad picture of our culture, not to speak of wasted effort.

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"There is a need to maintain uniformity in the use of language features, which can be achieved by the application of the process of standardization. In order to form such a variety, it is necessary to evolve certainstrategies by which the stylistic features of language for science and technology could be standardized."'
This is the opinion of Dr. Subbayyan. In fact, there is a need to gear, guide and set standards to modernize Tamil in all aspects- usage of terms, phrases, names, discourse etc., on an international scale. We see that as in the case of technical terms, some type of standardization is essential to maintain uniformity in the use of our language.

14. Dr. Green's Dedication
"Those destitute of love appropriate all to themselves
To the loving, even their bones are for others"
-Thirukurahl
On March 29, 1873, the Good Hope steamed out of Colombo harbour.
Dr. Samuel Fisk Green, accompanied by his wife Margaret and four
children-Julia, Lucy, Mary and Nathan-was on his way home after a
second term of eleven years of dedicated service to his beloved people. of Jaffna. As he expressed a couple of years later, he may even at that
moment, have been hoping for another term of service to his adopted
people, through His goodness.
Departing from Jaffna and re-uniting with his family members at Green Hill did not mean that his pioneer work on providing western medical literature in Tamil was over. Before leaving, he had made definite arrangements by which he was to complete the series of medical books he had planned. He continued his prodigious work with dedication
Dr. Vaittilingam Chapman was responsible for matters related to translation. He was to send translations to Dr. Green for revision and return. He was in contact with Dr. Chapman, giving encouragement and guidance. Here is a letter written by Dr. Green, from Green Hill, Worcester to Dr. Chapman on June 25, 1874:

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My Dear Chapman:
v o e o O 8 8 Allow me to express my gratification at the excellence of your translation. I hope that with growing experience and pains, your style and accuracy may still further improve.
As we have repeatedly talked, simplicity is the chief characteristic of a good style. In works of science we want as little technicality as possible, but should not prefer circumlocution to the use of a technical.
In the rest of our series let us rather prefer the usage of the
Physicians Vade Mecum to that in the Anatomy: and put in plenty of aids in the way of English Captions, catch
words and emphasized Tamil words.
Mr. Jones writes me that he has dispatched the remaining forms of the Physicians Vade Mecum to me by book-post; so I daily expect their appearance here.......
Your friend Samuel Fisk Green.
We see that Dr. Green not only encouraged Dr. Chapman but also guided him on aspects of scientific language. He asserts that simplicity is the chief characteristic of a good style and also suggests strategies that could be adopted to facilitate reading and comprehension. Hè made particular reference to the style adopted in translation of Physicians Wade Mecum, the revision of which took over fifteen months.
Dr. Green was also eager to contribute his utmost and that too, as soon as possible. He did not want to waste time and wanted Dr. Chapman to
send in translations more frequently.
The following are some extracts from a letter to Dr. Chapman in 1877:"

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 99
"I have just finished revision of your last parcel, and have now to wait ten days for another. Can you not, with Mr. Howland's help, arrange to give me a parcel every week, instead of every fortnight? I can easily attend to the revision of twice as much as now you supply to me."
In addition to requesting more frequent supplies, he referred to radical changes in nomenclature, over the years. He commenced work in 1850 and it was about twenty-five years. He recalls the past:
"The several Glossaries were prepared one after the other. All the while experience and acquaintance with the work
of nomenclature were growing. Therefore the latest should
have precedence of any made previously.
"First came the Midwifery, secondly the Surgery, thirdly the Anatomy, fourthly the Physic, fifthly the Chemistry, and now sixthly the Physiology. There has been a gradual change in the style of Terms and, I feel, a steady improvement.
Dr. Green had gained a wealth of experience during his period in Jaffna and as a result changed his opinion on certain matters related to nomenclature. He advised Dr. Chapman on what he should do in the future
"In any subsequent editions of the books, this should be regarded, and the Terms throughout the books severally, and in the Glossaries, should be conformed to the latest phase, the most advanced and improved style. The most radical change in the Glossaries was giving the English preference over the Sanskrit as a source for Terms."
Dr. Chapman was responsible and was justifying his appointment: he was fulfilling the expectations of his mentor. Dr. Green was keen to ensure that his expertise in the area of scientific Tamil was handed over to Dr. Chapman. Though sickly and weak, Dr. Green was keen to

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100 Dr. Green's Dedication
return but after careful consideration the mission decided against his return on grounds of health.
In a letter to Dr. Chapman, in April 1879, Dr. Green deals with the purpose of our life and leading unselfish lives.'
"We are always glad to find in the envelope of translation a few lines of news as to our friends, acquaintances and others in our chosen Jaffna. Anything about the Medical Graduates interested us. We shall specially rejoice over any leading unselfish lives; walking before the Lord Jesus in purity, honesty and kindness......
"Let us recollect that the purpose of our life from day to day must be testimony for Jesus, and that the way to witness for Jesus is to be in communion with Jesus.
"No communion, notestimony; notestimony, no life....The unselfish loving life is truly life; the selfish life is death. We are good for nothing apart from Jesus. Let us then be always praying, or praising, or adoring Jesus in our thoughts. Then will our mouth also show forth His praise, and sinners shall be converted unto Him".
During the time Dalton's Physiology was being printed at Manipay Mission Press, there was a need to read and re-read proof several times. As a result of several re-readings, the translation of Pharmacopoeia of India by Dr. Chapman was delayed. Dr. Green was so disturbed by the delay that in September 1879, he wrote to another of his missionary colleague Rev. Howland thus:"
"Let me advise that our future Medical Vernacular book printing be done at Nagarkoil. It will be the lesser of two evils to have a long list of Corrigenda in each volume than to have our translator's time frittered away in reading and re-reading and re-re-reading proof for a local press.

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"I think this will expedite the completion of the long-talkedof series more than any other practicable measure.........."
He was determined to complete the series of medical books he had planned. This letter to Rev. Howland in December 1881, reflects his anxiety:"
"Today is just a year since my last receipt of manuscript from Dr. Chapman. Working through Dr. Chapman, so as to spare your eyes and head, could you inform me whether or no, all the parcels of Pharmacopoeia of India manuscript notes sent by me have been received? To know this would lesson by so much my uncertainty as to the Enterprise.
"I feel very great desire to have the Pharmacopoeia of India, now it is translated and revised, printed carefully....and distributed to all the ACM Medical Graduates and to all the libraries of the Government, and of the Missions in Tamildom, as per list left by me.....
"If the Manepy Press is so dilatory as to cause so much delay to Dr. Chapman's work, I should consider this decisive for doing our (Medical) printing at Nagarkoil.
"We have the A. C. M.'s Medical Department much in our heart in these days. We ask that the Great Medical Missionary shall influence the Brethren to do concerning it what is of Faith-what is judicious. We wait the results of your annual meeting for business with much interest, especially on this matter.
"Even should the Mission decide to take no more Classes, I should wish the Pharmacopoeia completed and distributed.
"On the principle that a crumb is better than no bread, I hope a carefully selected Class, though in small number,

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102 Dr. Green's Dedication
might be kept along; certainly so long as the Government Grant can be retained".
This letter sums up the determination and dedication of a great medical missionary, who pioneered to steer the Tamil language into a world in which science and technology were making rapid strides. Though Dr. Green, Medical Evangelist to the Tamils, was struggling with his own health in his country, his thoughts were all with his adopted Tamil people in Tamildom.

15. Medical Evangelist to the Tamils
"Benevolence is the choicest of all wealth for
material wealth is there with the villest too".
-Thirukurahl
Evangelists dedicate their lives to preaching the gospel and disseminating the message of Christ. Medical evangelists integrate the message of Christ with the practice of medicine.
No sooner had he graduated as a physician and a surgeon, Dr. Green felt an inner urge. He realized that his real calling was medical evangelism. His vision was to go to some land on a useful mission-to heal the bodies and enlighten the minds of some error bound people.
Healing bodies and enlightening minds is the mission of a medical evangelist. Ultimately, when it was certain that he would be a medical evangelist amongst the Tamils of Jaffna, he pictured the people and scenes unknown. Destiny with its unwavering finger pointed his path. He answered the tones of millions call at the age of twenty-four.
From then on, he dedicated his life to serve the Tamil people. In course of time, they were his adopted people. His entire life was dedicated to medical evangelism among them.
As soon as he settled down in Jaffna, he identified what that society needed. He diagnosed that there was a need to plant western medical

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104 Medical Evangelist to the Tamils
knowledge and practice. He was convinced that to redeem future generations from suffering, western medical knowledge was necessary in the native language.
He set his goal and ventured to work towards attaining that goal. His goal was to lay the foundation for the development of medical literature in Tamil. He was fully aware of the task involved, but he did not hesitate.
"I tell you the truth, if you have faith as small as a mustard seed you can say to this mountain "Move from here to there' and it will move". (Mathew: 17-20)
As a missionary to whom Jesus was all, he would have had unqualified faith. So, in addition to his daily routine of treating the sick and teaching of western medicine to selected students, he undertook the study of Tamil with a view to master the language.
He made good progress in both the undertakings-teaching western medicine and studying Tamil. Others have learnt it, so can I was his level of confidence. Having mastered Tamil, he ventured to lay the foundation for western medical literature in Tamil.
His aim was to leave behind a series of medical textbooks in Tamil, as something permanent. This was a massive task. Aiming to accomplish such a task, he planned meticulously and worked systematically. He experienced some obstacles but obstacles did not discourage him, no matter in what form they manifested
& There were times when he was ailing and fighting for his own survival; but, his conscience wouldn't allow him to think of abandoning his undertaking. & There were times when his loved ones pressurized him to return;
but, he withstood all pressures by presenting his point of view. There were times when educated natives contended that he should concentrate on teaching medical science in English; but, he argued that at the close of his work he should have the satisfaction of
O

Scientific Tamil Pioneer. 105
leaving behind medical science to the Tamil nation, in their own tongие. ン At the time he decided to introduce Tamil as the medium of instruction in his medical school, his students themselves were unhappy, but that did not affect his decision. He stood by his plan to teach in Tamil and get the doctors to settle down in their villages and serve their people. When the colonial government refused aid saying that the NON ENGLISH policy pursued by ACM was disastrous and suicidal; he disobeyed political dictum and continued his work on producing medical literature in Tamil. Ultimately, he made the government see reason and seek his assistance.
d
(d
x
Many more instances may be listed as testing times; nothing made him feel disheartened or discouraged. In facing the problems, he demonstrated more national feeling than the natives themselves. No problem could make him turn back.
His strong conviction elevated him to a national hero's status. He emerged a victor because he was fit for the service he had dedicated himself to.
"No one who puts his hand to the plow and looks back is fit for service in the kingdom of God." (Luke: 9-62)
He served two ten-year terms in Jaffna. His entire missionary life was for the Tamil people. After the second ten-year term, he had to say adieu to his adopted people. He was about to sail back home, with his wife and children. The risks involved in the long and tedious sea travel at that time need no elaboration.
Before leaving Ceylon, he wrote several letters to his family members. The journey we are aware, was something to be concerned about. At that time, his emotions made him write what he wished done, should all of them pass from earth while on their way back home!'

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106 Medical Evangelist to the Tarils
"I have thought I would like all our property, and whatever may have been willed to us, given in whole or in part to found a Medical Professorship in Jaffna College (provided such a disposal commends itself to the judgement of Iny sisters and brothers) in case we should all pass from earth while on our way to you",
It definitely was not a mere formal expression of an emotional nature. For, after arriving and settling down at home, he renewed his request in March 1874. In a letter to his sister Lucy, he wrote:"
"...Should the month of August find your finances prospering so as to warrant it, I shall rejoice to avail your permission to add a thousand dollars to the little sum already gained in Jaffna as a donation towards the endowment of the Green Professorship in Medicine and Natural Sciences at Jaffna College...."
This reveals his genuineness of purpose and benevolence. Even during the last eleven years of his life in Worcester, he worked to complete his undertaking. His entire life was dedicated to the Tamils.
We see that he had earned a status of distinction as Medical Evangelist exclusively to the Tamils. He himself had expressed that in his last
A part of his last will was quoted as introduction to the "Funeral Address', It read:
"Should I ever have a gravestone, let it be plain and simple, and bear the following inscription: viz.,
Samuel Fisk Green
1822 -- 188
Medical Evangelist to the Tamils
Wesls vry (ll.

Scientific Tail Pioneer O7
He died on May 28, 1884. His request was observed. His gravestone in the Worcester Rural Cemetery keeps reminding the dedication of the great medical evangelist who took pride in referring to himself as Samuel
Fisk Green alias PACHAYAPPAN."
All Inissionaries dedicated their lives to serve greater humanity but Dr. Green's pioneer contribution towards the development of Medical and Scientific Tamil was unparalleled and heroic, whatever yardstick We use. He has earned a place of high distinction in our history.
Ambi placing a basket of flowers at Dr. Green's grave site in Worcester Rural Cemetery (1997)
Dr. Green had taken an "Ola" copy of Akastiar's Guerra Paradas and presented it to one of his Green family members, Dr. J. Green. Ile addressed him as Iri, is if G inctiful Dr. J. Green.......... and from Dr. S.F, Green alias Lisan Fi'illusi | source: Guna Paladal : Worcester Public: Library

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16. Science and Religion
"Of what avail is learning if the learned do not worship the sacred feet of the almighty".
-Thirukurahl
From an early age, the welfare of his fellow creatures was uppermost in Dr. Green's mind. He believed that true living manifests benevolence and benevolence is a constant expansion of the soul. He was humanitarian by nature, endowed with a benevolent heart. It had been seasoned by his implicit faith in Jesus. This made him follow Jesus rather than merely worship him.
If any man serve Me let him follow Me is the message of the gospel. Dr. Green followed Him and lived a Christian. He applied the knowledge and skills he acquired through science education, to serve mankind. All the virtues exist within the circle of Love asserts Dr. Green. Love was his working force.
Mahatma Gandhi's response to another missionary's question is worth recall, in this context.
"How can we make Christianity naturalized in India, not a foreign thing, identified with a foreign government and a foreign people, but a part of the national life of India and contributing its power to India's uplift? What would you, as one of Hindu leaders of India, tell me, a Christian, to do in order to make this possible?"
Stanley Jones, who had been a missionary and writer of several works dealing with the Christian faith, put the above question to Mahatma

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 109
Gandhi, and waited for his response. Mahatma Gandhi replied, in very clear and simple language:'
"First, I would suggest that all of you Christians, missionaries and all, must begin to live more like Jesus Christ. Second, Practice your religion without adulterating it or toning it down. Third, Emphasize love and make it your working force, for love is central in Christianity. Fourth, Study the non-Christian religions more sympathetically to find the good that is within them, in order to have a more sympathetic approach to the people."
Mr. Jones was surprised at the clarity and directness of the answer and later made the following comment, fully endorsing Mahatma Gandhi's response:
"He put his finger unerringly on the four weak spots in our individual and collective lives. First of all, we are worshiping Christ more than following Him. Jesus said, "If any man serve Me, let him follow Me." It is possible to serve Christ and not follow Him."
Yes, this is true for all faiths-Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism and others. All religions accept an Almighty and urge us to Serve mankind. Worshiping, attending services regularly, performing rites and ceremonies and other such rituals do not necessarily mean much if one does not have an urge to serve mankind. Religious faiths should guide man to live with a little fellow feeling.
"Krishna Buddha Jesus Allah All came to this land All of them brought the message of love, Love your fellow man."
These lines that echo at Prasanthi Nilayam shed light on the real meaning of religions and love. Love is considered the working force by all religions though in practice it does not always happen.
米 Prasanthi Nilayam: Swami Satya Sai Baba's Ashram

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110 Science and Religion
Green, a doctor with a broad science background who lived a Christian, had the welfare of mankind uppermost in his mind. He had tried to influence and guide his children, from the time they were young. Here is one of his letters to his son Nathan, in 1880:
My Dear Son,
"I think of you daily, and I feel that you do of papa, and that we pray for each other. These ties of relationship embody much of joy, and when ennobled by love toward Jesus, they seem earnest of that higher life, in the better land for which we look, and into which we may enter any day.
"I hope my little man is constantly endeavoring to live the self-denying life, which is ever considerate of others, and happiest in scattering Smiles of gladness over surrounding faces
"You have no doubt looked at the babies nigh you, and given them each the smile of welcome to the great family of man, and to Green Hill in particular. I hope they and many others, now babes may have occasion to say, "I think Mr. Nathan Green is a very nice man, he is so kind to every one."
Ever and affectionately,
lauvu fathew and Pluiend,
Dr. Green expressed his hope that his little man (Nathan Green was only eleven years old at that time) was constantly endeavouring to live the self-denying life, which is ever considerate of others, and happiest in scattering smiles of gladness over surrounding faces. His signing off as "lau pathieu and puend" tells several tales. He was anxious to hand over his baton to his next generation.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 111
It may be fitting to quote Dr. Green's comments on a book "History of the Conflict between Religion and Science" by William Draper. Dr. Green said:
"It chills one while it charms. I do not see that it touches, much less solves the problem of sin and suffering. Crimespolitical, social, domestic-abound around us.
"Will science stop a little from her soaring toward the tenuous ether to suggest a remedy? The desideratum is holiness. Shall Science with her torch lead us to it, or shall we follow the Greater Light?
The conflict between Religion and Science is similar to the conflict between the Theory of Creation and the Theory of Evolution. They view every thing from two parallel planes and have to be bridged by humanitarian thought and humane feelings. But
We are living in a world in which religions, in general, are losing their goal. All religions aim to foster love and humane values but the humans are fast losing their humane values. Respect for man and life is fast eroding, not to speak of love. Conflicts in the name of religion are causing misery to mankind, in all parts of the world.
Like nationalism, patriotism and other-isms, religion too appears to be used as a mask for many atrocities by both individuals and states in all the continents. What is desired but lacking all around is holiness.
The question, as Dr.Green put it, is: "Shall Science with her torch lead us to it, or shall we follow the Greater Light?"

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17. Epilogue
"For help rendered with no thought of reward, even the earth
and the heavens are not sufficient recompense".
-Thirukurahl
The account of Dr. Green's undertakings and accomplishments outlined in the foregoing pages amply portray the benevolent personality of a man who dedicated his life for a noble cause - that of implanting western medical science in the Tamil Language. He ventured assiduously to lay the foundation and nurture the new field of knowledge in its integrity amongst the Tamil people in their language.
The fact that Tamil was a foreign language to him and that the discipline of Western Medical Science was alien and new to the Tamil people posed a two-pronged obstacle, both of which he attempted to overcome with implicit faith. In the process, he has left footprints on the sands of time, trails that could guide the present generation that is endeavouring to pursue his path - that of developing scientific literature in the Tamil Language.
A microscopic examination of his trails bring to sharp focus some important issues in rendering the new discipline of scientific literature in the Tamil Language. Dr. Green's views on these issues are noteworthy and thought provoking.They are very significant to the present generation, which is conscious of the need to modernise the Tamil language and is endeavouring genuinely to bring it on par with other modern languages.

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Technical terms, Translations and Scientific Tamil are three areas in which the present generation has conflicts. In the attempts to resolve the conflicts it is worth giving serious consideration to Dr. Green's contentions on these issues. Here are some of them:
1. Coining new technical terms should be based on definite rules -
not casual assimilation, as and when the need arises. 2. Technical terms should be standardised maintaining consistency
in usage amongst all the Tamil speaking people. 3. A translator should be thoroughly proficient in both the language of the source material and the target language and, in addition, possess a thorough knowledge of the subject. 4. Translation amounts to ploughing through a field, not justa walk of survey, i.e. it must bring up the deeper meaning not immediately visible on a superficial viewing. 5. A translation should give the idea in the source material in its entirety, in idiomatic Tamil and not just the English words in grammatical Tamil.
More could be listed but these are considered sufficient to illustrate the point.
In this context it is fitting to recall an opinion expressed by Stanley Jones of a microscopic examination of Mahatma Gandhi:
"It is a microscopic examination, thoroughly done, but in the end the real man is lost. After you have looked at him through a microscope you have to look at him through a telescope. For, he stands against a background of ages, and must be interpreted with that background to get the full stature and meaning of the man."
This precisely is true of Dr. Green too. He stands against a background, which must be viewed as a whole and not by isolating a particular subSet.
Dr. Green's life was one of self-denial. He advised his son to endeavour to live a self-denying life and scatter smiles of gladness over surrounding

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114 Epilogue
faces. He wanted his son to live such a life that others may have occasion to say that he is kind to every one. Dr.Green himself lived such a life.
He was kind and considerate to all and so ventured to clear the fog of false sciences that prevailed in the society. He believed that the people needed enlightenment and that it was possible only by exposing them to true science. He expressed that belief in his preface to the book on Chemistry which he translated with the help of D. W. Chapman and S. Swaminathan, thus:o"
"Believing that the substitution of Chemistry for Alchemy, of Astronomy for Astrology, of History for Mythology; in short, of true science for the false, will clear the social and the moral air, this volume is sent forth."
This observation is from a scientific plane but the next is from a spiritual plane:
"May Jesus, the sun of Righteousness own it, causing it to scatter the darkness, so that the rays of his word may enter and give saving light to multitudes."
To understand the real man Green we have to observe through a telescope so that we may see his life and goals against the whole background of ages and society.
Dr. Green's contributions to the Tamil society at that period of time is unparalleled. He received no aid from that society to which be dedicated his entire life. We cannot recompense his benevolent deeds. But why didn't our society give due recognition to his work, as they did to the works of other dedicated missionaries?
Missionaries of the calibre of Dr. G. U. Pope, Fr, Beschi (Veeramaa munivar), Rev. Myron Winslow, Rev. Peter Percival and other such great men have been acknowledged for their contributions to the development of the Tamil language in the pages of history.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 115
Why didn't the Tamils equate Dr. Green's work with these?
The answer is simple: The then Tamil society understood the significance of the contribution of those scholars. Their contributions were in field of language development, Tamil grammar, translation of Thirukurahl and Thiruvaasagam, lexicography and the like. The ambit was confined to language and literature.
In contrast, Dr. Green dealt with an alien discipline, which was totally new to the society. Science in general and western medical science in particular, were new to the Tamils and the then society did not really understand the nature of his contribution.
Now that we understand what Dr. Green laboured for at a time when our society was unaware of developments in the west, we have a responsibility - a sacred responsibility to honour Dr. Samuel Fisk Green and re-trace his trails. We should admire his vision and his mission.
Is it not up to the present generation to take a pledge to perpetuate his name, deeds and achievements in the annals of the history of Tamil and Tamildom?.

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Appendix - 1
* Obituary of Dr. Samuel Fisk Green:
Worcester Gazette, May 29, 1884.
'Dr. Samuel F. Green'
The death of Dr. Samuel F. Green of this city, which we announce this morning, removes one well known at home and abroad.
He was born at Green Hill in this city, the home of his ancestors for many generations. He graduated at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, and practiced a short time in this city. A sense of his duty at that time led him to enter the service of foreign missions, and he went as a physician to Jaffna, in the island of Ceylon, in Asia.
Here he applied himself assiduously to the acquisition of the Tamil language, and established there a college for the education of Tamil youth in the practice of European surgery and medicine. Passing ten years in this service, he returned to this country, after visiting England and the European continent, and spent among his friends a period of recreation.
米 The above obituary was located at the American Antiquarian Society in
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 117
Again he went to Ceylon for another era of eleven years of work. The influence of the climate markedly affected his health and he was compelled to come again to this country, visiting England and Scotland on his way.
He took up his residence at Green Hill, but did not here intermit the work he had given himself to do, continuing the publication of his work in the Tamil tongue, with the intention of leaving a complete series of textbooks of medicine.
The manuscript was for years prepared at Green Hill, sent to India, and the proofs in Tamil type, returned to Dr. Green for revision and correction. The following text-books were completed by Dr. Green, and except the Medical Jurisprudence and Pharmacopoeia, are in use as standard works in India:
Obstetrics, 12 vol. pages, 258: Surgery, 8 vol. pages, 917: Chemistry, 8 vol. pages 516: Pharmacopoeia of India, 8 vol., now in course of printing: Medical Jurisprudence, contemplated Vocabularies prepared.
From these more than three thousand six hundred pages one may form an idea of the vast amount of labor required. They are the result of twenty-five years of pains taking, discriminating effort. They were accomplished with a patient fidelity, while conducting an extensive practice and instructing his students, with but very scanty means at his command.
The students trained by Dr. Green are sought for by the English government for its Tamil service, and the government made him a small annual appropriation towards his work. Dr. Green's name stands a household name among the people of the island to whose interests he devoted his life.
There is recorded no more marked example of the useful results of a life of self-denying devotion to the most elevated work.

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118 Appendix - 1
Dr. Green possessed a singularly felicitous and discriminating diction, the result of a long practice in his comparison of languages. The pages of his works are full of annotations on the shades of meaning or words. frequently deemed synonymous. As a writer he had a great excellence. His dictum was clear, graphic and felicitous.
His life was one of inconspicuous self-denial and of modest and unaffected retirement. To a disposition of unvarying cheerfulness and gentleness, he added dignity, firmness, independence.
His life was a perpetual benediction. His last years were spent in completing his publications, his life's work, and in visiting, comforting and aiding those about him, not merely by expenditures from his scanty means, but from the treasures of kindness and benevolence in the far higher fields of pains-taking personal exertion at the cost of repose and comfort.
The memory he left behind is his monument, but is as eminent here at home as it is among his numerous friends on a remote continent.

Appendix - 2
Dr. D. W. Chapman's Letter to the Green family in 1884
I knew my beloved teacher and spiritual father, Dr. Green, from the year 1862. I was with him for ten years almost every day, except Saturdays and Sundays. When he left Jaffna he put me to act in his place.
The Doctor had in view to educate and give a physician to every ten thousand of the ten million Tamil population. He has educated seventytwo men directly and sixty-two indirectly... The Vernacular graduates have turned out successful practitioners.
The Jaffna Friend-in-Need Society's Hospital, from its commencement up to the present time, was supplied by medical officers from among Dr. Green's students...The Doctor was visiting this institution bi-weekly, promptly getting there at 9 o'clock A. M., when a very large crowd of sick people would be anxiously waiting his arrival.
He politely received them one by one into the room, and prescribed for them, after examining their complaints. The routine of Hospital is, first, out-door patients; secondly, issuing provisions; thirdly, indoor patients; fourthly, surgical operations; fifthly, inspection of record-books, sixthly, out-door patients again.

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120 Appendix - 2
The Government appreciated the Doctor's work; in all matters of importance, such as appointment of medical officers and sanitary measures, he was consulted.
Although the whole Island had its Capital in the town Colombo, Dr. Green's station, Manepy, was to some extent the capital, as long as he lived there, in being the headquarters of medical science and training.
Throughout the Island, and even in India, he was considered one of the greatest men who lived in this century......
He was able to talk Tamil very easily and fluently; had the command of words, phrases, idioms and proverbs. He was daily using Tamil maxims more freely than an ordinary Tamil man can do.......
Although he was absent from Jaffna for the last eleven years of his life, his heart was here with his adopted people and on the work that is being carried on here. He writes:
"We should aim to give our foster-sons, the Medical Students, in Tamil each several books as perfect and as full as prayer and painstaking can make them....
"I hope each father of a volume in the series will cherish it and see that in due time it re-appears in a vastly improved edition. This most important enterprise we have had in hand many years. I hope you may be prospered to bring it all to a satisfactory conclusion........
The Lord seems to have fitted you for this important work. Do not lightly decline His call. Whatever you do, do all for Him, earnestly, filially, desiring to honor Him, and He will bless you.....
"It seems incumbent on you and your confreres to maintain the Medical Mission in Jaffna. Get what help you can from the Government and from the Mission, and combine among

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yourselves to perpetuate the practice and propagation of a system of medicine so much needed in that community in a sanitary, hygienic, and curative way.
"My daily prayer for long has been, O Lord, stir and constrain Chapman, Mills, and Paul to do all they may and all they should for the maintenance and perpetuation of medical mission work for Christin Jaffna, and enable them each, and each of the medical graduates, to walk in purity, in honesty, and in kindness.
Please mention this to friends Mills and Paul with my Christian fraternal love."
"May Jesus the Sun of Righteousness bless His servant's work, enabling his numerous students to follow the footstep of their tutor."
** Dr. D. W. Chapman (Vaittilingam), Dr. C. T. Mills (Ethernayakam) and Dr. William Paul (Appapillai) were Dr. Green's students (Class 18611864) who assisted him in rendering Medical Books into Tamil.

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Appendix - 3
P R E 5 A C E
*MWANAMWomans
These Vocabularieg are intended to aid Teachers and Students, in drawing the knowledge of important branches in Medical Science from the English. They ure offered in the hope, that they may prove a stop in progress to botter Torms and to Treatises on the subjects concerned. This realized, a correction of many abusos will follow, and the day be hastened when the Tamils shall havo becoma that happy peoplo, whose God is Jвнov Aн Јвsos.
The Torns have been prepared in accordanco with the following
RUILEs. A imaling to have each. Terram brief, euphonious zarad apposito in derivation and accounting as practically Tarnil, any word in good general usic, seek for the Torna first in the
Tamil, thus i. Prefer a simple or compound word in common use, or 2. If none, appropriate somme apt though abstrulase "Word, ore 8. Compound a word, by uniting roots, or a root and as particle.
4. Rarely, some apt radical word may be modified, by giving it an ordinary termination, or
5. Where there are several words of wrider though sinnilar meaning restrict one, to specify the object, or
8. Translate and join the several members of the Engliah Compound word.
Findizag no Term in the . Tamil, transfer tho
English, thus: 1. Write the word as a noun, tergely and smoothly; proserve its accent and the sounds of its radical portion and terminatit in ordinary Tamil form.
2:lodify it when requisite, by the r -tition of an ap
particle.

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 123
ii
3. In compounds, if there be for any member, a good Tanuil word, cu Lubine it with tho English word.
If the word cantuot be satisfactorily Ti'atilized, scek a Tcrm in the
Sanscrit, thus ; 1. Prefer a tern sanctioned by both an English and Sanscrit, and a Sanscrit and English dictionary.
2. Should no appropriate Term be found, adopt some word expressive of oue or moro characteristics of the object to be named , or
8. Compound a word, by uniting roots, or a root and a particle; or
4. Adopt a, word having the samic meatuing as the Original of the English Derivative; or
5. Where there are several words of wider though similar meaning, restrict one, to specify the objcct.
6. If there be for any member of the English Compound, a good Tamil word, combino it with the Stinscrit
The direct introduction of Westorn Terns into the Tamil is desirable, as affording the readiest cold munication of the knowledge they embody. The Tamils thomselves frccly practise it. Though there arc some difficulties in the process, these can bo met in the ense of the English, as well as they havo bcen, in the case of thc Sanscrit. It needs but to determine, what sounda and forms, exist in the English, unlike those in tbıp Tamil and thio Sua scrit ; and to agree upom a uniform manner of rendering them into Tamil. In devising this method, latitude will be required, proportionate to the dissimilarity of the languagea concerned.
As each European language assimilates from the Greek or Latin, the same words differently; so will Indian languages, Imodify words from the Sanscrit or English, ewch in its own peculisr way.
Hybrid words aro noti io frequent ita Tamil. The sounds of the letters in Tamil are so constant, that Xywords can be translitcrated into English. But in Y"-,

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124 Appendix -3
jii
lish they are go Yarimble, that transliteration is impraetietable anfl the words can only be spelled into Tamil, according to their sound. Tamil words have no silent letters; English words havo many.
Several initial and several terminal aounds common in English, are either not found in the Tamil language, or are inadmissible in Tamil grammar. To meet this in part, the same alphabct which has already given to Tainil, FI, J, S, and Sh, should supply B, I, ELtd G. The soutclis of in a 2, fair, and aki, so common in English, arc abscht in Tanil, The sound of a in aille, is not distinguished from that of a in errth. These diversities however, can bo easily accommodated, 2 may be well represcintod by F.
Mnny English words Tamilize more neatly, fr. their LAtin originals; e. g. a word ending in on, tamiliacd from its liatin ending in ten gives a word, which dropping a forms an adjectivo more like a past relativo participle Pronunciation in nodern Greece and Italy, should influence Tamilization
English adjective end in a great variety of forms, many of which can be comprised in lay by tho dropping of a, which will naturally end many Tamilized English nouns.
The Terminal tis, a, arra, may for neuter Tamil nouns, bo suverally rendered by guia,
In some cases, words from the English, should like words from the Sanscri, yield to that Tamil force, which blend diverse consonants into a mere doubling of one. For example, as luau is becomes usiasts and oath becomes faffa, so should Apoplary glaosaié become Sowds and Elector GQэodarf beconne gЭedай.
When a word ending either in dies, ar or bør oombines with a word following, dig should change to di air to di andi ற்று ta த்; e g, சக்தாசில்பொடி, இபிகார்வைன், &.ே
Through the more frequent occurrence of vowel sounda, Tamilized words tend to overlengthen. To obviate this, choose gqually near Bounds, the one whicle yes in the feur

Scientific Tamil Pioneer 125
Αν
characters; (e. g. gp vs Quor, Goy as Gira) and sometimes, drop the last syllable, (e. g. Uraemia gifts us giftsuta, Cirrhosis கிரூேசி 9 கிரூேசிசு)
In conforming a radically related group. to one central word, it should be noticed whether C has in most its S or its K sound; S its S or 2 sound ; and I its 3 or se sound; also where in the majority, falls tho accent.
Foreign Terms herein, have been Tamilized as follows :-
1. Each Term has been introduced as a noun i made as brief as possible, consistent with the preservation of its radical sounds and accent and so ended in some ordinary form, that it may easily turn, to the adjective or verb.
2. Endeavour has been made, to introduce the Terms according to the genius and grammar of the Tamil; in some instances transposing syllables, to favor cadence and termination.
3. Among several Terms designating the same thing, that one has been chosen, which would enter the Tamil rinost casily.
4. As far as practicable, the Terms have been differentiated from any pre-existing Tanail word.
5. Torms radically reluted, have becn so accommodatod to each other, that this shall appear,
Many Terms of Anatomy, Chemistry &c. will occur in these branches, for which the reader may refer to proper
Glossaries, already published.
Medical practitioners, S. W. Nathaniel and D. W. Chap
man, have renderod valuable assistance in the preparation of this work.
S. F. G.
19th December 1872.

Page 74
References
1. Green, James: Genealogy Manuscript in Worcester Putulu
Library, MA., USA.
2. Cutler, Ebenezer, D. D. Life and Letters of Samuel Fisk Green, M. D., of Green Hill. Printed for Family Friends. (1891) page 112
3 ibid page 15
4 ibid page 17
5. ibid page 22
6. ibid page 27
7 ibid page 29
8 ibid page 37
9. ibid page 38
10. ibid page 40
11. ibid page 88
12. ibid page 55
13. National Geographic, Vol. 191, No. 1, Jan 1997, page 120.
14. Life and Letters...... page 111.
15. ibid page 216
16. ibid page 243
17. ibid page 454
18. ibid page 62
19. ibid page 70
20. Akastiar: Guna Paadal: 'Ola' manuscript in Worcester Public
Library, MA., USA.
21. Life and Letters...... page 93
22, ibid page 74
23. ibid page 75
24. ibid page 75

25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.
39.
40. 41.
42.
43.
44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.
54. 55. 56.
Scientific Tamil Pioneer 127
ibid page 80
ibid page 86
ibid page 112
ibid page 112 Akastiar: Guna Paadal: 'Ola' manuscript in Worcester Public Library, MA., USA.
Life and Letters.......... page 116
ibid page 118
ibid page 229
ibid page 244
Life and Letters page 244
Ibid page 279
Ibid page 303
Ibid page 312
Shanmugasundaram, Prof. G. Scientific Literature in Tamil for
Laymen, IATR (1968)
Thi. Jaa. Taa: Eppady Ezhuthinen, Sakthy Publicaionn 1943. Madurai page 13
Chellappan, Dr. Ratha page 89
Shanmugasundaram, Prof. G. Scientific Literature in Tamil for
Laymen, IATR (1968)
Chellappan, Dr. Ratha. Kalaichollaakam, Tamizh University,
Thnjavoor (1985) page v
Subbayyan, Dr. R., Vice-Chancellor, Bharathiar University. Key
Note Address, IATR Conference (1989)
Life and Letters.....page 81
ibid page 81
ibid page 87
ibid page 302
ibid page 442
ibid page 412
ibid page 278
Life and Letters....... page 74
ibid page 75
Green, Dr. Samuel, F. Dictionary of Technical Terms. Nagarkovil
London Mission Press 1875
Life and Letters....... page 228
ibid page 242
Chellappan, Dr. Ratha. Kalaichollaakam, Tamizh University,
Thnjavoor (1985) page 83

Page 75
128
57. 58.
59. 60.
61. 62.
63.
64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87.
88.
References
Kalaichotkahl: Chennai Maahaana Thamizh Sangam 1938 Chellappan, Dr. Ratha. Kalaichollaakam, Tamizh University, Thnjavoor (1985) page 90
ibid page 228
ibid page 227
Veerakesari, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 14/3/1959. Chellappan, Dr. Ratha. Kalaichollaakam, Tamizh University, Thnjavoor (1985) page 83 Ambi: Maruthuva Thamizh Munnodi SaivaSithantha Publishers, Madras. (1995) page 115
ibid page 120
ibid page 295
IATR Paper (1989) Dr. Avvai Natarajan Life and Letters.......... page 294
ibid page 295
IATR Paper (1989) Dr. R. Subbayan
Life and Letters.......... page 308 Letter to Parents of Grade 5 students: NSW Ed. Dept (July 1995) IATR Paper (1989) Dr. R. Subbayan
Life and Letters.......... page 322
ibid page 345
ibid page 375
ibid page 381
ibid page 405
ibid page 311
ibid page 319
ibid page 422
Mahatma Ganddhi.....page 69
ibid page 70
ibid page 70
Life and Letters.......... page 391 ibid page 325 mahatma Gandhi........ page 7 Green, Dr. S. F.
Translation of Chemistry : page 5 Ibid page 5

Bibiliogarphy
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Green, James: Genealogy Manuscript in Worcester Public Library, MA., USA. Cutler, Ebenezer, D. D. Life and Letters of Samuel Fisk Green, M.D., of Green Hill. Printed for Family Friends. (1891) National Geographic, Vol. 191, No. 1, Jan 1997, Ambi: Maruthuva Thamizh Munnodi. Saiva Sithantha Publishers, Madras. (1995) Chellappan, Dr. Ratha. Kalaichollaakam, Tamizh University, Thnjavoor (1985) Kalaichotkahl: Chennai Maahaana Thamizh Sangam 1938 Veerakesari, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 14/3/1959. Green, Dr. Samuel, F. Dictionary of Technical Terms. Nagarkovil London Mission Press 1875 Shanmugasundaram, Prof. G. Scientific Literature in Tamil for Laymen, IATR (1968) Subbayyan, Dr. R., Vice-Chancellor, Bharathiar University. Key Note Address, IATR Conference (1989) Thi... Ja... Ta: Eppady Ezhuthinen, Sakthy Publication 1943. Madurai Akastiar: Guna Paadal: 'Ola' manuscript in Worcester Public Library, MA., USA. Jones, Stanley, E. Mahatma Ganddhi: An Interpretation, Hodder and Stoughton London (1950) Vimalachandra, Arumugam: Development and Influence of Tamil Language. Ahilan Memorial Issue, Toronto, Canada (1996) Venkatasami, Mylai Seeni: Kristhavamum Thamizhum, Saiva Sithantha Publications, Madras 1943

Page 76
130 Bibiliogarphy
16. Natarajan, Dr. Avvai:Translations for Tamil IATR Paper (1989) 17. Glossaries & Technical Terms, Dept. of Swabesha, Ceylon 1955 18. Technical & Scientific Terms, Government of India (1947) 19. Ambihaipahar, Mr. R. Technical Terms IATR Paper (1966) 20. Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia, Princeton, New Jercy. 21. Scientifically Speaking: A Collection of BBC Scripts (1978) 22. De Silva, Prof. K. M. etal:History of Ceylon, Vol iii. University
of Ceylon, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 23. Green, Dr. S. F. Translation of Chemistry by David A. Wells,
Nagarkoil, London Mission Press, 1875.

Page 77


Page 78
R. An literar and r partici first il Tamil Adich
ᏚᏓ11 ᏙᎾ Green -K.S.Sivakumara
Ambi master', as he is affectionatelyk to ensure that Dr.S.F. Green is honour made in Jaffna to introduce western n and a halfago. I considerit a great pri the Green Commemoration Committe he is chief consultant to design a m suitable text books for teaching Tam children growing up in Australian env
Sydney Tamil Per
Ambi is an award-winning and interr has spent over 15 years in PNG servin not just a poet and educationist; as a with the Bible, he is an amazingly religious personality...... Ambi's inspiration for all leisurely readers, lite scholarly researchers as they have bec -Franzalbert Joku (The Indepe
KaVignar Ambi- a leading poet who given a special award for his continui of Thamizhival, the enrichment of T. pioneering research into the contributic with the Tamil Scholar C.W. Thamoth
-Tamils' Information
Printed by Unie Arts (P
 
 

About the Author
hbihaipahar (Ambi) started his y career as a short story writer noved on to writing poems, ularly for children. He was the h this country to write articles in
on science subjects. Greenin uVadu (Foot steps of Green) is a y of a tradition initiated by
n (The Island, Sri Lanka; 24.3.93)
nown to us, has laboured untiringly ed for the pioneer contribution he nedical science in Tamil a century vilege to be associated with him in e and also in the project for which eaningful curriculum and prepare til as a second language to Tamil ironment.
-Dr.A.S.Kantharajah, President, forming Arts & Literary Academy
lationally renown Tamil Poet who g in the field of education. Ambi is devout Hindu and well acquainted extra-ordinary socio-cultural and Lingering Memories will be an rature enthusiasts as well as serious 'n for me. ndent, PNG, December 6th, 1996)
resides in Papua New Guinea, is ng contribution to the development Lmil culture for over 40 years and ins of Dr.S.F. Green. He is decorated arampillai Memorial Medal. , Toronto, Canada, February 1998.
ISBN 955-81.93-00-3
t) Ltd. Colombo 3.