கவனிக்க: இந்த மின்னூலைத் தனிப்பட்ட வாசிப்பு, உசாத்துணைத் தேவைகளுக்கு மட்டுமே பயன்படுத்தலாம். வேறு பயன்பாடுகளுக்கு ஆசிரியரின்/பதிப்புரிமையாளரின் அனுமதி பெறப்பட வேண்டும்.
இது கூகிள் எழுத்துணரியால் தானியக்கமாக உருவாக்கப்பட்ட கோப்பு. இந்த மின்னூல் மெய்ப்புப் பார்க்கப்படவில்லை.
இந்தப் படைப்பின் நூலகப் பக்கத்தினை பார்வையிட பின்வரும் இணைப்புக்குச் செல்லவும்: Use of Pesticides and Health Hazards in the Plantation sector

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FREDRICH-EB
 

ERT-STIFTUNG
圈

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Use of Pesticides and Health Hazards in the Plantation Sector
FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STFTUNG COLOMBO 1988

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Copyright reserved
ISBN 955 - 607 - OOO-1
Published by: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung 14, Rotunda Gardens Colombo 3
Sri Lanka
Printed by Gunaratne Offset Ltd., 29, Jayantha Weerasekera Mawatha, Colombo 10,

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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PROFILE OF THE AUTHORS
CHEMICALS, MAN AND BIOSPHERE by T KANDASAMY
PESTICIDE USE IN THE FOOD PRODUCTION SECTOR IN SRI LANKA by DR W A T ABEYSEKERA
AGRO-CHEMICALS IN THE PLANTATION SECTOR by U E R GANGODA
POISONING WITH CHEMICALS AND HAZARDS OF PESTICIDES by DHARSHINI PERERA
EFFECTS OF AGRO-CHEMICALS ON HUMAN BODY by DR RAWINDRA FERNANDO
PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN TEA PLANTATIONS by DR P SIWAPALAN
REGULATION OF IMPORT, FORMULATION, SALE AND USE OF PESTICIDES IN SRI LANKA by DR (MRS) NAL.INI DE ALWIS
INWASION OF CHEMICALS INTO THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES by DR S N DES SENEVIRATNE
RESPONSIBILITIES OF ESTATE MEDICAL ASSISTANTS by S S RAJENDRAN
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63
69
89
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F O R. E. W. O. R D
From 17 to 18 July 1987 and from 17 to 19 December 1987, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung in collaboration with the Congress Labour Foundation (CLF) conducted two seminars in Colombo and Nuwara-Eliya/Talawakelle, on "Use of Pesticides and Health Hazards in the Plantation Sector". Besides independent Scientists and Labour Lawyers, representatives of Plantation Workers' Unions, Research Institutes, Government Institutions, Universities, Corporations and Private Companies involved in production, distribution and use of pesticides, also participated in these Seminars to gather necessary information and to exchange views on the subject. One objective of the Seminar was to create an awareness among those people who deal with the production and distribution of pesticides and their use to increase productivity, profits and outputs, that pesticides have negative side effects on human beings and the environment and that a special responsibility is demanded of them. The other objective was to make those people who are concerned with the prevention of occupational accidents and diseases and with the improvement of living and king conditions of the estate workers and their families in conscious of and sensitive to the problems of estate work irs in relation to the use of pesticides and their har* * , , i effects.
a spontaneous outcome of the first seminar an Advisory Committee was established, consisting of Trade Unionists, Scientists and Government Officials, which drafted two brochures on "First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning" and "Safe Use of Pesticides" in all three official languages. They are already printed and distributed among the plantation workers. The Committee is presently engaged on a documentation on "Pesticides in Sri Lanka" which will be published in the near future.

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The Advisory Committee also recommended the publishing of the papers presented at these two Seminars, in order to give those concerned and interested members of the public an opportunity to participate in the results, as well as to encourage them to take part in the discussion. We followed this recommendation and I hope that the present book contributes to the actual discussion about the use of pesticides in Sri Lanka and Third World countries.
The book entitled : "Use of Pesticides and Health Hazards in the Plantation Sector" contains contributions from different authors with diverse professional and occupational backgrounds : Chemists, Biologists, Economists, Agriculturists and Medical Men, both from the public and private sectors. Several papers deal with the general problem of pesticides, some focus on the whole agricultural economy while others concentrate only on the plantation sector.
I wish to thank the authors for their co-operation in contributing towards this publication. Further, I also wish to thank the CLF and its Executive Director, Mr P Devaraj, for the co-operation in organising the Seminars. I am also grateful to Mr T Kandasamy, who did the tedious work of editing, Mrs. E A Thiruppathy, who undertook the necessary proofreading, ... Mr Nizam Deen for supplying the artwork for the various, diagrams and tables and last, but not least, I thank my staff for supporting me in completing this book.
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a te ino inU ebe IT îo grita ianoo , beria f IdF owijo b9d t8"Ib ri birdw , a fs io tłî0 dr19Th mon9vo3 alse" bris "grimoa io9 abio ideel roi biA Jalist" sens verfT . aegsugns II6 i pitto 99T did I fs fİ "asebİ
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GERD BOTTERWECK Colombo, October 1988 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
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PROFILE OF THE AUTHORS
T KANDASAMY B Sc(Cey), M Sc (London), DIC, M Chem. A, FRSC, FI Chem. C, C Chemist, former Government Analyst of Sri Lanka, is presently Consultant to the Sri Lanka Standards Institution, Laboratory Division and to the Environmental Division of the National Building & Research Organisation. He obtained his B Sc from the University of Ceylon, his M. Sc from the University of London and his Diploma Mastership in Chemical Analysis from the Royal Institute of Chemistry in UK. He has served in a number of Inter-Departmental Committees and in the prestigious International Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) of the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC).
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DR W A TERENCE ABEYSEKERA is presently the Head of the Agricultural Resource-Management Division of the Agricultural Research and Training Institute (ARTI), Colombo. He obtained his B Sc (Agric.) from the University of Sri Lanka, his MSc (Agric. Econ.) from the University of British Columbia, Canada, and his Ph D (Agric. Econ.) from the Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA. He has numerous Research publications to his credit and has presented several papers at national and international seminars.
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U E R GANGODA works as a Technical Manager, Research & Development Division (Plant Protection) at Haychem Limited, Colombo. He obtained his B Sc (Agric.) (Hons) from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
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DHARSHINI PERERA is presently working as a Research Officer at the Environmental Division of the National Building Research Organisation in Colombo. She obtained her B Sc (Hons) in Bio Chemistry from the University of New Brunswick, Canada and a Diploma in Water Analysis and Quality at the Loughborough University of Technology in Leicestershire, UK.
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DR RAWINDRA FERNANDO, MD, MRCP (UK), MRC Path. (UK), DMJ (London), is presently the Head of the Department of Forensic Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Colombo and the Head of the National Poisons Information Centre at the General Hospital, Colombo.
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DR P SIWAPALAN is the Director of the Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka (TRI), since 1980. He obtained his B Sc (Cey); and his Ph D from Rutgers The State University of New Brunswick, N J, USA. Apart from this, he underwent additional training in Integrated Pest Management at the University of California, Berkely, USA. In 1985 he got the special Award for Scientific Achievement from his Excellency the President of Sri Lanka. He has also contributed articles on Tea Cultivation to various academic journals.
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DR (MRS) NAL.INI DE ALWIS is presently the Registrar of Pesticides in Sri Lanka. She received her Basic Degree in Sri Lanka and her Postgraduate Degrees of MSc and Ph D from the University of Illinois, USA. She joined the Department of Agriculture in 1958. She is also a Council Member of the Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka (NARESA). In 1985, she as a member of a Team, received an Award for a Concerted Scientific Effort to save the Coconut Industry from an Introduced Pest, Promecotheca cumingii.
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DR S N DE S SENEWIRATNE, obtained his B Sc (Hons.) from the University of Ceylon specialising in Botany, and his Ph. D from the University of London in Plant Virology. He headed the Division of Plant Pathology at the Central Agricultural Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, aS Plant Pathologist from 1969 to 1988 and was also Deputy Director (Research) of the Institute from 1984 to 1985. He is the author of many publications on plant diseases and related aspects and he has presented papers at various international conferences. He has served on several committees including the Pesticide Formulary Committee of the Ministry of Agricultural Development and Research from its inception. He was President of the Agricultural Sciences and Forestry Section of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science in 1975 and is a Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences of Sri Lanka of which he is a Council Member.
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S S RAJENDRAN is presently working as an Estate Medical Officer for the Janatha Estates Development Board (JEDB). He is also a member of the Estate Medical Assistants Association and member of the Estate Staff Congress which is affiliated to the Ceylon Workers Congress (CWC).

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CHEMICALS, MAN AND BIOSPHERE
by
T. Kandasamy
Many of us perhaps think that chemicals are the products of chemica industry, but we do not real i ze that the world i s chemical in nature and that everything we look at has some chemical component. The food we eat consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and minerals; the clothes we wear are made of natural and synthetic fibres. The knowledge on chemical substances is of recent origin, for in the early days the science of nutrition or investigations into the composition of matter were not the interests of man. Chemists learned that before they made new substances they must first discover what ordinary things were made of . This knowledge has led to the production of many chemicals - so many that people are frightened by the sea of chemicals around them.
Today the re are over 6 mi l l i on chemica s and of this number some 6O, OOO are in common use. Each year about 1, OOO new chemicals are brought into the market a though all of them may not be used. The annual trade in chemicals between major producing countries is worth one hundred thousand million USDoll llars. In November 1977 the Chemi cal Abstract Service (CAS) registered 4, O39, 507 distinct chemicals which had been mentioned in the literature since 1965. On 24th February 1983 the CAS registered its six milionth chemical.
Chemicals are considered dangerous material produced and disposed of by the chemical industry causi ng cancer , del eter i ous effects on progeny and environmenta 1 changes. This is not altogether true. Chemicals have in the last few decades dramatically changed many of our activities. They have contributed considerably to increased food production through the proper use of fertilizers and pesticides. They have been used in the food industry for processing and preservation. Many pharmaceutical products, wn i chin are. chemicals, have been manufactured and put into use. These chemicals have changed man's abilities to treat diseases and al so prevent diseases. Many household products and other consumer goods have been introduced which are being

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appreciated and enjoyed by modern society because they have added considerably to the quality of 1 i fe . It will, the refore, be observed that chemicals have both beneficial as well as hazardous aspects and the main factor is proper knowledge of these chemicals and of their uses.
Chemical pollutants are found on the earth's surface, in the seas and in the air. These chemicals find their way to these places from the chemical industry, by the use of fertilizers and pesticides and from day to day usage. Chemical pollutants are of major concern in the Medi terranean regi on . A study was i nitiated at the UN I evel by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) . Meta 1 s, PCBs and other chemica l s are a so found as environmental contaminants. Act 1 v i t i es Such as combustion of fossil fuel for heating, energy production and other i ndustri al act i v i t i es po roduce s i grn i f I cant emi ss i ons of sulphur-dioxide and other sulphur compounds. Combustion and industrial processes are also prime sources of particulate emissions. Vehicles also produce lead and unburnt particles and gases from their exhausts.
Sulphur-dioxide and suspended particulate matter are the most widely monitored air poll utants. National sampling networks exist in many of the industrialized countries. It is known that these air pollutants are transported over many hundreds of kilometres through the atmosphere. It has been shown that emissions from the most industrialized areas of Europe and North Amer i Ca are the S OU TC6e:S of polluted air and preci pitation in areas far di stant from emi ss i on sources. These su pohur and nitrogen compounds cause acid preci pitation normally called "acid rains" and this has led to the acidification of water courses in large areas of Europe and North America. The areas most affected are Canada and Sweden. In Southern Norway 13, OOO sq kilometres have become devoid of fish in recent decades. Studies indicate that the causes of acidification other than by atmospheric means are of little significance.
Chlorof uoro- carbons which are used ES prope l l ant constituents in the manufacture of hair sprays, deodorants and anti perspi rants and in refri gerators have had ser i ous effect on the atmospheric OZOe layer. The WOr 1 c Meteorological Organization (WMO) issued a statement on 26th November 1978 on "Modification of the Ozone Layer due to

Man's Activities." The statement pointed out that the amount of ozone in the atmosphere is determined not only by photochemical reactions between oxygen atoms but also by reactions involving traces of gases such as oxides of nitrogen and Chor i ne - The concentration of these gases i n the stratosphere could be affected by various human activities notably high flying aircraft, the use of chlorofluoromethanes (freon) in aerosol sprays and refrigerators and the use of agricultural fert i l i zers. The statement al so mentioned that the long term steady-state effect of a continued release of chlorofluoromethane into the atmosphere at the 1972 level would reduce' on the average the ozone level by 1 O percent. A 1 O percent reduction in ozone would result in a 20 percent increase in the Ultra-violet radiation reaching the earth's surface. These studies brought in legislation in many countri es with regard to the use of chlorof uorocarbons. One such legislation is worth noting. Under the Pol ! ut i on Act 197C, the Minister of Public Health and Environmental Protection, Nether lands published a decree on October 3O 1978 to limit the use of chlorofluorocarbon. The de Cree forbids any one to have avai labil e for sal e, sel l , del i ver or adverti se spray cans containing di chlorofluoro-methane or tr i chlorofluoromethane without a warning label which in effect is as follows:
"WARNING: - Contains a ch lorofluoromethane which
may be harmful to the environment and human health by di minishi ng the ozone in the stratosphere" .
This decree does not apply to spray cans produced for export and for certain pharmaceutical purposes.
A number of scientific assessments have been made the most recent of which is by the UNEP Co-ordi nati ng Committee on the ozone layer duri ng the meeti ng held in Geneva in 1983. jhe Committee stated that the ozone layer can be affected by a number of man-made and natura il processes 1 n a comp l ex manner . At the present level of release of chlorofluoromethane there would be a reduction of total ozone layer column by about 3 - 5 percent compared to the 5 - 10 percent estimated earlier. By taking a note for the need to reduce the emission of chlorofluoromethane where practicable in the sectors of refrigerators, foam plasters and solvents the Committee prepared an action programme.

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It has been said that the increased carbon-dioxide content of the atmosphere due to the mismanagement of the environment by mankind, is likely to increase the earth's temperature over the years. Studies are now being carried out.
There are about 80 metals found generally on earth. Most of these metals are found only in trace amounts in the bi osphere and in bi ol og i cal mater i al . Iron and Al um in i um, which find extensive applications in industry and daily life, are perhaps the major components of the earth's crust. The ecological consequences of the dispersion of these two elements in the environment have not posed any serious health problems. There are at least some twenty metals which do give rise to well recognized toxic effects in man. These elements include arsen i c , anti mony, cadmi um, lead and mercury which have been subjected to extensive studies due to reported cases of poisoning. Prescribing limits for arsenic in foods was recommended by the Royal Commission on Arsenic in 19 O3. In 19 OO there was a serious outbreak of arsen i Cal poisoning in Lancashire and Staffordshire due to beer made with glucose contaminated with arsenic. The total number of Cases was estimated at over 6, OOO and at least 70 persons di ed. The poi soning by mercury compounds is known as Minamata di sease where people of the area ate fish containing methylmercury, the compound was formed by the discharge of mercury residues to the lake. Then there is the recent outbreak of Ita i - Ita i di sease in Japan following the consumption of rice containing high levels of cadmium. The presence of lead in the environment has led to a number of cases of poisoning. In this country too there have been a number of such cases.
The changes in the flavour and quality of foods due to mould growth have long been recognized. Some of these changes are des i rable in that a pleas i ng flavour is imparted to the food as in certa in var i et i es of cheese . In most cases , mou l d Causes un wante d changes | r foods producing un pleasant flavours and odours. These moulds produce toxins known as mycotoxins which have been identified as chemicals and some of these toxins have been synthesized. Ergot poisoning from eati ng cereal grain part 1 cu larly rye infected with the parasitic fungus Clar iceps Purpurea has occurred over the

centuries causing suffering and death to many people. The main components of ergot respons i bol e for ergot i sm di seases were identified as alkaloids in 1975. Incidentally these al kaloids are useful in medici ne and pure compounds have been manufactured and used for several years. A combination of circumstances in the early 196O’s changed the attitude towards moulds in food and feed grains. The reason for this change was the outbreak of turkey disease in England which resulted in the death of thousands of young turkeys. The disease was traced to a mouldy peanut cake in the ration. The mould respons i bol e for this di sease WES identi fi ed aS Aspergillus Flavous. The toxic metabolites were isolated and identified as chemical compounds, aflatoxins B1, B2, G2 and G1. Acute toxicity is rare in the case of humans. However, there has been a recent epidemic of fatal hepat it is in Several tribal villages in the States of Gujer at and Rajasthan in Western India in the Autumn of 1974 due to eating of maize, (a principal item in the diet) heavily contaminated with aflatoxins ranging in concentration from O. 25 to 15.6 mg/kg (mean 6. O mg/kg). Nearly 4OO people were affected with a mortality rate of 20 percent. Aflatoxin contami nati on can occur in the grow i ng , harvesting, storage and processing of an agricultural commodity particularly Ce reals and pul Ses. The mou l d nas been traditi ona i 1 у considered to be a storage mould. There are high risk commodities such as peanuts and maize.
Chemicals, toxic metals and chemicals produced by moulds found in the environment can contaminate food and cause health hazards. There are in a similar manner, a large number of other chemical s 1 i ke ferti l i zers and pest in ci des that can also cause health hazards to man and animals. In the case of contaminants in food the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Word Health Organization (WHO) have shown concern. National Governments have fixed maximum limits for the presence of chemicals. The FAO/WHO had started a joint programme in 1976 known as the "Joint FAO/WHO Food and Animal Feed Contami nation Monitori ng Programme" to implement a recommendation of the UN Conference on the Human Environment. Many countries, particularly the United Kingdom and United States of America have carried out national surveys for the presence of pesticides and metals in food. The Key feature of the Joint Programme by the FAO/WHO is the co-operation of established national contami nation monitori ng programmes. A

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Joint FAO/WHO Programme in the monitoring of contaminants in food was started in this region in 198O and the final report was presented at the terminal meeting in Nepal in 1984. The countries that participated in the programme were Nepal, Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka and the contaminants examined were pest icides, heavy metals and aflatoxins.
Chemicals are extensively used in agriculture and food. The chemical s used in agriculture are mainly fert i l i zers and pest ici des. Most food additives are chemicals, which fall into the following classes or uses. They are used mainly as preservatives, colouri ng , antioxidants, emulsi fiers, stabilizers, flavours and artificial sweetening agents. There are other uses such as anticaking agents, acidulants and buffering agents. The uses of these chemicals are stimulated by need to ( 1) maintain the physica and nutritional quality of food duri ng sh i poment , storage and di stributi on and ( 2) make foods more attractive, more nutritive or otherwise more desirable. The long term effects of these chemicals may not be known and their use may create complex problems. There is bound to be concern about the safety of many of these chemicals, particularly about chronic toxicity, carcinogeni city, mutagen i city, and so on. Most countries exercise a control over the use of these additives. To exercise control, a knowledge of the properti es of these chemi cal s , i . e. the safe limit, and the toxicity should be known. The Chemicals have to be evaluated. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) is composed of experts who serve in their personal capacity. The Expert Committee evaluates food additives on the basis of a 1 scientific data and where appropriate establishes 'acceptable daily intake' and the specification of identity or purity for the additive. The conclusions of the experts are published in reports and tox i co og i ca summar i es by WHO as the "WHO Techni cal Report Series" and the "WHO Food Additives Series" respectively. Specifications of identity and purity for food additives are also published by FAO as "FAO Food and Nutrition Series". There are several special îized laborator i es particul arly in developed countries which carry out toxicity testing. The legis lat i ve aspect would be on the basis of avai abol e data .

The importance of know i ng the properti es of a chemi cal cannot be over emphasized. There is always new data available on continuing research. Let us take the case of DDT. This chemical was known as early as 1874. Although it was synthesized in 1874 its effectiveness as an insectic 1 de was not observed until 1939 when it was also realized that the chemical could be synthesized from cheap raw materials. Because of limited supplies, most of the DDT produced in the world at that time was for protection of military areas and personnel , mainly against mal ar i a , typhus and certa in other Vector borne di seases . It is Sa i d that Soon after the liberation of Naples in January 1944 an epidemic of typhus broke out, but this was stopped in three weeks because during that time 1 , 3OO, OOO c i vi i ans were dusted with DDT powder, thus kill ing their body lice, which carry the virus. The value of DDT was so recognized that in 1944, 4366 tonnes DDT were produced in the USA. On 31. August 1945 DDT was released for commercial sale and the production reached 15079 tonnes. The production reached 35771 tonnes in 1959 and from then on there was a decline in the production. The reason for this decline was due to ecological considerations. Scientists in Michigan in the late 1950's were seeking an explanation for the decline in the local population of certain bird species. They found sky blue robins eggs lying in a nest, outwardly qui te normal - yet un hatched. It was found that res i dues of DDT sprayed on the trees concentrated in the bodies of earth worms eaten by the parent robins had doomed these eggs. Serious research work began in UK, USA and other Countries on DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. From bits of evidence in the late 195O” s came the di sturbi ng discovery that modern wonder chemicals such as DDT were not unmi Xed bless i ngs ; care less S82 Cou , d C8し』S● a major destruction of 1 i v 1 ng species. Today many of the developed count r i es have restr i cited or banned the use of DDT except when it is needed for the protection of health. The lesson learned from this incident has made countries aware of the use of pesticides which have been evaluated.
Let us examine now how the necessary information about a chemical could be obtained by an individual, institut 1 on or an industry. There are so many chemicals in use and research data are ava i l a bol e in se veral institut i ons, that to obtain the information there must be a central unit. There are data banks in more developed countries. But to obtain data may

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cost so much that a smaller institution may not be able to make use of the fac i l i ty. The i dea of a centra un it a rose out of a UN Conference in 1968. In 1968, Sweden, a neutral country with advanced industry and a long coast line on the dangerously po luted Baltic Sea, proposed a world Conference of governments under the auspices of the UN to discuss problems of the human environment. This conference finally took place in Stockholm in June 1972. At this 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, Recommendation 74e urged the Secretary General of the United Nations drawing on the resources of the enti re UN System and with the active Support of governments and appropriate scientific and other international bodies to "devel op plans for an International Registry of Data on chemicals in the environment based on a col lecti on of avai il ab e scientific data, on the environmental behav i our of the most important man-made chemi cal s " .
In 1974 the newly formed UN Environment Programme (UNEP) took on the task of establishing a chemicals register, to be based on a national information system and designed to ensure that hard data on the environmental and health effects of Chemicas Was made aVa abole.
In 1975 UNEP convened two meetings of government experts - first in January at Bill thoven in the Netherlands and the second in Nairobi in July. The purpose of these meetings was to estab 1 i sh gu i del i nes for the operat i on of the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC).
The UNEP Govern ing Counci 1 agreed that the reg i ster wou l d have four main objectives:
1. To make the data on chemicals readily available to those
who need it.
2. To locate and draw attention to the major gaps in the available information and encourage research to fill those gap S.
3. To identify the potential hazards of using chemicals and
making people aware of them.
4. To assemble information on existing policies for control and regull at i ons of hazardous chemi cal s at national , regional and global levels.

The Central Unit was set up in 1976 in Geneva and it was called the Programme Activity Centre of the IRPTC. It had two major objects (1) to collect, store and disseminate data on chemicals and (2) to operate a global network for information exchange. Participants outside the Central Unit are call ed Network partners. IRPTC's Network partners are National Correspondents of each country, National and International Institutions, Industries and External Contractors. Today almost every country has a National Correspondent. The National Correspondent for Sri Lanka is the Government Analyst. In additi on the IRPTC proposed a National Regi śster of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (NRPTC) and a few countries were selected for this purpose, Sri Lanka and Malaysia were the two countries in the region. The NRPTC was to collect available data on chemicals in the country and be able to carry out functions of the IRPTC in the country and the regi on. The NRPTC in this country i s with the Central Environmental Authority ( CEA ) .
Within the UNEP, the IRPTC works closely with INFOTERRA, Env i ronmerta Informat i orn Network, The Task For Ce ΟΥ Research, Evaluation and Review, the Environmental Law Unit, The Task Force on Pol Il uti on and Human Health and the Regional Seas Programme.
Some of the International Bodies which are contributi ng partners to the IRPTC Network and with which the IRPTC works closely are the Environmental Chemical Data and Information Network (ECDIN) of the European Communities, the Internationa Group of National Associati on of Manufacturers of AgroChemicals Products ( GI FAP ) , the Chemical Group of the Organisation for Economi C Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Several UN Bodies and Agencies such as WHO, FAO, ILO have programmes to which the work of the IRPTC has di rect rel evance .
The IRPTC prepares DATA Profiles for chemicals. The register includes Attributes which will serve to identify a chemical Substance, to describe i ts ponys i ca l and Chemi Ca characteristics, to est i mate its avai ab i l i ty to the environment , to present biologi cal effects on man and the environment which have been important for hazard evaluation, to

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O
identify methods to be used in dealing with hazardous spills, to offer therapeutic measures for intoxication from the chemicals and to present control regulations for the chemicals. Actually the structure of the Data Profile is very important (See Page 11). Only when information is carefully organized can it be quickly retrieved. The IRPTC continue to monitor sources of new information with which to update and revi se the fi les ... Having said al li these about the Centra1 Information Unit from where DATA is to be obtained, how do the institutes or industri es get the information? The National Correspondent is the person to whom the query has to be submitted. The National Correspondent will send it to the IRPTC who will comply with the request.
The National Correspondent who is one of the main network partners has an important function in the Query-Response System. He maintains an up-to-date list of interested research institutions, industri es and government personnel 1 i kely to benefit. The National Correspondent col lects necessary data for his file as that in the Query-Response system. He may in the first instance be able to give an answer. Most IRPTC information materials are distributed free which is a great asset to in Stitutions in devel op ing Countries which cannot pay high fees to other data banks, Currently the RPTC requests payment for tine 1 arger publications and this is generally a small sum. The number of quer i es rece i ved by IRPTC up to 198O was less than 1OO each year but after 1983 it has gone up to over 500 a year.
There are two other organizations – the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the International Programme on Chemical Safety which contribute to the knowledge on chemicals. In 1971 (IARC) initiated a programme on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to human beings with the object of producing monographs on individual chemi cal s. With the sc i ent if i c col laborati on and financı al support of the US National Cancer Institute, IARC had in 1981 produced 25 volumes of monographs on about 532 chemicals.
Man i s, the refore, surrounded by chemica) s and he i s gathering daily more and more knowledge about the properties of the se chemical s. With this knowledge he can use these
chemicals for his betterment, in a judicious manner.

IR PTC DATA PROFILE
The chain of action taken can be shown as follows:
REGSTER OUERY
IDENTIFY CHEMICAL
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12
PESTCDE USE IN THE FOOD PRODUCTION SECTOR IN SRI LANKA
by
Dr. W. A.T. Abeysekera
1. Pesticide use in Agriculture; Boon or Bane
The use of synthetic chemica substances, primari 1 y in the form of pesticides, ferti lizer and other growth regulatory substances appears to have become a virtually indispensable means of increasing crop productivity in most of our present day agricultural systems. Intensive use of these chemicals first began in the western economies and was later introduced into the agricultural production scenario in the devel oping countries. In Sri Lanka, the use of such chemicals for increased crop production was first associated with the plantation sector. However, the intensive use of chemicals as a means of expanding domestic food production began around 196O.
At present, the most intens i ve use of agro-chemica 1 per unit of land is seen in isolated instances where potatoes and exotic vegetables and some cash crops are grown. However, within the food sector, the crop showing the largest use of agro-chemicals seems to be paddy. This is mainly because this crop is grown in an area of about 1.3 million acres by about 8 million farmers scattered in different parts of the country.
Most of the pesticides currently used are chemical substances highly effective even in trace proportions. Their efficacy depends primarily on the ability to disrupt or irreversibly change essential metabolic functions of plant and animal tissues. Because of this characteristic, any indiscriminate use of pesticides would lead to major unintended problems in human or animal populations as well as in the environment in which they live.
The use of pesticides in the food crop sector appears to have grown by leaps and bounds over the last 2 or 3 decades. This growth of pesticide use has been closely associated with productivity growth in the food sector. However, it is also

13
seen that increased pesti cide use has led to un favourable consequences both on the farmers who use such chemicals to boost production, and also the consumers of these food products at the end of the marketing, chain. Similar negative consequences have also been identified with respect to environmental conditions.
A literature survey suggests that the term "pesticides" is rather loosely used to represent a wide range of agricultural chemica s used for contro 1 1 ing or e radicati ng pests and di seases. In a strict sense, however, "pest icides" are substances, either natura l or synthetic, used to control pests. In order to be consistent with the general usage, the term is used in its broader sense. Depending on the Specific use, pesticides could be further classified as weedicides, insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, acaricides and so on.
2. Objectives and Scope of the Paper
The primary intention of this paper is to examine the current status of pesticide use in the local food production sector, basically with a view to providing information that would highlight significant problems and trends.
3. Pesticides as an Aid to Increasing Domestic Food Output
Although, Sri Lanka has yet td achieve its much cherished goal of food self-sufficiency, during the last two or three decades, the country has achieved a substantial progress in terms of increasing local production. Such developments are more evident in the case of paddy as a result of the heavy government patronage given to this crop. The paddy output has doubled over the last two decades and the production has maintained an annual acreage growth rate of a little over two percent. This output growth is a result of the expansion of area cultivated along with the increase in productivity (or yi el dis per acre) . An examination of the productivity growth in this sector shows that the yields have almost doubled in the past two decades. At present, the average nati onal y T e l d duri ng Maha season is around 3. 6 tons per hectare compared to the average of about 2. O tons per hectare obtained in the mid sixties (Table 3.1 ).

Page 15
14
Although not as impressive as that of paddy, many other seasonal food crops such as chillies, Onions, potatoes, and up-country vegetab es have shown substanti al increases in their yields per acre during the past two or three decades. In a most all these instances, the present y i el ds are significantly higher than actual farm yields a couple of decades ago.
A fundamental 千actOr that has 1 ed to the observed productivity gains in the if OOC crop Sector, is the introduction of new improved Crop var i et i es that are rel at i vel y more respons i ve to fert i l i zer and other inputs. This change has been initiated by plant-breeders whose endeavours in manipulating genetic mechanisms has led to the present day seed-fert i l i zer reVO | LIt On . ResponSeS td increased levels of Nitrogen is a key feature in almost all the se new var i et i es po roduced du r i ng th i s per i od . As a concomittant to these high levels of Nitrogen and other plant nutrients, the Crops also required higher levels Cof pest i c i da app 1 i Cat i ons . Thus , agro- chemi cał s have become a crucial, complementary input in modern agriculture.

5
Table 3.1
CHANGES IN AVERAGE YELD OF PADDY (1960-1986)
Year Maha Season Yala.Season Annual
(MT/HA) (MT/HA) (MT/HA)
1960/61 1.9 1.9 1.8 61/62 1.9 1.9 1.9 62/63 2.0 2.0 1.9 63/64 2.0 2.1 2.0 64/65 18 1.8 1.7 65/66 1.9 1.8 1.8 66/67 2.1 2.2 2.1 67/68 2.5 2.3 2.4 68/69 2.7 2.5 2.5 69/70 2.7 2.6 2.6 70/71 2.3 2.5 2.3 71/72 2.5 2.3 2.4 72/73 2.4 2.2 2.3 73/74 2.5 2.2 2.3 74/75 2.4 2.1 2.2 75/76 2.4 2.1 2.2 76/77 2.7 2.1 2.3 77/78 2.7 2.6 2.7 78/79 2.8 2.6 2.7 79/80 3.0 2.9 2.9 80/81 3.0 3.0 2.9 81/82 3.2 3.4 3.2 82/83 3.7 3.7 3.5 83/84 3.O 3.1 3.1 84/85 3.5 3.3 3.4 85/86 3.6 3.3 3.5
|-
Source: Department of Census and Statistics.

Page 16
6
4. Major types of Pesticides used in the Food Crop Production
Currently, a wide range of pesticides are being made available to farmers by pesticides manufacturing concerns. Depending on the functional activity, pesticides can be classified into a number of sub-categories. These categories involve those such as insecticides, weedicides, fungicides. A brief description of these categories follow:
Insecticides:
Perhaps one of the most commonly used pesticides in agricultural activiti es relates to insectic i des . These insecticides are used to control an extremely diverse range of insect pests of food crops. Some of which are leaf-eating cater p i 1 i ars, leaf-sucking aphids and thrips, leaf-miners, stem-borers, root-eating caterpi l 1 ars and fruit-piercing insects. In the early part of the century, simple inorganic compounds such as arsenic and four ide compounds were used as insecticides. However, with the development of research on pesticides, a wi de range of insecticides are now made available. Most of these are complex chemical compounds such as:
(a) Organochlorine compounds
(b) Organophosphorous compounds
(c) Carbamates
( d ) Pyrethroids
Among these, some compounds such as Pyrethroids are extremely lethal, the nature of which is generally indicated in terms of LD 5O values. The LD 5O value of common pesticides is given in Table 4 - 1.
Fungicides:
Another common problem in most food crops relates to fungal attacks. Fungicides are commonly used in vegetable as well as in rice cultivation. Fungici des can be main ly categorized into i norganic chemical compounds and organic compounds. At present, most of the fungicides are organic compounds, and some of them are toxic to humans.

Weedici des :
These compounds are most commonly used in rice cultivation and on perennial food crops such as sugar-cane. The yields of modern crop varieties are extremely sensitive to competition by weeds and eradicating these has therefore, become a crucial task. There are two main types of weedici des; (a) tota weedicides and (b) Selective weedicides. Total Weed-killers are capable of Killing almost any plant (e.g. paraquat and arsenic compounds) and must therefore, be used only under special circumstances. Selective weed-killers such as MCPA and 2. 3 D are on the other hand, parti cul arly. helpful | r Seasonal crop production.
In addition to the above three categories of pesticides, there are a number of other types of agricultural pest ici des . Among them, are fumigants that control insects and micro-organisms in nur ser i es and grain stores. Chemicals belonging to this group are those such as Methyl Bromide. Acaricides form another group of pest ici des that are used in crop production. These are used to control organisms such as mites and mostly involve sulphur and other compounds such as Bisdithiocarbamates. Nematicides are effective in controlling nematode pests, and the types of chemicals used for this purpose are methyl bromide, ethylene di bromi de and chloropic rin . Another type of pesticides frequently used in agricultural production are the molluscicides. This group of chemicals is used for controlling snais and sugs.

Page 17
Table 4.1
18
SOME AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES AND THEIR RELATIVE TOXICITES
Pesticide Groυρ Common Use LD50 value
per kg. Body weight (in mg.)*
insecticides
Endrin Organochlorine 1 7 مسس Carburan Carbamate ar 8 - 14 Parathion Organophosphorous All crops 2 - 10 Monocrotophos Organophosphorous A seasonal crops 2O Methomyle Carbamate 2
Aldrin Organochlorine *aa 50 Fenetrothion Organophosphorous Paddy & field crops 250 - 750 Fenthion Organophosphorous Field crops and
vegetables 250 Chlordane Organochlorine Tea 400 Diazinon Organophosphorous Paddy 600 Permethrin Pyrethroids Onions 4OOO
Fungicides
Cerasan inorganic Seed Paddy 50 - 200 Mercury Oxide Inorganic Seed Potato and
Seed Paddy 30 - 200 Zineb Organic Vegetables 52OO Captain Organic Vegetables 9000 Manvozeb Organic Vegetables 78,000
1. Some of these pesticides have already been banned in Sri Lanka.
2. Toxicity is usually determined on the basis of the effect on test animals
and is measured in terms of LD50 value. This is the dose which results in the death of 50% of the test animal population. It is expressed in mg.
per kg. of body weight of the animal.

5 . Natura Pest i C i des
Among plant species, there are many that can be used as effective pesticides, In fact, in the earlier stages of deve 1 opment of pesti ci des for commerci al purposes, much reliance had been placed on these natural substances. Two common examples Cof which are Nicot i ne and Pyrethrum. Nicotine is extracted from the tobacco plant, and is effective for controlling thrips and aphids. It is highly vol at i l e and hence, could even be used as a fumi gant . Pyrethrum is a substance extracted from the flower of Chrysanthemum cinara rifolium. Pyre thrum has been widely used as an insecticide in agriculture, prior to the introduction of modern chemicals.
Unfortunately, with the advent of modern chemica s, the use of natural pest i ci des has gradual 1 y di sappeared. However, research in Sri Lanka has shown that there is a wide range of plant sources that can be effectively utilized for extracting insectici des. One such potenti al source is the Azadi recta indica ( Kohomba). The leaves and fruits of this plant have been shown to contain a substance Azadi retin which has important insecticidal properties.
6. Changes in Production Technology in the Domestic Food Crop
Sector and Pesticide Use
A significant trend that is discernible in Sri Lanka's domestic food crop sector is the increasing dependence on pesticide use during the past two or three decades. In the early half of the present century, the use of pesticides was limited mainly to the plantation crop sector.
The use of pesticides in the domestic food crop sector on a substantial scale began only in the 1960s. The change is primarily the result of the increasing adoption of improved rice var i et i es by farmers duri ng this per i od . At present, almost 90% of the total paddy acreage is under high yielding varieties. Similarly, the bulk of the crops grown today represent some form of improved germplasm. (Table 6.1).

Page 18
20
Table 6.1
DISTRIBUTION OFPADDY VARIETIES IN SRI LANKA, CLASSIFIED BY AGE GROUP AND SEASON
Extent cultivated as a % of total
Age Group Variety Yala (%) Maha (%) Annual (%)
1985 85/86
a) New improved Varieties
3 Months BG 34 - 8 22.4 14.7 18.6 BG 276 - 5 12.6 9.0 10.8 BG 272 - 60 3.O 11 2.1
3% Months BG 94 - 1 28.7 23.3 26.O BG 34 - 6 7.2 8.7 8.O BG 94 - 2 0.2 0.4 O.3
4-4%. MonthS BG 400 - 1 9.6 17 O. 13.3 BG 379 - 2 5.1 5.3 5.2 BG 1 1 — 1 1 14 6.9 4.2 BG 38 - 0 17 1.1 14 BG 90 - 2 O.8 0.4 O.6
b) Old Improved Varieties
H4 2.1 6.3 4.2
c) Others (mainly traditional varieties) 5.2 5.8 5.3
ALL : 1OOO 100.0 1 OOOO
Source: Jayawardena, S.D.G. . . . . (et al.)
'A Total Concept of Rice Research and Development through Gene Base and Varietal Spread Pattern Analysis.' (Unpublished mimeo, Department of Agriculture, 1987)

From the 1960s onwards, remarkable changes have taken place in Sri Lanka's paddy sector and most of these changes have favoured the increased use of pesticides. Prior to the introduction of high y i el ding var ieties (HYVs ) , the enti re extent of paddy grown in Sri Lanka was represented by about 1 5O different indi genous var i et i es. These var ieties were 1 ow yielding, i . e not more than 20-25 bushes per acre at the most, but generally showed a high degree of resistance to pest and di seases. The first hybrid variety, H4 , ( categorized as belongi ng to the old high y i el ding var i et i es or OHYWs) was released for cultivation in 1959.
As a consequence of its relative high yielding ab i 1 ity, coupled with a reasonably high adaptability to a wide range of environmental conditions, the adoption of H4 variety was rather quick. Within a period of about 5 years or so, it occupied almost half the extent cultivated under paddy. H4 , unil i ke the earl i er indi genous var i et i es responded to fertilizer as well as pesticides.
However, the most important breakthrough in rice production, came in the mid 196Os with the introduction of new high yi el cing dwarf varieti es of rice as a part of the "Green Revo, ut i on " . The fi rst two var i et i es to be introduced represented the IR 8 (bred in Philippines) and TN 1 (from Taiwan ) . Both these var i eties were high y i el di ng and farmers obtained yields as high as OO bushes per acre, which was almost 2-3 times their normal yields. Unfortunately, these two varieties required extremely heavy doses of agrochemicals, both in terms of pesticides and fertilizers.
Subsequently, in the early 197Os, Sri Lanka released its first dwarf variety of rice, BG 11 - 11, with a high yield potential. Since then, remarkable achievements have been made in rice production technology, and underlying this "SeedFertilizer - Pesticide Revolution" are the gains made with respect to yields (Table 6. 2). With this growth in yields, as a complementary input, an al most paral i el growth has taken place in the case of pesti cide use.

Page 19
Table 6.2
GAINS IN YIELD POTENTIAL (RECORDED HIGHEST YIELDS) IN SRI LANKA'S PADDY SECTOR - 195O - 198O (TONS/HECTARE)
1950s 196Os 197Os 1980s
6 months 2.57 6, 18 6.8 7. 73 4 1/2 months 2.57 5.15 1 Ο - 31 1 Ο , 31 3 1/2 months 4. 12 1 Ο 31 1 Ο 31 3 months 3. O9. 7. 22 2 1/2 months 3.86
Source : Jayawardena , S. D. G. . . . ( et a . )
"A Total Concept of Rice Research and Development through Gene Base and Var i eta Spread Pattern Analysis. " (Unpubl i shed mi meo, Department of Agri culture, 1987 )
As seen from Table 6. 2, Sri Lanka's productivity in the paddy sector has made substantial advances between the 1950s and 197Os. During this period the maximum yields that were obtainable had reached almost 1 O tons per hectare. This change has been bas i cal Il y possible due to appl i cation of agro- chemi cal s.
7. Growth Pattern of Pesticide Use in the Food Crop Sector
As ment i oned earl i er , the intensive USe of chemica substances in the domestic food crop sector began as a comp i ementary input to the nigh y i el di ng r i ce var i et i es in the mi d 196Os. Farm leve | data suggest that si nce then , the use of pesticides has shown considerable increases. However, as a result of foreign exchange difficulties the country faced around mi di 197 Os, relat i ve 1 y low leve l s of pest i ci des have been imported. During this period, most rice growing areas of the country showed an acute shortage in the avai labi ity of chemicals and this situation led to a substant i al reduction of the per acre use of chem cal s.

The rate of use of agricultural pesticide at the national level in late 197O, however, showed a significant increase. This is basi cally due to the result of the liberalized economic policies of the government pursued since 1977. Unlike in the previous periods, at present, the farmers have easy access to a wide range of agro- chemicals to choose from depending on their needs. In addition to liberalized import policies aggressive sa les promotional campaigns, have also made the pesticide trade one of the most competitive.
As a result of this growth in pesticide use, a substantial amount of foreign exchange is now spent on importing these substances. In fact, with in the peri od 197O-79, the expenditure on imports has been estimated to have grown twenty times. (Economic Review, Jan. 1983). It was also estimated that in 1985, there were about 110 pest ici des in about 2OO formul at i OrmS .
The popular adoption of pest ici des bears significant consequences on the farm level costs and returns. The influence of the widespread use of chemicals on paddy agriculture can be seen from Table 7. 1.
This shows that the cost of puchasing weedici des and pesticides taken together, is in the range of Rs. 40O per acre in the case of major paddy growing areas such as Ampara and Batti Caloa. In Such situations, pest i C1 des and weed i Cides account for about 1 O% of the total cost of purchased inputs. However, if abour is also taken into account, the practice of pesticide application accounts for little over 1O% of a farmer's cash costs.

Page 20
Table 7.1
24
COST OF CULTIVATION OF PADDY IN THREE SELECTED
DISTRICTS (MAHA – 1985/86)
Ampara Anuradhapura Kandy
Irrigated, Rain fed || Irrigated Rain fed | irrigated Rain fed (RS/AC) (RS/AC) (RS/AC) (RS/Ac) (RS/AC) (RS/AC)
Total cash costs
(RS/AC) 3144 3O43 2605 1953 2099 2O32
% (100) (100) (100) (100) (1OO) (100)
Cost of fertilizer
(RS/AC) 516 447 447 398 536 533
% (16.4) (14.6) (17.1) (2O.3) (25.5) (26.2)
Weedicides
(RS/AC) 2O6 168 92 o VM
% (6.5) (5.5) (3,5) D ...................
Pesticides
(RS/AC) 195 241 1O6 63 90 101
% (6.2) (7.9) (4.0) (2.2) (4.2) (4.9)
Source : Agricultural Economics Study No. 41, Department of Agriculture.
Among cash CropS Such as potatoes, onions and chillies, also the cost of pesticide use is significant. The highest Cost per acre is seen in potato with
about Rs. 3268 per acre (Table 7.2).

25
Table 7.2
COST OF CULTIVATION PER ACRE OF POTATOES, ONIONS AND CHILLIES (MAHA 1985/1986)
Potatoes Onions Chillies
(Nuwara Eliya -- Puttalam — || (Anuradhapura ACTIVITY irrigated) irrigated) — irrigated)
Amount % Amount % Amount % (Rs/Ac) (RS/Ac) (RS/AC)
1. Land preparation
(including planting) 19,285 54.0 13,195 45.9 1,554 30.7
2. Fertilizer
application 8,813 24.7 4,695. 16.3 778 15.4
3. Pest and Disease
Contro
i. Material 1908 462 3O6
ii. Labour 1297 101 80
Sub-Total - 3,205 9.0 563 2.0 386 7.6
4. After care
purposes 3,268 9.2 5,969 20.7 1,405 27.7
5. Harvesting and
transport produce to stores (inclusive of all the post harvest operations). 1,115 3.1 4,358 15.1 944 18.6
T Ο TA L - 35,686 100.028,780 100.0 5,067 100.0
Source : Agricultural Economics Study No. 41, Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya.

Page 21
26
8. Farmer behaviour underlying pesticide Use
With a view to identifying the behaviour of farmers in respect of chemicals, a detailed survey was undertaken in Mahagastota in the Nuwara E i ya District in 1986. The sample covered about 4O farmers who were involved in Vegetable cultivation. The survey surfaced a number of interesting insights which could be summarized as follows:
The information showed that inspite of noti ceable instances of pest attacks and di seases, 4O% of the f armers nave continued to apply pest ici des to their fields. nesa applications have been made sol el y as protective appl i cations rather than as curat i ve measures.
Range of pesti ci des used: The investigations showed that farmers used an extremely wide range of insecticides and pest ici des for rais ing their crops. The types of chemicals used in this instance are as follows:
Table 8. 1
PESTICIDES USED BY VEGETABLE FARMERS IN
MAHAGASTOTA, NUWARA ELIYA.
ra Cde Name of Farners
In seCt i C des
Tamaron 48 MOi tor 28 Ambush 2O Ci di al 1 Ο Others 6
Fungi Ci de 8
Po iyram 38 Dacarn i 13 Antraco 7 Di thane 8 Redomy ) 5 Sulphur 5 Van dozed 3
Source : Farm Survey , 1986/87 Maha Season

Frequency of applications: Weather conditions, specifically rain appears to be the major determinant of the time of: application of pest icides. Wet Weather generally favours the mu t i p l i cation of pe StS and di seases and Lrcer“ such conditions chemicals are applied once in 3 or 4 days. In general , the frequency of application i s greater duri ng the early phases of vegetable crops.
For safety reasons, a minimum of a 7 day interval between applications is usually recommended. However, farmers often a popol y chem i cal s at much more frequent i ntervals. The frequency of applications are important from a cost point of view (Table 8. 2).
ab e 8 . 2
AVERAGE TIME INTERVAL BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE APPLICATIONS OF PESTCOES BY VEGETABLE FARMERS IN MAHAGASTOTA, NUWARA ELIYA.
% of farmers applying with Type of chemical
3-6 day 6-7 day 8-14 day . 2-3 week
inter val interval interva i nterval
Insecticides 12 48 15 25 Pest ici des 28 52 1 O 8
Source: Farm Survey, 1986/87 Maha Season
Application dosages: In general, farmers tend to use doses higher than what is usually recommended. The majority of farmers seems to be under the impress on that the recommended dosage i s inadeguate for effective pest contro - A nigner concentration that w result in instantaneous eradication of pests seems to be the preference.
It is a 1 so poss 1 b e tinat with the constant use of chemica i s | rh 1tr i S area, insects and other po at nogens wou d have developed some eve of resistance to the pest icides used. Furthermore, it was also observed that farmers do not adhere to accurate mea Su rement. S to a Chieve te res COmmerne C di 1 ut 1 ons . Often , they use imporov in sed measures such as match boxes or the ids of the pest. C st des bott les . &

Page 22
28
Whatever the reaSO gt Vern , the concentration of the pesti ci de solutions appli ed is often significanty nigner than recommended. In some cases, farmers used about four t i mes the recommendati on (Tabl e 8 - 3 ) .
Table 8.3
CONCENTRATION OF THE PESTICIDES PREPARATION USED FOR
SPRAYING VEGETABLE CROPS, MAHAGASTOTA, NUWARA ELIYA
As of farmers using
Type of Pest ici des Recommended Twice Thri Ce Four times
or less recore reco- tre recom-.
mended mended mendation Tamaron 35 43 4 7 Mon itor 23 38 2 Poly ram a- 46 46 26 Vando Zeb 66 1 a
Source: Farm Survey, 1986/87 Maha Season
Method of application: The most common method of application of pesticides is in the form of solution. Often, farmers use
a mixture of two or more chemicals with a view to saving on
abour. Such mixing was more common in the case of
fungicides. Furthermore, it was also observed that the use of
liquid fertilizer is on the increase. Instances of farmers
mixi ng the pest i c i des with the 1 i quid fert i 1 i zer were al so. seen. It is most likely that the use of such mixtures would
lead to unexpected interactions in the activity or the
toxicity of the chemicals used.
Adherence to safety measures: In general, it was observed that most of the farmers in the area used no special protective clothing or any other measures when apply 1 ng chemicals. The impression gained from the field interviews was that many of them have developed a less rigorous attitude towards the use of proper Safety measures. Perhaps, the routine handli ng of chemical s may have imparted to them a familiarity with these chemicals which in turn could lead to such an att í tude . Ne 1 ther the clean | ng of hands, body and

29.
clothes after spraying chemicals nor the cleaning of equipment seem to be strictly adhered to. In some instances it also appeared that they were even in the habit of smoking or chewing betel while hand) ing the sprayer. It was found that the sprayers at times are washed in nearby streams. The investigation also showed that the empty cans and bottles of pest i ci des are care less 1 y di sposed of . Most of the farmers Seen to be | r the habit of disposing thern rather indiscriminately and a few others seem to have sold the empty containers.
Time of application of pesticides prior to harvesting: The general recommendation regarding this is that the application of chemicals should be stopped at least two weeks before harvesti ng . This is because, some chemical s have relati vel y long periods of residual effects. However, interviews conducted in this regard again suggested an extremely high degree of non-adherence to safety rules. The survey indicated that about 50% of the farmers have harvested crops within 2 weeks of application of chemicals. Nearly one-tenth of the farmers interviewed harvested their crop with in a period of one week. Farmers in general are not ser i ous 1 y concerned with the health hazard that may result from eating vegetables with high residual concentrations of agro-chemicals. However, this problem does not appear to be significant in the case of potatoes (Table 8. 4).
Table 8, 4
TIME INTERVAL BETWEEN CHEMICAL APPLICATION AND HARVESTING,
VEGETABLE FARMERS AT MAHAGASTOTA IN NUWARA SELIYA
Time interval before harvest
C R O P Less than 1 - 2 2 - 3 4. Week S 1 week Wee KS weeks or more
Potatoes 5 15 3O 5O
Vegetabo ) es 9 SO 32 9
Source: Farm Survey, 1986/87 Maha Season

Page 23
Procurement and storage of Chernical S : Data regarding the procurement of chemicals indicate that the majority (72%) of farmers in the study area purchased their agro-chemicals at the beginning of the cultivation season. This situation seemed to arise from farmers' expectations regarding price increases and also of avoiding any shortages. All farmers had purchased their pesticides from private traders in the area. Once taken home, farmers do not seem to be paying adequate attention to the storage of these items. Less than 5% of the sample farmers seem to have a separate, special location for stori ng these harmful substances.
Extension advice-regarding pesti Ci de use : The survey revealed that the most important source of necessary information for farmers regarding pesticide use was the private trader (Table 8.5). The next most important source of receiving information appeared to be other experienced farmers. The survey also revealed that only a small proportion (12%) of the sample farmers sought advice from the field level
agricultural extension worker in the area.
Tabo e 8 : 5
SOURCE OF INFORMATION REGAROING THE USE OF PEST (CIDES
BY VEGETABLE FARMERS, MAHAGASTOTA NUWARA ELIYA
Source of information of farmers
Pesticide trader 51 Other farmers 3O KVS 2 Own experience 7
A : 1 OO
Source: Farm Survey 1986/87 Maha Season.
The relati vel y minor rol e played by the Field Level Agricultural Extens i on Worker (KVS) EAS a SOU * Ce of information regarding pesti cide use, requires closer attention. The trader acting as a main source of information on the use of chemicals is rather unsatisfactory from the farmers' standpoint.

3.
Fate of pesticides applied in the field: As already seen in
the case of most annual food crops, quantities of pesticides are periodi cally appli ed on the plant or on the soil surface. Occasional ly, as in the case of paddy, pesticides are added to the water to be absorbed by the plant for a systemic action. The most common forms of pesticides applied to the plants are il i quid sprays, powder or granul ar forms.
Some of the pesticides that are being currently used are easily decomposable and their toxic effect would therefore di sappear with in a relatively shorter period. An example of this type of chemical is Paraquat. Some pest ici des such as DDT on the other hand, are most res i stant to natural decomposition. Often these compounds tend to persist for long periods ( Figure 1 ) . The rate of di sappearance of the toxicity of a pesti cide appli ed on the soi or on the plant i s dependent on a w i de range of factors inc i udi ng humi di ty , temperature, PH, and so on.

Page 24
32
Figure 1
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PESTICIDE CONCENTRATION AND DAYS AFTER APPLICATION
Initial Level
Concentration in plant (soil)
Final Level (DDT)
(Paraquat)
NO. OF DAYS AFTER APPLICATION
 
 

A pesticide once applied on a plant or soil could undergo various transformations and cycl i cal processes (Figure 2 ) . Part of this may be washed off as surface run-off due to rain. Another part may volatilize depending on the nature of the substance. A further portion is likely to be subjected to natural decomposition by sunlight (photo-decomposition). The crop would also absorb a part of the pesticides applied through the soil solution or even through its vegetative parts. It is also l i kely that pestici des may a so enter the soil through the movement of soil water. It then becomes dissol ved in the so i l so ut i on . Part of the pest ici des entering the soil solution would be absorbed by soil Colloids and other particles which could retain the chemical substance for longer periods of time. While within the soil, some of the pest ici des would de compose due to chemical, bacterial and other biological processes ... It is most l i kel y, that some of the pesticides would each downwards and get mixed with the ground water or it may even move horizontally thereby contami nating other water bodies.
Factors favouring increased pesticide use: A consideration of the evidence relating to the past expern ence in pestici de use, suggests that the country's food production technology is heav i l y bo i ased towards intens i ve use of such chemi cal s The bulk of the problem of this growing dependency is due to the inherent nature of the High Yi el di ng Var i et i es ( HYVs) .
Nature of HYVs itself: The HYVs in general are heavy consumers of nitrogen and other plant nutrients. Increased nitrogen application for instance, rapidly increases the plant's susceptibility to insect pests and diseases. Nitrogen in particular, stimul ates the growth of mer i stemati c t issue leading to luscious vegetative growth. Leaves in general become more succulent or fleshy. The cell sap becomes more concentrated with nitrogenous material. A these developmentis provi de an extreme 1 y favourab l e medih um for insects and other di sease causi ng pathogens to feed or grow on. The inevitable result is that the host plants become more attractive to the pests thus necessitating increased dosages of pest ici des .
Plant type: In the case of rice, however, a special feature inherent in the New High Yi el di ng Var i et i es ( NHYVs ) is that it favours increased weed growth as against their traditional

Page 25
Figure 2
PESTICDE ACTIVITY IN THE ENVIRONMENT
A
슈
PHOTO-DECOMPOSITION
CROP VOLAT || LF - REMOVAL ZATION (Z SURFACE RUN OFF I PESTI\ \ N N N N N N N ACIDE:
N ༄།
ABSORPTION 4N BY
SOL PARTICLE
DISSOLUTION SOIL WATER
SOI RETENTION
CHEMICAL LEACH ING DECOMPOSITION
AND
BOLOGICAL
マ DECOMPOSITION
 

35
counterparts. The plant type of these NHYVs, represents plants with shorter height, with broad and semi-erect leaves. This situation therefore allows more sunlight to penetrate into the soil which favours increased weed growth. Once weeds emerge, they tend to Smother the rice plant quickly. Because of these reasons, wee di cide application has be come an indispensable activity in today's paddy culture.
Escalating rural wage rates: In the past decade, wages have been fast rising, a factor that has been favouri ng the .
substitution of chemicals for manual weed control in paddy.
Narrowing of the Gene Base : With regard to the New High Yi el di ng Var i et i es (NHYVs ) , at least in the case of rice, there seems to have occurred a significant narrowing of the gene base. At present, in rice, the gene base is represented by about 5- 1O predominant 1y Cult i vated var i eties ( Figure 3) . This phenomenon has led to a significantly high degree of , Cytoplasmic uniformity which in turn is most likely to have contributed to a significant reduction of the plant's capabil i ty to withstand pests and di seases.
As a consequence of this transformation, the resistance to major pests and diseases such as Brown Plant Hopper ( BPH), Gal 1 Midge, Blast and Bacter i al Leaf B 1 ight (BLB) in s tota l l y dependent on a limited source of genes.
Resistance build-up by pest populations : This is another pl ausible reason , , explaini ng the increased tendency to use more pesticides in today's agriculture. Continuous use of pesticides enable the pests to gradually develop resistance to such chemi ca l substances por i mar i I y through the process of natural selection. In fact, there is a lot of evidence from the field that such a phenomenon is occurri ng in most of our food crops such as in the case of paddy bug (Leptocorrhiza Var i corn i s ) .
Reduction of decimation of predators : In nature, there are numerous predatory organisms that usual) y provide a del 1 cate. ba lance between the parasi tes and the host popu lations. Th 1 s therefore, provides a check on the multiplication of the pest population beyond a certain threshold. However, with the increasing application of 1nsecticides, th1 s natural ba lance could be ser i ous l y di sturbed. The frequent a pop l i cat i on of

Page 26
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37
protective sprays provi des an i deal conditi on for such a situation. In fact, the existence of sudden outbursts of pest attacks such as that of Brown Plant Hopper or rodents on paddy i s 1 i ke 1 y to have ar i sen from such situations.
Cultural practices adopted for intensifying production: Although attempts to increase cropping intensities of 1 and is desired in terms of output growth, it is most likely to have led to problematic situations with respect to natural breeding of insects, pests and pathogen populations. For instance, with the provision of irrigation water and other inputs, today, un i ke in the past, farming is undertaken on an intens i ve scal e over i arge extents of land. Stagger ing of cultivation is also a common practice. In many instances fallowing is not practiced. All such situations could therefore lead to increased pest populations.
Promotional campaigns and liberal availability of pesticides: The aggressive promotional drives undertaken through mass
media and attractive advertisements and labels would perhaps have contributed significantly to the increased use of pest ici des as seen today. Under trade liberalization policies witnessed during the past ten years, the availability of pesticides has not become a constraint to those using these substances. In fact, in many of the rural, agricultural areas , it is clearly seen that the trading activities relating to agro-chemicals have become significant.
Inadequate knowledge of the farmers: Personal interviews conducted in many areas, particularly those cultivati ng vegetables in the upcountry areas suggest that many farmers often use pest ici des Without ade quate Knowledge of their harmful effects to others, and to the environment in general. Often, information regarding the need for pesticides, types to be used, frequency of application and their concentration, are generally obta i ned either from dealers or from neighbouring farmers. This situation therefore could lead to less than satisfactory situations and is most likely to result in mi su se of these dangerous substances. This problem of inadequate knowledge of the farmers concerning pesticide use has been recognised over the past few years. As a result, a number of farmer education programmes have been undertaken by the Department of Agriculture. Another significant step in this di rection is the introduction of an integrated pest management programme by the Department to cover most of the agri cultural di Stricts.

Page 27
38
AGRO-CHEMICALS IN THE PLANTATION SECTOR
by
U. E. R. Gangoda
THE USE OF WEEDIC DES IN TEA
Manual weeding was done in Tea Plantations until recently. As weeding has to be done at frequent intervals to keep the Plantations weed-free , the cost of weeding increased with increase in cost of abour. Manual weeding also caused loss of va i uab li e top so i l by So I l eros i on . Because of these factors, alternate methods of weed control had to be found. Testing of Herbicides for the control of weeds in tea started in the late 1940s with 2,4-D based Weedicides, (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid, belongs to phenoxy compounds and are translocated in the plant, (hormone type). Later, MCPA (2-methy 1-4- ch loro-phenoxy aceti c ac i d) , 2, 4, 5-T ( 2, 4, 5trichlorophenoxy acetic acid), Dal apon, Sodium Chlorate - NaClO3 (inorganic compound) with pre- and post-emergence or contact action Οη annual and pe renn i al weeds, Were introduced. Pentachlorophenol and Simazine had been tested for the control of grasses such as couch and illuk. In the late 195Os and early 1960s, a 2% solution of Dalapon and 1% Teepol was recommended on an experimental basis for the control of couch and illuk in non-tea areas at 45-67.5 kg per hectare diluted in 556-665 litres of water. In the early 196Os the following Weedi cides were recommended for the control of weeds in the tea by the agro-chemical companies:
1 . Si mazine 5O WP.
Belongs to t r i azi ne group of compounds. Pre-emergence weed cide recommended for the control of broad eaf and grass weeds in mature and young tea.
2. Da apon.
Belongs to a 1 phatic compounds.
3 . D i u rCorn WP BOSK .
Belongs to Urea group of compounds.
4. Paraquat.
Be! Orgs to Quartary Ammon 1 um COmpO und S .

39
In the 196Os many tea plantations started using Weed icides for the control of weeds and at present Weedicides are the most Wi de ly used pest ici des when compared with insecticides and fungicides.
2. Pest ici des also could be classified according to the
effect on the pest:
Classification by the Effect on the Pest :
Attractant - Lures pests to treated location, e.g.
Sex Attractants.
Repel lent - Drives pests away from treated object
without kil ling.
Anti-Feedant - Inhibits feeding while the insects remain on the treated plant and starve to death.
Chennoster i ant - Destroys a pest's ability to reproduce.
Phe romones - Releases or i rmh i bo its certa i n behav i ou r
a l activ i t i es of insects .
Plant Growth - Stops, speeds up or otherwise changes Regulator normal plant growth processes.
Defo i ant - Removes unwanted plant growth without
ki l ling the whole plant immediately.
Desiccant - Dries up plant leaves, stems and in
Se CtS .
3. According to the nature of the chemi cal :
Classification by Chemical Nature :
Most common pestic des can be classified into two main chemical groups - The Inorganic and Organic Compounds:

Page 28
(a) Inorganic Compounds :
Cup rous Oxide, Lime Sulphur, (Bordeaux Mixture). Mercuri C Oxi de .
(b) Organic Compounds:
(i) Organophosphorous Compounds:
e.g. Fenthion,
Methami dophos, Phoxim, Edi femphos.
(ii) Carbamate Compounds:
e. g. BPMC,
Propoxur, Carbofuran.
( i i i ) Organoch lor i ne Compounds :
e. g. Ch lordane,
DDT , Endosulfan.
( iv ) Synthetic Pyrethroids:
e.g. Cyfluthrin.
Acaricides, Fungicides, Herbicides, Insectici des and Nematicides, mainly used in Plantation Crops such as tea, rubber and coconut, will also be discussed.

4靴°
AGROC ALS IN THE PLANA ON SECTOR
Chemicals used in Agriculture could be classified into two major groups: W
1 - Ferti i Zers . 2. Pest ici des.
It is important to know what is a Pest and what is a Pestic ide.
Pest:
Any organism which i njures man, his property or his environment or which annoys him. Such organisms include principal y certain insects, nematodes, fungi, Weeds, birds, rodents or any other terrestrial or acquatic plant or animal l i fe or vi rus, bacter i a or organisms.
Pesticide:
Any substance or mixture of SubStan CeS intended for preventing, destroying or repelling any insects, rodents, nematodes, fungi or weeds, or any other form of life declared to be a pest and any substance or mixture or substances intended for use as a pol ant regulator, defoliant or desiccant.
Pest i c i des may be classified into var i dous groups by a number of methods:
1. Classification according to the group of pests they will
contro:
Acari C i de - Mites , Ticks and Spiders
A 1 gaec i de - A i gae
Av i C i ode - Birds
Bacterici de - Bacteria
Fungici de - Fungi
Herbicide - Weeds
Insecticide - Insects and other related pests such
as T1 CKS and SU, 1 ders
Mitic de - Mites
Molluscici de - Mo l l uscs such as S lugs and Sna i l s
Nemat i c i de – Nematodes
Rodentic ide - RoCentS

Page 29
42
The Tea Research Institute first recommended Weed icides in the early 197Os. Paraquat, Di uron, Simazine, Dalapon, 2, 4-D and MCPA, were first recommended. In 1980, Glyphosate was recommended for the control of Rhizomatous grasses and in 1985. Oxyfluorfen for general weed control.
Recommended Weedicides for the control of weeds in tea are:
1. Para quati
Paraquat is a post-emergence contact Weedici de. It i 8 absorbed by the foliage and acts auickly. Paraquat is recommended at a rate of O. 74 - 1 . 1 L of product di luted in 55O l i tres of water per hectare. Control s standing Weeds and it is more effective on young weeds than on mature weeds. Should not spray onto tea leaves or young stem. Mist Blower is not recommended for spraying.
2 - D T tron WP 8O :
Di uron i s a pre- and early post-emergence residua 1 weedicide and is recommended at a rate of 840 - 1 12O g in 55O - 680 l i tres of water per hectare us i ng a Knapsack Sprayer. Di uron should be applied to relativel y clean 1 and and soil should be moist for effective results.
3. Simazine:
Simazine i S res i dua pre-emergence he r b i C i de . Recommended at 2. 5 - 3. 75 kg in 555 l i tres of water per hectare.
4. 24-D/MCPA:
Belongs to Phenoxy group of compounds and its activity is post-emergent with translocate hormone type. t is recommended for the control of broad leaf weeds which are not controlled by Paraquat, Such as COmmelina spp., Er i geron suatrens i s Bore ri a spp, at t - 2 kg of product in 562 - 674 ) i tres of water per hectare.
5. Da apon:
A trans located herbicide and is recommended for the control of grass weeds not controlled by Grammaxone at a rate of 6. 75 kg in 56O - 675 h i tres of water per hectare.

43
6. Glyphosate:
A translocated herbicide and belongs to Phosphorous group of compounds. It is recommended for the control of Rhizomatous grass weeds such as couch grass (Panni cun repens ), at the rate of 1 . O L in 5O li i tres of water using 6OO litres of spray mixture per hectare.
7. Oxyfluorfen 24% EC:
Belongs to Di pheny.l ether compounds and a pre-emergent
herbicide. Recommended for the control of weeds in tea either alone or with Paraduat. Rate recommended is 1 . 2 litres of product per hectare. It controls broad leaf weeds and grasses. Soil should be moist for effective results. Paraquat is the most widely used herbicide fo 1 1 owed by D i uron WP 8O3%.
Product: Dosage/per Hectare
kDiuron WP 8OS 85O g - 1 kg xOxyfluorfen 24% EC 1. 235 L
Si mazine 5O% WP 2. 5 - 3. 7 kg kGlyphosate EC 36% 2 L *Paraquat 7 5O — 1 1 OO m
Dal apon 8O WP 6. 75 kg 2,4-D and MCPA 45O - 9 OO g a . , i .
555 L of water' is used per Hectare.
Ave rage Cost per Hectare per Application:
1) Weedici des :
Product . Cost per Hecta re
Paraquat RS 65/- to Rs. 97/ー Diuron WP 8OS RS 153/- to Rs. 18O/- Glyphosate 36% Rs. O 425/-
Oxyfluorfen RS 74O/-
Dal apon 8OS WP RS 76O/-
2, 4-D 8O% WP RS 45/- to Rs. 90/-
2 (Commonly used Weed icides)

Page 30
THE USE OF FUNG COES IN EA
Prior to 1946 the use of Fungicides in tea was very little. The commonly used Fungicides were Bordeaux Mixture, (Copper Sulphate and Lime), and Lime Sulphur, (a complex of Sulphur and Lime). When Blister Blight, (Exobasidium vexans), first appeared in 1946 these two Fungicides were tested. Bordeaux Mixture which gave reasonable control was replaced by Copper Oxychloride and Cup rous Oxide.
Copper was used as a Liquid Spray as well as a Dust - Dust, which contained 4-6% Copper was used at 5-8 b./acre, once in 5 days. Copper, in the form of Wettable Powder in which Copper content was 50%, was used at 4-6 oz. Wacre once in 7-9 days as a Liquid Spray. Dusting is not practised now as its application had many practical difficulties.
Nickel Compounds were used in the late 196Os which had both a protective and curat i ve effect. However, the use of Nicke Compounds was banned in the late 197Os.
Santar is the only Mercury Compound used in tea for the protection of pruning cuts as a fungici dal paint
Recommended Fungicides in Tea as follows : -
1. Bister bight, (EXobasi di um VeXanS) :
Only Copper based Fungicides were used Wi de ly for the control of Blister blight in Tea until recently. Copper Oxide 50% WP and Copper Oxychloride WP 50% are being used. In the up-country areas Copper Fungicides may be sprayed at 2O - 25 rounds per year.
( a ) Nurser i es :
1 2O g of product in 45 l i tres of water i s recommended at every 4 day intervals.
(b) Tea recovering from pruni ng:
276-42O g in 17 O L of water with a Knapsack Sprayer or in 3O-45 of water with a Mist Blower, per hectare, at 4 - 5 day intervals, are recommended up to the time of tipping.

45
(c) Tea in plucking:
28O-42O g in 17O of water using a Knapsack Sprayer or in 3O-45 L of water using a M ist Bower, is recommended, at 7 - 1 O day intervals, spraying to be done the day fol 1 owing pli ucking .
Baycor EC 3OO which belongs to Triazole group of Fungicides has been tested successfully against Blister blight recently. Rate of application is 85 ml. of product per hectare. Baycor EC 30O has curat i ve and protective action. Due to these reasons, Beay Cor EC 3OO could be sprayed at extended intervals when compared with Copper based Fungicides.
2. Stem and branch canker, (Macrophoma the icola) :
Application of Baycor EC 3OO, (Bitertano 1 ) , and Benomy WP
50% has been recommended at O.O5, (5O g. /ml. in 1 OO of water).
3. Red root di sease, (Poria hypo late riti a):
It is the most serious root di sease observed in tea. Fumigation with Methyl Bromide is recommended. One pound of Methyl Bromide was applied to 200 square feet. In recent trials conducted by the T. R. . . , it was found that red root di sease could be effectivel y and economi call y controlled by combining normal cultural practices with the use of systemic fungicides. Baycor EC 3OO at. O. 15% was found to be effective. Nursery plants should be treated with 25O ml . of solution a week to 1 O days before planting and thereafter plants should be treated with 25O-3OO m. of fungi ci de so ut i on at 3-4 month interval s up to one year from planting. Earl i er Methy i Bromide D–D was used for the control of Red root di sease .
GROWTH STAGE RECOMMENDED RAE D LUT I
HI Gh- OW
VOLUME VOLUME Nurser i es 276 g
at 4 days
Tea Recoveries 276 g - 415 g. 1 27 from pruni ng at 4-5 days
Tea in Plucking 275 g - 415 g 1 7 Ο 27,
С i ona 1 Tea wKM - at 5-7 days.

Page 31
46
Average Cost per Hectare per Application:
2) Fungi C1 des :
Disease/Product. Cost per Hectare:
a ) B i ster B i ght :
Copper Oxychloride/ Copper Oxide Cents 22 - 33
Bay cor EC 3OO Cents 76
b) Red Root Disease :
Methyl Bromide Rs, 38, 5OO/-
Baycor EC 3OO Rs . 1 6, 7OO/—
THE USE_OF_INSECTICIDES INTEA
46 species of insects and 4 species of mites have been identified. Shot-hole borer and l i vewood termi tes are the most important pests foi i owed by tea tortrix. Before the early 195Os insect and mite control in tea was based mainly on cultura practi ces and bi ol og i cal control . However, from the early 1950s incidence of pest problems increased due to var i ous factors and in the S89 peri od tre use of insecticides was initiated. Recommended insectict des for the control of insects in tea are as follows: -
1 - Shot-hol e borer, (Xyleborus forni catu S) :
Lebaycid EC 50% ( Fenthion) - Organophospate - at 4.5 L in
1 OOO of water per hectare at 12 - 14 months from prune in the low country, (6OO m and below), and 14 - 16 months from prune in the mid-elevation, ( 6OO - 12OO m), is recommended.
Incorporation of Curaterr 3% G, ( Carbofuran ) , at planti ng is recommended which also helps to protect stem and roots from other pests.
The use of Lebayci di EC 5O for the control of sinot-ho le borer started in the late 197OS, ( 1 97 5 ) , after tne withdrawal of Heptachlor which was used from the late 1960s. Before that Diel drin was used for this purpose.

47
There should be a minimum of 4 weeks interval between the last spraying and the harvest.
Pre-Harvest Interva - .4 weeks.
Tea Tortrix, (Homona Coffeari a ) :
a) Trichlorphon (Dipterex) EC 50% - Organophospate - at a
rate of 3.2 L in 25O of water with a Mist-Bower Or in 900 L of water per hectare with a Knapsack Sprayer.
b) Methomyl (Lannate) 90% SP at a rate of 42O-550 g. in 900 - 1 OOO L of water per hectare are recommended. Use of a Mist Blower with Methomy is not recommended. Trich l orphon and Methomy 1 were recommended in the mi di 1970s. Previously DDT was used for the same purpose.
Pre-harvest Interval: 2 weeks.
Mites : Red sp i der mite, (O i gonychus coffeae), Scarlet mite, (Brev i palpus californi cu s ), Purple mite, (Calacarus cari natus) , Yellow mite, (Hemitarisonemus latus),
are observed.
Di cofo 1 42% MF, (Organochlorine Compounds - Chlorinated Hydrocarbons ) , at a rate of 750 ml /ha or Di cofol 17 SK at a rate of 1 5OO ml /ha or Morestan WP 25 K ( Qui nomethionate ) , at 550 g/ha and Tetradi fon ( Ted i on V 1 8 ) ( Organoch lor i ne ) , at a rate of 1.5 L/ha, are recommended. 900 L and 17 O L of spray to be used with a Knapsack Sprayer and Mist Blower, respectively.
Pre-Harvest Interval: 2 week S.
The harvest collected from sprayed areas in the 3rd week
should be mixed with ten times the amount of flush from turns por ayed a reas .

Page 32
48
TEA, (Camellia sinensis)
VOLUME OF WATER RECOMMENDED DOSAGE/ L/Ha. PESTS PRODUCTS ha. LOW HIGH
VOLUME VOLUME
Shot-Hole Borer || Lebaycid EC 50% || 4.5 L 1OOO
(Xylaborus Carbofuran 10 g/ fornicatus) 3% Gran. planting
hole
Tea Tortrix Diptere EC 50% 3.2L. 250 900
(Hdomona Methomy 90% SP 420-550 g. 900-1000 coffesaria) (Lannate)
Meadow Eelworm Nemacur 5% G 10 g/bush
(Pratyfenchus in mature tea foosi) Carbofuran 3% G 7 g/planting
hole at time of planting.
Nurseries:
Methyl Bromide 454g/900 soil
filed polythene bags or 454 g/2.8 m3
Dasomet 98% G 500 g/2.8 m3 (Basamid) or 10 g/1 m2 Mites - Red Dicofo 42% 750 m. 17O 900
Spider Mites Scaret Morestan WP 25% | 550 g. Mites Yellow Tetradifon 18% 1.5 L Mjtes
Termites Methyl Bromide 1 kg/40 m3
Carbofuran 3% G 7 g/planting
hole at time of planting

Average Cost per hectare per application
insecticides:
Insect/Product.
a) Shot-hole Borer:
Lebaycid EC 50%
b) Tea Tortrix:
Dipterex EC 50% Methomy SP 90%
c) Mites:
Morestan WP 25%
d) Nematodes:
Nemacur 5% GR. Curaterr 3% GR. Dazomet 98% GR.
Cost per Hectare.
Rs. 1210/-
Rs... 544/- Rs. 600/- - Rs... 787/-
Rs... 176/-
Cents 27 / Plant.
Cents 23 / Plant.
Rs. 1/40 Sq metre (Nursery)
in mature tea the cost per plant is approximately 43% more.

Page 33
50
THE USE 0F NEMATICIDES IN TEA
Nematodes : Root knot nematodes, (Me loi dogyne spp.) Root lession nematodes, (Praty enchus loos ) are the most important.
Contro in Nursery: Dazomet 98% (Basami d ) at 5OO g per 2. 8 cu . m. of soi i 1 s recommended. Application is done 5 weeks before planting the cuttings. In nursery beds Bazomet 98% G is used at a rate of
O g/sq metre.
Control in Young Tea: Application of Phenamiphos 5% G (Nemacur 5% G) and Carbo
furan - Carbamate - (Curaterr 3% G3, Furadan 3% G), i s used at a rate of 7 g/p lanting hole at the time of p t ant 1 ng . Fensul fothi on 5% G, ( Terracur P), was used for the same
purpose earlier, which is not marketed now. Nemacur 5% G has been used from mid-1980.
Control in Mature Tea: Application of Nemacur 5% G, (Phenami phos), and Curaterr 3% G, (Carbofuran), have been recommended from early 1985. Nematicides are applied with first applicat 1 on of fert 1 h 1zer at tipping time after pruni ng and recommended rate is 1 O g of nematici de/bush.
Pre-Harvest Interva : 1 C WeekS,
THE_USE OF PESTICIDES IN_RUBBER
When compared with Tea, the use of Pesticides in Rubber is very 1 imited. Foi low i ng pest i c i des are used:
Fungici des :
1. Oidium leaf disease, (Oi di um heVeae ) :
Sulphur Dust was used for the control of Oidium leaf di sease, at 4 kg per nectare. During heavy di Sease incidence, Sulphur dusting was practised at 6-7 day intervals for 5-6 weeks. However, Fungicide application is now not practised as the di sease i s not e conomi cally important .

51
2. Colletotrichum leaf di Sease, (Col letotri churn gloespori -
Odes) :
Fungicides are used in nurseries to protect the young seedlings. Baycor EC 3OO, Benomyl WP 5O% and Carbendaz im, are found to be effective against this di sease.
3. Bark rot, (Phytophthora meedii and Phytophthora palmi
Vora) i
Antimus in (Mercury Oxide containing 1 85 g/L and Barkson ( 1 - 2% of Antimuz in ) , are used to paint the tappi ng panel s.
4. White root disease, (Rigi di porus ignosus):
2O3% Pentach loron i trobenzene i s used against this di sease.
Insecticides:
Use of Insecticides in rubber plantations is negligible as generally rubber plants are free from serious pest attacks.
Weedicides:
Weedicides are also not much used in Rubber Plantations since cover crops are grown in many plantations.
Paraduat could be used at 1.5 - 2. O L per hectare. The Spray should not come in contact with the foliage of the rubber plants.
MSMA (Monosodium methanearsonate) (Arsenic Compound - Contact type Weedicide which controls broad leaf and grasses) + Amitrole (Mi scellaneous compounds - translocate type contro S grasses and broad leaf), MSMA + 2, 4-D (Amine) + Dal apon mixtures, were earl i er recommended.
Stimul ants :
Eith rel, (Ethaphon) - It releases C2H4 into the plant tissues thereby keeping the latex cells open for a longer time which increases the y i el d.

Page 34
THE USE OF PESTICIDES IN COCONUT
The use of pesticides in Coconut Plantations is imited in comparison to Tea and Rubber. Pesticides are used on a limited scale as follows:
Pests : Most of the insects found in coconut are successfully controlled by biological methods:
e. g. Coconut Caterp i 1 lar, (Opis i na arenose 1 1a)
Coconut leaf-miner, (Promecotheca cuming i)
Insecticides are used on a limited scale for the control of the following pests:
(1) Red weevil, (RhyChophorus_ferruginous) :
Metasy stox R EC 25% (Oxydemeton-methy ) is recommended at a rate of 20 ml. of product/tree applied as a trunk i nject i on .
( 2 ) Termites (Odontotermes spp.) :
Aldrin, Chlordane 4O% EC, are recommended.
(3) Black Beetle (Oryctes rhinocerus) :
Aldrin and BHC Dust 1 O% were used earlier. However, these pesticides are not used now.
Fungicides :
No fungicides are used.
Weed i C des:
Total weed-ki 1 lers, 1 i ke Paraquat, are used on a l i finited
scale for weed control. However, weed control is mainly done by using cultural practices/manual weeding.
REFERENCES: Arul pragasam P. V. - The Use of Fungicides in Tea in Sri Lanka - Somaratne, Asoka - The Use of Herbicides in Tea in Sri Lanka
(Unpublished Document ) .
T. R. I., R. R. I. & C. R. I - Advisory Circulars.

53
POSONING WITH CHEMICALS AND HAZARDS OF PESTICIDES
by
Miss Dharshi ni Perera
INTRODUCTION
Pest ici des are special formulations of Organi c/Inorganic chemicals. These chemicals are chosen for their selective ethality to pest organisms, (i. e. weeds, insects, fungi, algae, . . . ) and are branded according to their specific uses like insecticides, fungic des, weed cl des, and so on. Thus, We See that a large range of pests need to be controll ed and the refore , the imperat i ve need for a w in de range of chem 1 ca i po reparat i ons .
In the context of today's agri cultura i development, cinemica formulations have ganned an upper hand over natura 1 contro Systems and as a result, a ar ge number of cinem ca || || y formulated pesti ci des have come into everyday use.
As expected, chemical ly formulated pest ici des nave negative environmental consequences. In some pest 1 c 1 des, the Guantum of destruction is known, but in most cases, studies are St underway to determine the full effects.
Pest ici des are – main lY_of_three types
- Inorganic Pesticides (e.g. arsenate and mercury compounds ) - Organic Pesticides - These mostly grew out of research done
on chemical warfare duri ng the Second Wor“ c War“- - Organometal lic pesti ci des (e.g. Mercury and Tin compounds. )
Bes i des these, there are a so the natural chem 1 ca i s t i ke Pheromones and Hormones.
Organic Pesticides
These a re further classifi ed a S: Organophosphates, Organoch I or nes, Carbamates, Para quat, 2 , 4
D and 2. 3. 5. - T.

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The degree of toxicity of the above types is difficult to determine, but in general, Organophosphates are the most toxic. However, duri ng the i r manufacture and formulation, they all pose the same hazards.
The toxicity of pesticides is normally measured by the 50s lethal dose, which can be defined as:
LD 5O: The dose necessary to kill 50% of a group of test animals (usually rats), and is expressed in mill grams of substance per kg of body weight .
At present, there are about 117 organic chemicals in use in more than 200 formulations in the Sri Lankan market. Many of these are used in agriculture and animal husbandry, and are highly toxic to living organisms. Thus, they are a potential risk to humans and beneficial organisms.
Pesticide formulations are used even in home gardens and some common ones like Baygon and She tox are used in the domestic Scene in the control of household pests.
Hazardous Nature of Pesticides
Pesticides can be inhaled, ingested or absorbed through the skin. The greatest risk of occupational exposure is through the skin. In non-occupational cases, oral ingestion is the most frequent route. In Sri Lanka, the largest number of deaths due to pesti cide poi soning is from suici de.
The toxicity depends on the formulation and the mode of use. Some chemicals may be safe in some formulations, while being qui te dangerous in others. Somet i mes the l i quid formu il at i on may be more dan gerous than the granul ar form. Appreci ato le (and thus harmful) amounts may remain in the environment for as long as 50 years, as in the case of DDT, depending on the So i l and C 1 imat, i C Cond i t i ons .
The hazards very often increase greatly because of the presence of other pol lutants through what S ca 1 ed synergistic interactions. This problem of synerg Stic effect is specially acute in DDT. Recently it was discovered that minor vi rus di seases I i ke the fl u and chicken-pox can be Come

55
fatal when combined with exposure to pest i c 1 des ) i ke DDT . Farmers are not the only people whose health is endangered by the large scale use of pest icides in agriculture. Risks arise at any Stage of use. For example containers can be damaged in transit , leading to contami nation of food or those handli ng the consignment. In agriculture, workers who oad and maintain spraying machinery may be splashed while opening the containers and may inhale the mist or dust or could even swallow traces in their fingers. Children may "accidentally" taste pest ici des (out of curiosity?) or may play in fields sprayed with pest ici des.
Finally, there is the industrial hazard, both in the working and ambient environment. Poor protective measures affect the workers. Distributors and retailers involved in repack 1 ng the poi sons, workers who di lute and mix the concentrates are mostly at risk. Accidental spillages and emissions are a potential danger to residents close by. Fortunately in Sri Lanka, there are no plants that manufacture pesticides. The various chemicals are imported and only the formulation take polace . Recent ! eg i s l at i on nas restr i cted tine 1 mport of certain chemicals to this country, but many potentially hazardous ones are still freely available in the market.
Estates and plantations contribute to bring about the worst situations. Here, pestici des are bought for ther tox 1 c 1 ty and potency, and most estates do not provide the necessary protective equipment.
Organophosphates
These are a popular group of insecticides, most frequently involved in human poi sonings. In 1981, these were responsible for 76 % of the total poisonings in Sri Lanka. ) The pest ici des Parathion and Malathion come under this group. They are known to persist for upto a year in roots or foliage. Insects feeding on the plant are poisoned by the insecticide inside the plant and not on the surface.
) : Ponnambalam, M. "Some app i ed toxico ogical aspects of
pesticides"

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Organophosphorous compounds vary in their acute toxicity to rps- Ya S :
e.g. : Parathion: LD5O Ma atin i On : LD50
13 mg/kg 2, 1 OO mg/kg
However, their mode of action and the symptoms are the same.
Organophosphorous compounds affect the transmission of nerve impulses at synapses ( nerve endings). Under normal physiological conditions , duri ng the transmission of nerve impulses , the neurotransmitter acetylcho line is hydrolysed to Cho ne:
Acety I cho II i ne Cho l i ne Este rase X Cho line
The enzyme catalysing this reaction is an esterase enzyme.
Organophosphorous compounds inhibit this enzyme irrevers by As a result, acetylcholine gets accumulated at nerve endings giv i ng r i se to a series of other c i ni cal man i festations , which in acute cases, can lead to Coma and paralysis. Thus, one way of detect i ng un safe work i ng cond i ti ons and po i npointi ng the causes of such conditions is to measure the evel of the esterase enzyme in the blood of the workers. It is recommended that if the enzyme level is less than 25%, the worker be removed from his exposure.
Organocarbamates
These are derivatives of Carbamic acid and are used in many
different situations , including the home ( Baygon) , garden and the farm. The target of these is also the esterase enzyme.
But , un l i ke Organophosphates, they i rn h i bo 1 t the enzyme revers i bly .
Organochlorines
These are also a group of 1 nsect 1 c 1 des which do not breakdown easily into harmless compounds. Once applied, they remain in the environment for long periods and find ther way into waterways, air , so and up the food chan. Organoch l or i nes i nc , ude DDT and its re lated compounds || 1 ke DDE, Cycli od i ernes , BHC .

57
DDT which was economi cal ) y important conce, became popou l ar after the Second World War. It was over-used and abused unt. eventually it was banned. One harmful aspect of DDT is that it created resistant strains of the Malaria mosquito. A population of mosquitoes bounced back even in greater numbers than originally present. It became a case of "survival of the f ittest " .
DDT, being fat soluble also accumulated in the food chain, thus being detrimental to wild life.
Organochlorines cause depression of the central nervous System.
Pest ici de Poi son ing
Statist CS reveal that about 1, OOO workers are poisoned each year from poisonous chemicals in Sri Lanka. A survey in 1983 showed that out of 4O7 pesticide poisonings, 373 were sui ci dal and 29 Were from occupational exposure.
In Sri Lanka, about 1 O, OOO workers are exposed to pestic des in antimalaria and anti filaria operations. A study revealed that workers spray ng Fernthon f Cor flar as is Contro frequently suffered from pestic de poisoning.
Such cases of poisoning happen because of the way pestic des are di stributed in this country . D stri butors who trade in pest i C 1 des al so ce l l 1 tems l m ke ch garettes , f 1 our , oi l and even baby food. Therefore, it is not surprisi ng that mass food poi son ing cases nave occurred.
Most occupational poisonings in Sri Lanka seem to affect Cultivators of rice and vegetables, and it is among the mass of po oor farmers tinat pest i c i des take the i r to .
Pest ici des and the Environment
Improper use of pest ici des may be un profitable, ineffective or even Counter productive at least in the long run, if not immediately. The pest's natural enemies are killed by the pesti cide and the pests thernsel ves may deve op the ability to resist the act, or of the chemicas, as was the case with DDT. Thus a kind of addiction can set in, where the farmer finds

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that he must apply more and more powerful insecticides to prevent devastating crop losses. So, a "pesticide treadmill" i s created ... Pest i c i des l i ke Chordane , Endr i n and Hepatach 1 oro, are very toxic to earthworms who play an important part in circulating and aerati ng the so i l .
In the ecosystem, through the food chain, pesticides often bioaccumulate due to their water 1 nsolubility and fat so ubi l i ty, especial li y in the case of Organoch or i nes. So, when these are i ngested di rect 1 y , or when i t i s a part of another animal or plant, this goes up the food chain. Studies have shown that birds of prey and other organisms high in the food chain have concentrations of DDT ten mill 1 on time 8 greater than those in the Water or air environment. Po l l i nati on and the reproduct i ve processes of bo i rds and other animals are also affected as a result of this Doaccumulation. :
Pesti Cides Washed 1 nto rin vers get rapi d l y absorbed by sedimentati on, and the aquatic species tinere 1 n. In smal || Concentrations, pestic l des are fata l to the fi sin .
It is obVi ous that careful contro and use of pest 1 ci des i S essential to avoid all Kinds of hazards to anima is and even to human life, thus ensuri ng maximum benefits.

59
EFFECTS OF AGRO-CHEMICALS ON HUMAN BOOY
by
Dr. Ravindra Fernando
Agro- chemi cals include basi cally two groups of chemi cal substances namely , pesti ci des and fert 1 l izers. Though ei ther of these can cause poison 1 ng or other adverse effects if misused, as a group, pesticides are the major group of substances causing human toxicity today.
Pesticide means any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest,
including vectors of human or animal di sease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, Storage,
transport, or marketing of food, agricultura commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs or which may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on the i r bod i es . The term i nc i udes Substances intended for use as a plant-growth regulator, defoliant , desiccant , or fruit thinn 1 ng agent or agent for preventing the premature fall of fruit and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport.
By definition therefore, pesticides must kill pests which are living organisms. If misused they must be harmful to man. It there is a pest icide that is not harmful to human beings, that is not a pestic ide.
Pest i C i des have fi ve ma i n a reas of use 1 in Sri Lanka . They are w i del y used in pou bol i c health programmes to k i 1 l vectors of malaria and filaria. In 1984, the Anti-Maarna Campaign imported two million kilograms of Malath on and the quantity is increasing because a l though in ear y 196O' s Sri Lanka had no cases of malaria, there are about 400, OOO to 500, OOO cases today. At this rate it will not be "Heath for all by the year 20OO" but "Malaria for a by the year 2000" . It is tragic that even the dan gerous type of cerebra 1 ma l ar i a cases are now seen at the General Hospital, Colombo. People have died of cerebral malaria and people are getting ma lar a even in the city of Colombo.

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Secondly, We use pesticides for domestic and personal use for application to kill insects such as cockroaches; or on the sk in to control scabies or head-lice. Thirdly, we use pest ici des for industrial use like fumigation of houses, ships and buildings. Fourthly, We use pest ici des for protection of material by incorporating in/on paint, timber, glue, and leather to prevent or retard attacks by insects or fungi. Finally in agricultural production, pesticides are used on agricultural produce, on garden crops, forests and livestock.
The effects of pesticides on man can be acute or chronic. The major problem in Sri Lanka is acute toxicity. The gravity of the problem of poi soning with pestici des can be seen in the following statistics:
DISCHARGES FROM HOSPITALS, AND DEATHS IN HOSPITALS FOLLOWING
POSONING - 1984
Di Scharges 塞 Deaths fron po i Soni ng
Chlorinated hydrocarbons 2955 (12) 319 ( 14)
Organophosphates and Carbamates 99.87 (39) 931 (42)
Other Pest ici des 363 (13) 2O9 (O9)
Medi ca 1 Agents 2125 (O8) 94. (O4)
Other Poison ing and Toxic effects 7O73 (28) 697 (31)
25242 225O
The number of deaths from pesticide poisoning, surprisingly, is more than the total number of deaths from rabies, Snakebites, polio, diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, ma lar 1 a and a murders in 1984 ( more than the combined total of all those causes of deaths).

61
We have data or a hospital admissions for pesticide poi soning in 1979 reported in the bul et in of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1982 by Dr. Jeyaratnam and others, which revealed that 73% of cases were due to del i berate i ngesti on . 1 7% cases were occupat i ona i , 8% were accidental and in 236 the cause was not a Scertaina o le from the hospital notes. This study also revealed that of a the poisoning cases 31% involved people between 11 - 20 years and 47% between 21 - 30 years; in other words 78% cases are between 11 - 30 years.
Annual morbidity rate for pesti cide poi soning is 79 cases for 1 OO, OOO population. This study further showed that 5 per 1 OOO of agricultural workers are hospo i ta l i zed annu a l l y FO * pesti cide poi soning. These revea ing data show that Sri Lanka probably has the highest rate of pesticide poisoning in the world Normally poisonings in world literature shows about a 5% mortality rate but our mortality is around 9 - 1 O% which is unacceptable and something should be done to reduce the mortality to around 5%.
Acci den tal and occupational poison ing Can OcCur under special circumstances. Firstly, they can occur during research work in the 1 aborator i es. During field studi es people can get accidentaly poi soned. Secondy, during production of the pesti cide, manufacturing, packaging and waste di sposal can cause occupational poisoning. Poisoni ng can occur also during transportation. Storage of human and animal food can cause poisoni ng , and final ly poisoni ng can occur duri ng sprayi ng . Poisoni ng due to de l i berate 1 ngestion is very common in Sri Lanka because of the easy availability of highly concentrated pest ici des. Homicidal poisoning is extreme ly rare.
Common pesticides involved in poison 1 ng are :
( 1 ) Organophosphates such as Ma ) athi on, Metnam1 daphos,
Monocrotophos, Fenn troth in
(2) Carbamates
(3) Organochlorines - such as DDT and Benzene hexachloride
( 4 ) Pyrethrum
(5) Paraquat
(6) Rodenticides - Zinc Phosphide (Run rat) and Thalium
(7) Miscellaneous - Sodi um ar Sen 1 te , copper-containing
fungicides, etc.

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Explained briefly are the problems regarding management of patients who have been exposed to pest ici des :
(1) Undue del ay in admission.
(2) Lack of proper first-aid prior to admission.
(3) Del ay in the treatment after admission.
(4) Improper attitude of medical and para-medical personal
e specially for suici dal poi soning cases.
(5) lack of drugs and equipment necessary for proper
treatment.
( 6 ) Wrong treatment due to the i nabi li i ty of correctly
identifying the pestici de involved.
(7) No psychiatric referral prior to di scharge from hospita
in attempted sui ci dal cases.
The WHO project proposal to write a book on first-a i di treatment in poisoning was sent to us for comment on the situat i on here. In it i a l ) y the book w i l l be pub i sned in English. Later, funds will be made available to translate it into the national languages.
The other important aspect is Research. We have to carry out research on occupati onal poisoni ng ; to do research on the clinical aspects of poisoning - how to prevent people from dying; and we have to undertake a study on the long-term effects of the use or rather misuse of pesti ci des in Sri Lanka.

PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGES IN TEA PLANTATIONS
by
Dr. P. Si vapal an
The term "Agrocnemi cal " refers to a those chemical compounds that assist in the successful cultivation of agri cultural commoditi es. These chemicals i nc ude fert i 1 izers, growth promoting substances and hormones, as well as pesticides. Pest ici des include a wi de range of compounds that are specifical ly effective against individual groups of organisms that impose various forms of limitations and restrictions to crop productivity. These include, among others:
Acarici des agai nst mites Bacter ici des against bacteria Fungicides against fungi Herbicides against weeds Insecticides against insects Nematicides - against nematodes
All these chemicals, including chemical fertilizers, have varied effects on the environment. Despite such environmental influences we have come to depend rather heavily on the use of such chemicals for the successful cultivation of crops and to increase their productivity. The plantation sector is no exception to this rule.
When we consider the plantation sector as a whole, it is in the tea sector that the largest amount of agrochemicals are consumed annually. At one ti me the argest amount of pesticides was also consumed by the tea sector. However research efforts undertaken by the Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka 3 "S provi ding handsome di V i dends by qui te successfully curtail ing the use of and moving away from unilateral dependence on pest ici des to sound, ecologically acceptable pest-management strategies. Pest ci des that a re recommended at present are those that cause the least eco og i Cal disruptions.
Amongst the various pesticides used in the tea sector,

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insecticides were the ones that dominated the scene, especial 1 y duri ng the 196Os and early 1 97Os - ( the so-ca led dark ages of insecticides).
Before I describe some of the strategies of pest-management, I would like to trace the evolution of pest problems in agro ecosystems, in order to emphasi ze the fact that in our endeavours to raise productivity of crops we have also created situations most ideally suited for the build-up of pest species. If one can understand this from an ecological point of view, it wou 1 d then become eas i er to appreciate the need to devel op sens i bol e eco og i cal y acceptable strategi es to manage pests, to levels below that which cause economic losses in crop productivity.
The tea plantations were once the abode of forests with an immense diversity of plant and animal species that had amongst themselves successfully established a. delicate balance. As was the case with most agricultural ventures, these forests gave way to the establishment of a well regimented monoculture of tea plantations.
With the destruction of the forest and the establishment of this p l antat i on crop , Some of the organisms that had established a de cate balance with in the comp ex of the for est ecosystem, became suddenly well adapted to this uniform and abundant supply of tood with their consequent population explosion. This was especially so with those organisms whose complement of natural enemies could not adapt themse 4 Ves to the new env i ronment.
In time, the limited genetic diversity that existed in the early tea plantations that used seed tea plants, gradually gave way to more genetically uniform planting material, the new clonal selections, that were specifically chosen for high yields. Vast stretches came to be planted up with this highly narrowed genetic base and consequently, the adaption of specific pests and di sease-causl ng organisms became even more intensified, with the resulting severe crop loss situation.
As in the case with most Agrotechnologists or Agricultural Scient i sts, who are forgi ng their way towards the goal of increased productivity, the Tea Scientists, who are no exception to this rule, also kept forgi ng their way towards

65
higher productivity, to cater to the ever increasing demand. Cultivable lands are becoming limited and much of those available are eroded and already over-exploited. There is no room for further horizontal expansion and it has become the respons i bi 1 ity of the Agrotechno i og i st to increase productivity to the maximum possible limit in the scarcely available land.
In this pursuit, var i ous agro-techni ques are 1 nnovated and implemented to achieve the ultimate goal of an economically atta i na ble high productivity. Bes i des higher product in v i ty , the Agrotechnologist has to be mi ndful in contro l 1 ing the cost of production in such a way, that there is a reasonably attractive profit margin.
In any crop situation, there is a theoretical upper limit of maximum productivity, then there is the practically attainable upper 1 imit, using the avai 1 able technologies 1n the most economic manner and, finally there is the current productivity level. The farmer, the po 1 anter and the agricultural scientist constantly strive to narrow the gap between the current productivity status and the upper limit Of economi C productivity. In this endeavour , Vari OuS manipulations and newer agro-techniques are being introduced from time to time. Most often, such newer and "improved" technologies tend to dislocate and destabilize the delicate and fragile ecosystem. Such an altered agro-ecosystem unfortunately for us, rot only favours an escal at 1 on in various pest and disease outbreaks but also the growth of a multiplicity of weeds.
In order to avert any decline or depreciation in the productivity as a consequence of the competition posed by the now amplified pest species, di sease- causing organi sms and Weeds, the agriculturali scienti st is unfortunate y compel ed to find solutions to minimize Such losses. The Scient ist, the Cultivator, the farmer, and the planter, 1 ook forward to various control strategies tinat Could be economi cal li y har nessed to ar rest such l osse S .
At a time when agricultural productivity was modest, pest and di sease problems were not very serious and they were al So manageable with the then available systems of control, including the planting of pest and disease resistant

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var i et i es , the threshold level of biological Contro activity, and by a l ter i ng specific cu li tu ra practices. However, with the trend towards increasing the production leve li s by harness i ng techni ques that were mai n l y geared towards high productivity, the pest and di sease situation became more complex and seemingly difficult to manage with the available resources of control, and crop losses also kept escalating. It was about this time that, with the advent of DDT into the agricultural sector in the immediate post-war period, a host of the so-called "miracle pest cides" became readily available to the cultivators, farmers and planters and these proved to be a boon to them. This fantasy was, however, short-1 i ved .
Amongst the pesticides that have been in use over the past 4O years or so, insecticides were by far the most widely exploited chemicals and these dominated the agricultural Scene for wel l over two decades . Var i ou s problems were encountered as a consequence of the wide-scale use of insecticides and these included the development of resistant strains, the outbreaks of hither to unknown secondary pests and potential pests, resurgence of target insect species and the problems of pest cide residues in the harvest. Cases of accidental poison 1 ng amongst users kept escal at ing, mainly on account of lack of knowledge and experience in the handling of such poisons. Indiscriminate use of such chemicals by i nexperienced handlers have brought about po l l uti on problems to danger l i mits.
The once venerated miraculous agrochemical is now looked upon with suspici on and fear and th 1 s nas un fortunatel y led to another extreme situation, by the emergence of anti-pestic de crusaders, demanding a total ban on the use of agrochemicals, and urging the going back to "organic farmi ng " .
We should not get hysterica and throw the baby out with the bath water.
All these problems arose as a consequence of a unilateral dependence on pest ici des t○ manage pest. and di SeaSe situations. With the emergence of such a multiplicity of Sl de effects and problems, there dawned a new sensible concept - the ecosystem approach - to respect and appreciate nature. This approach recognizes the rights and privileges of the

67
numerous beneficial organisms that help check outbreaks of the very same species of pest that we are attempting to control. We should accept the position that we have to live and let live. A certain amount of crop loss is an inevitable OSS; and it is only when pest numbers build-up to what is now referred to as the economic injury level, that we have to take steps to avert such proliferation.
This sensible ecosystem approach harnesses the available resources of management and integrates them in a manner so as to cause the least disruption to the environment and at the same time helps check pest build-up to below the economic injury level.
Since amongst the pest i c i des used at one ti me in the tea Sector, insecticides were the ones that dominated the scene, I shall confine my reference to a few examples of insect management strategies that we have successfully developed and which have helped the industry to break away from the shackl es of a un i ateral dependence on pest i c i des an yet achieve the ultimate objective of averting economic crop l osses .
1. Reference to the management strategy developed to
manage the low- Country live-wood tea termite.
2. Use of. metabol i c disruptors in the di et of insects.
3. Use of sex pheromones for insect surveillance and
forecasting outbreaks.
CARELESS HANDLING OF PESTICIDES
Even though every eff Crt is made td recommend safer pest i c i des at requi red dosages and di 1 ut i ons , the operators are inexperienced and at times even indifferent towards some of the basic precauthons.
The balance pesticides are dumped at any convent ent place, even into dra i ns and rav i nes , without real i z 1 ng or even bothering that it is only Just a few yards away, that the same rav i ne is feed1 ng a spout used for bathi ng and collecting water for cooking : The spray tanks are also washed and Cleaned at such vulnerable places.

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Another di sturbi ng aspect is the manner of d i sposa of pesticide containers. The practice of auction ng empty containers, especially poly-cans, seems to be still going on in tea plantations. There was a recent newspaper notice by a state sector organizati on listing i tems to be auctioned, including empty poly-cans !

69
REGULATION OF IMPORT, FORMULATION, SALE AND USE OF
PESTICIDES IN SRI ANKA
by
Dr. (Mrs. ) Nalini de Aw is
The present legal basis for the regulation of pesticides in Sri Lanka is embodied in the Control of Pest ici des Act No. 33 of 1980. The implementation of the Act is vested in the Department of Agriculture. The 1 1 cens ing author ty under the Act is the Registrar of Pestic des, on whose recommendations regulations are framed for the implementation of this Law.
Annexure I is a brief synopsis of the Act. You will note that the Law requires that every pesticide be licensed, and imports would be permitted thereafter on the recommendation of the Registrar.
Importation
Pesticides are imported into the country either as ready to u se po roducts ( formul at i ons in reta 1 l packs or i n bu l k for repacking) or as technical material for local formulation. Unfortunately, for Customs purposes, they are not classified under one BTN Number. The formulations of pest ici des are grouped together under 38. 11 a - e, while pesticide technical material is imported as chemicals and depending on their chemical structure, are grouped under various sub-categories of BTN Nos. 28 and 29. These BTN numbers also contain chemical s requi red for other i ndustri a uses ( text i les , cosmetics, paints, etc. ). All local industri es are required to be registered with the Ministry of Industries and Scientific Affairs. The raw materials required from abroad, depending on their nature, are imported either on Open General Licence or under Import Licence from the Ministry of Industries and SC i ert i 'f i c Affa i rs .
A pesticidal products coming under BTN No. 38.11 are under full control of the Registrar, while as indicated above, technical materia imported toy 1 oca i agro-pest 1 o l de i ndustri es under the BTN Nos . 28 and 29 are g 1 v en arn i mport 1 i cence by the Mini stry of Industri es and Scient t I c At fa 1, rs only on the approval of the Registrar. As this Ministry

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7
issues licences for every industry in operation in Sri Lanka, and as the Registrar has to approve the import of Pesticidal products, in effect, no agro-chemical can be imported without prior approval from the Registrar. I can assure you that Sri Lanka does not provide a dumpi ng ground for undesirable agrochemi cal s from the developed world by chemi ca l compani es having transnational links. I am unable to give the same assurance for pest i c i da 1 products 1 1 ke mosqui to coi l's, aerosols, and so on for household use.
Annexure II is an extract from a Malaysian case study, where it was revealed that agro-chemicals which have been regulated in several countries in the developed world are freely available in Malaysia. I wish you to read the two footnotes before studying the Table. The symbol X does not always indicate that such products are banned. They could be permitted for specific uses in the country concerned. Using the 1986 issue of the UNCLP' as a guide, I have attempted to give you the actual regulatory status of several of these questionab e agro- chemi cals. Of more interest to you Would be Annexure III where the regulatory status of these hazardous products, including the so-cal ed "dirty dozen” is detail ed for the South East Asian regi on, giving the regull atory action adopted in Sri Lanka in column 4.
Formul at i on
The Li cens i ng scheme for poest i c h des 1 in Sri Lanka nas been modelled on "The FAO guide lines for the Registration and Control of pest ici des ". A set of basic data which 1nclude the physical and chemi cal propert in es of the pest i c i de , b 1 o
eff i cac y data (both local and/or from Tropical Asia) toxicology data and data on residues and the r fate 1n the environment are mandatory. Formulatons naving the same
active ingredient, but differing either in their chemical composition or physical state, are required to be registered individually,
Consolidated list of Products whose consumption and or sale have been banned, withdrawn, severely restricted, or not approved by Governments ( 2nd issue).

71
Certain pest ici des are available as proprietary products where the principals who developed the product require confidentiality of registration data. The importing and marketing of these formulations are done by local firms who are affiliated to the parent company (e.g. Chemical Industries (Colombo) Ltd. for I. C. I. ; Haychem Ltd. for Bayer; A. Baur & Co. Ltd. for Sandoz; and Harrisons & Crossfield (Colombo) Ltd. for Ciba Geigy). While products are under patent, the firms enjoy a monopoly of the formulation but quality standards are assured.
Special problems in registration procedures ari se on the expiry of patents covering the manufacture and/or use of proprietary pesticides. Wher a. patent expi res W manufacturers and formulators often seek to exploit the market by offering products as copies of those previously covered by patent with or without altering the original manufacturing and cleani ng process. Since the registration of the original pesticide product had been based on an extensive package of proprietary data submitted and developed at the expense of the patent owner, Registration authorities cannot in all good faith agree to register the copy on the basis of the data submitted by the original proprietor. On the other hand, Government authorities cannot deny farmers the benefits to be der i ved from commercial competition.
It is especially in this area that regull atory bodi es need supportive analytical laboratories to monitor the composition, quality characteristics and shelf-1 ife of commodity products to determine whether they comply with FAO specifications. In the absence of such monitoring laboratory facilities in Sri Lanka, currently, Quality Certificates indicating percentage of active ingredient and solvents and the shef-life with date of formul at i on are requi red for every consignment imported from a new Source.
Sale_of_Pest ici des
Those pestic i des which fa 1 1 into the moderately li ess hazardous World Health Organization (WHO) classification and which have not been identified by International Register for Potential ly Toxic Chemicals ( IRPTC) as hav ing carcinogen i c risks are permitted to be marketed without restrictions but

Page 44
72
under an approved label. However, the highly hazardous WHO Qass 1 A and B formulations and those potentially carcinogenic compounds are Classified ど。3 Restri Cted pest ici des (Annexure IV).
The restrictions that have been placed are of four types.
1 . Sal e restriction on l y to and Fumigants and other WHO
through authorized persons CaSS II A formulati On8.
2. Labe restr i citi on on use Methamidophos, Pyrethroids,
Chlordane, BHC, Adrin. 3. Sal e restriction on quant i ty Aldrin, Chlordane, BHC,
Pyrethroids. 4. Sale restriction for limited por i or to full 1 commerci a j -- marketing zation on a regional basis
All restricted products have to carry the word "Restricted" in all three languages on the label. A scheme is now underway to educate and licence dealers who sell such products. They are requi red to record al l stocks and sa l es , and they must se l restricted products on ly to bona fide farmers. This is one of the measures that are being adopted to keep pest cides with high oral toxicity from being freely available to those Who use these for sui c n dal purposes. With a view to complete cancel lation of Class I agro-chemi cals, Research programmes are underway to find safer a ternatives such as less hazardous pest, 1 cides, microbi al pestic 1 des, resistant crop varieties, manipu at 1 on of agronomic practices to reduce pest build-up and to multiply and distribute or encourage activity of natura li enem es ot p l ant pests.
USe
It is mandatory that the label ( lega ) requi rement ) gives amongst other temS , suff C1 ent i rh f O rmatt i Or Οη ԱSG di rections, that is, when and how much to use, the per od of potency , tre prehar vest interval and precauti ons to be taken in spray preparat on and in application. Prior to a product being licensed, the Registrant must submit a draft label for approva , and the directions for use have to be consistent with those recognized by Research and Advisory institutions in Sri Lanka. (Currently a labels are required to be in a

73
three 1 anguages, with a minimum print si ze of point 6 . ) However , the most significant problems faci ng Extension officers is the compliance of farmers in the correct use of Pesticides.
In 1985 a survey was carried out of farmer practices in the usage of pesticides in vegetable growing areas of Nuwara El iya, Badulla, Kandy and Matale. Annexure V illustrates the extent to which farmer practices deviate from the norms that had been laid down for the judicious use of pesticides. As arf outcome of this survey, the Department of Agriculture has intensified its training programmes on decision making in the use of pesticides, the safety precautions to be followed in storage, spray preparation, application, personal hygiene and destruction of empty containers.
In comparison to the peasant farmer, the state employees who are deployed in pest control activ it ies Come under Closer supervision by the Management and as such, it is expected that misadventures and mi shandli ng Cof pest ici des by plantation spraymen would be on a much lower scale. However, the necessity for a seminar on this theme is an indication that lapses in the education on safe use of pest C des also occur in this sector of agriculture.

Page 45
74
ANNEX
CONTROL OF PESICIDES ACT NO 33 of 198O
Art . Licenci ng 1) Pest ici des have to be licenced by the 3&4 Authority Registrar of Pest icides, who is advised for by a Pest ci de Formulary Committee and pest ici des i s respons i b ) e to the Di rector of
Agriculture.
Art. Application 2) In making application for registration
6 for licence of a pest ic ide, the trade name, the
proposed label , sample of the conta i ne r , uses, OOtenCy , snelf - 1 fe and effect, chemical identity,
stability in storage, date of expiry for usage, toxico l og i ca i data i nc i udi ng information on antidotes of pesticide are , 7 inter a l 7 a required to be stated.
Art. Consideration 3) Licences issued after consideration are
7 of applica- not permanent but renewable, which is ti on Corn d i t i ona 1 upon rev i ew by the Registrati on of the data Orn the
pestic ide.
Art. Issue of 4) (a) For issue of licence, the proposed 8 licence labels of the pest icides submitted with the application mu St conta in in
Si nhala, Tam 1 ) and English inter a l i a the fo | low 1 ng parti cu 1 ars :
trade name, common names of the active i ng redients in letters not less than na l f the si Ze of the trade name and placed immed in ate i y be low, nasme . armoj address of thne | ii Cence ho il der , di rections concerning use, per 1 od of time which should e lapse between last
application of the pestic 1 de and harvest of the crop to which it is app ed, adequate warn 1 ng and
precautionary symbols and Statessert, S including f r st, aid and ant i dote

Art.
Art 2
Art. 1417
Art
Approved container/ package
Alteration in package of composition of pestici de
Prohibition
Adverti se
ment of Pestic ide
information, the statement "Registered under the control of Pest ici des Act, 1980" which shall be an official symbol that the pest icide has been cenced under this Act and the licence number assigned by the Registrar.
( b ) No change of these particul ars can be made without prior approval of the Registrar.
5) Approval of the Registrar of a pesti
6)
7)
8)
cide relates also to its container/ package in respect of such contai ner/ package being satisfactory in relation to the condi ti ons requi red for safe and effective storage and handli ng of the pestici de.
No alteration in the package, label or composition of a pesticide shall be made by the holl der of a li icence without further approval by the Regi strar upon application.
a) No person shall manufacture, formu1ate, pack or distribute, se 11 or de i - ver any pest i ci de un less its contai ner/ package is licensed and if it is adulterated, decomposed or deteriorated.
b) No person shall store, transport, sell any pest ici des in close juxtaposition with the feedstuffs or in such a manner as to contamination of feedstuffs.
a) Advertisements of pest ici des have to conform to the parti cu ars relating to it as approved by the Registrar when issu i ng the l i cence - vide para 4 above (Art. 8)

Page 46
Art. Storage of 9) 19 pest ici des
Art . Harvesting 1 O) 2O of crops
76
b) it is un lawful to adverti se any pesticide in a manner that is fa se, mis leading or deceptive and not just ified by the conditions of its regi stration.
No person shall store pest ici des in bul k other than in a special store kept for that purpose. The store shall be kept locked when loading/ unloading is not in progress and a notice must be displayed in a conspicuous position outside the store indicati ng the hazar dous rature of its contents
No person shal li harvest/ offer for sal e any food crops in which pest ici des have been used un less the time init prescribed by regulations has elapsed between such use and harvest or if the food crops conta in pesti cide resi due in
excess of levels as prescribed.
Authorized Off CerS and the r powers and functions.
2 1 . ( 1 ) The D n reCtOr , 'Sna I I rn Om i nate such numbers of officers of his department as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act, who shal be known as Authorized Officers".

ד7
INADEQUACIES IN MPLEMENTING THE CONTROL OF PESTIC DES
ACT NO 33
Implementing an Act is dependent on the support it receives for enforcement. It requires trained manpower i. e. expertise and skills for evaluating and analysing data as well as pestici dal formulations and for poli cing of pestici de use in the fields, supporti ng laboratory and f i el di faci 1 iti es for monitor ing and implementing the Act and adequate funds.
The office of the Registrar now consists of two Technical officers; (A Registrar on contract basis and an unt rained Graduate recruited as an R. O. ), 2 Clerks, 2 Typists, and 2 Minor Employees. The provision in 1987 on staff emo uments i s Rs. 188, OOO/-, recurrent expenditure Rs. 344, OOO/-, Capital expenditure Rs. 5O, OOO/-.
The main thrust in the work of this Unit has been the setting up of the regn strat i on process, i. e. for the import, di stribution, and sale of pesti ci des for Agri cultura and Public Health Purposes. Registration involves submission of necessary data on active ingredients and formu ations: on their bioefficacy, toxicology, residues and fate 1n the environment, and the Sub Sequent evaluation by experts. Highly supportive of this Division is the Pest cide Formulary Advisory Committee. However, this body lacks expertise in evaluative toxicology and on herbicide activity patterns.
Ater a pesticide is registered, a wide range of monitoring and other activities are required to ensure that a pestic ide is being handled, di stri buted , and used proper 1 у in accordance with label di rect ons and in comp l i ance with rules and regulations. These activit i es include:
(i) Monitori ng of Pe St i C i de out ets to er Stre compliance with ru eS and regu i at i ons td be observed when storing pesticides in general and when se l l i ng restr cted pest i c i des .
(ii) Detecting of unauthorized pack hng, repacking, and labell 1ng activities to enforce legal act on and to weed out substandard or hazar dous products from entering the market.

Page 47
78
( i i i ) Analysis of formulatons for maintaining aua 1 ty standards and determin) ng if surp us or unmarketed quantities of pesticides are still use able for their intended function.
( iv ) Establishing maximum limits for pest ici de residues
on var i ous crops anc commodi t i es based Or exper i mental data der i ved under good agricultural practice to ensure safety in dietary intake. The data could also provide the basis for modifying use patterns.
( v ) Analysis of crops and commodi ti es for pest i c i de residues to provide information that can be used to assess the safety of consumi ng treated foods , detecting res i dues from improper use of pest i ci des and to facilitate export trade in food commodities.
(vi) Monitoring pestici de po i soning C8S6e S Clue to exposure during formulation, pack 1 ng and use .
Information on these aspects can be a basis for active training for informational needs and for other regulatory purposes leading to restrict ing the use of , or tota l l y banni ng products found unsuitable under our socio-economic conditions, or to taking enforcement action against pesticide mi susers .
The first two of the activities given above are the responsibility of the Authorized Officers. (DA has nominated 32 officers at the district level to enforce legislation, in add it i on to their other dut i es) . Inadequate laboratory fac i 1 it i es prevent the accomp l i shment of acti vities ( 1 i ii ) , (iv), and (v). While the proposed establishment of a Poison Centre by the Health Services would go a long way in non itori ng cases of occupational poisoni ng due to pest i cides .
The post- registrati on activit i es are an inherent part of Sections 20-22 of the Act which enables the evaluation process necessary to safeguard food product on and the health
of the nati on . These activ i t i es wou d erna bo e a fu l l evaluation of risks associated with the use of pestic 1 des and to take acti on to cance 1 , revoke , restr ct quest i on ab i e
pesticides, or to revalidate the licences of Others.

79
Legal enforcement can be strengthened with the upgrading of the Registrati on Unit and the Analytical ) aborator i es ( with skilled manpower, adequate field and laboratory facilities and sufficient funding), and the recruitment of a full time Authorized Officer cadre for monitoring activities in the field.

Page 48
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Annexurell
81
Pesticides banned or restricted for agricultural uses in selected Countries in South East Asian region (includes pesticides identified as too hazardous by PAN)
Status in Sri Lanka
Pesticides Restricted in Banned in
in 1987
Aldicarbo Philippines
Sri Lanka ap Highly Restricted Thailand gnly Rep. of Korea
응 w
Aldrin, All countries Highly Restricted Diedrin except, Republic of Highly Restricted * Chlordane, Rep, of Korea Korea
Heptach lor Phased out
Arsenates
(Ca/Pb) nama india Not Registered
Arsenites Philippines (Cu/Sodium) Thailand Not Registered
Azinphos Thailand Not Registered methyl/ethyl India
Binapacryl ■ ܚܡܫ India Not Registered
* BHC & Isomer Philippines Bangladesh Highly Restricted
Sri Lanka Thailand
Indonesia Republic of Korea * Camphechlor naam Not Registered Carbophenothion - india Registration
Cancelled
* Chlord imeform Pakistan Not Registered
Thailand

Page 49
82
Status in Sri Lanka.
Pesticides Restricted in Banned in
ith 1987
* DBCP - All 9 countries Not Registered
* DDT - Bangladesh
Malaysia Indonesia Thailand Banned Philippines Rep. of Korea Sri Lanka
Dicrotophos Indonesia India Not Registered
Disulfoton Sri Lanka, Thailand Bangladesh Phased out
India
Endosulfan Bangladesh
Thailand Restricted Sri Lanka
* Endrin www.b. All 9 countries Banned
EPN smæn India Not Registered
Philippines
Ethoprop Philippines mmer Not Registered
Ethylparathion FRep. of Korea Bangladesh
India Malaysia Indonesia Banned Pakistan Sri Lanka Philippines * Ethylene Philippines Indonesia Not Registered
Dibromide
Leptophos All 9 countries Banned
Lindane Thailand Bangladesh Restricted

83
Status in Sri Lanka
Pesticides Restricted in Banned in
in 1987
Methamiddophos Indonesia Restricted
Sri Lanka
Methomyl Sri Lanka Malaysia Restricted
Methyl Bromide Indonesia
Philippines
rann R Sri Lanka estricted Rep. of Korea
Methylite Bangladesh Banned Parathion Sri Lanka .
Monocrotophos Indonesia Restricted
Malaysia Sri Lanka
Mephosfolan , nnnnn India Not Registered
NitrOfen ow- Philippines Not Registered
Phenamiphos Philippines Restricted
Sri Lanka
Phorate ммммммм. Bangladesh Not Registered
Toxaphene --a Indonesia Not Registered
Thailand Philippines India
* 2,4D Sri Lanka saam Restricted
2,45-T Philippines Indonesia Banned
Thailand Sri Lanka
India

Page 50
Status in Sri Lanka
Pesticides Restricted in Banned in
in 1987
* Paraquat Bangladesh
Indonesia Restricted Philippines Sri Lanka
Mercuric Sri Lanka Philippines Phased out Fungicides Rep. of Korea
1. Pesticide Action Network based in Malaysia (group of
non-government bodies from 16 countries)
* The Dirty Dozen' - indicated as the most hazardous for
Third World Countries.

85
Annexure IV
LIST OF RESTRICTED AGRO-PESTICIDES 1987
HIG LY TOXIC AG ROCHEMICALS
Sold by Registered Sold to Certified A. Insecticides Dealers Applicators
Aldicarbo — --
Aldrin 十
Aluminium phosphide --
BHC --
Chlordane -
12-Dichloropropane (plus) -- 1,3-Dichloropane
Hydrocyanic Acid 十
Magnesium Phosphide m Methamidophos
Methomyl
Monocrotophos
Omethoate
--
+
Methyl Bromide -. --
+
十
Oxydemeton-Methy --
B. Herbicides
Paraquat 十 rinn
POTENTIALLY CARCINOGENIC COMPOUNDS
A. Insecticides
Dimethoate

Page 51
86
Sold by Registered Sold to Certified
dealers Applicators
B. Fungicides
Benomy Captafo Captain Mancozeb
Metalaxy + Mancozeb
-
Thiram
C. Herbicides
2, 4-D+Piperophos s nnn 2, 4 D
FOR OTHER TECHNICAL REASONS
A. Insecticides
Carbosulfan
Cyfluthrin Deltamethrin
Endosulfan
Fenamiphos Fenvalarate
-
Permethrin
B. Fungicides
PCNB (Ouintozene) + -
TCMTB - MTC
C. Herbicides
Butralin + wm

Ջ7
Annexure V
Table Selection of pesticides
Method of selection % farmers (Districtwise)
Kandy Matale || N'Eliya || Badulla
Consult village level 37.5 23.8 21.1 7.9 extension officers
Consult dealers 20.8 20.6 8.9 12.7
Consult neighbouring farmers 4.2 4.8 1.1 4.O
Own experience 31.9 36.5 46.7 55.6
Table Devices used to measure pesticides
Measuring device % farmers (Districtwise)
Kandy Matale || N'Eliya | Badulla
Specific Container 10.1 39.3 26.7 7.9
Lid of pesticide bottle 46.4 50.8 51.1 54.O
Arbitrary measurement 43.5 4.9 16.6 17.5 or no measuring
Table Pesticide dosages used by farmers
Dosage % farmers (Districtwise)
Kandy Matale || N’Eliya || Badulla
Recommended 40.3 27.9 24.7 14.3
More than recommended 49.3 59.0 56.2 63.5
Less than recommended 4.5 3.3 3.4 9.5
Not known 5.9 9.8 15.7 12.7

Page 52
88
Table IV Pesticide application
Time of application % farmers (Districtwise)
Kandy || Matalie || N'Eliya || Badulla
Before appearance of pests 39.4 62.9 66.7 85.7
After appearance of pests 45.1 29.0 24.4 9.5
Before or after appearance 15.4 8.1 8.9 4.8 of pests
Table V Pre-harvest intervals
Pre-harvest interval % farmers (Districtwise)
Kandy Matale N'Eliya Badulla
More than 14 days 11.4 4.8 31.5 10.3
7-14 days 51.4 50.8 61.8 50.0
Less than 7 days 37.2 44.4 6.7 39.7
Table VI Pesticide poisoning due to the application of pesticides (Deaths due to suicide are not included)
District No. of farmers No. of farmers
hospitalized dead
Kandy 5 2
Matale 14 3
Nuwara Eliya 16 5
Badulla 9 Ni||

89
NVASION OF CHEMICALS INTO THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES
by
Dr. S. N. de S. Senev i ratne
Over the years, in Sri Lanka, as in other countri es, major changes have been effected on the land surface and a variety of land use systems and ag ri cultura l practi ces adopted to produce crops for export or domestic use. Up in the hills, the montane temperate forests occupied the and aS a luxurious vegetation cover composed of a diversity of plant Species. Thousands of such species formed a rich community, growing together, protecting the community as a who te and the land in which they were rooted. However, with the development of Crop husbandry, a new system of plant culture was to be practiced in land previously covered by natural vegetation. In the new system, a single crop was to dominate the and denudęd of its or i ginal plant cover. In Sri Lanka, coffee, tea, rubber and COCOn ut were t○ take i ts place aS Constituents of the country's plantation agriculture.
Early in the history of this developing plantation industry, a stunni ng demonstration of the hazards that monocultures are Subject to, was given by a fungal pathogen, Heml le la vastatrix, the coffee rust fungus, when it devastated Ceylon's nascent coffee industry. The system of monoculture, in as much as it enables economically attractive returns when mainly favourable conditions prevail, is also vulnerable to catastrophic reverses should adverse factors, among them pests and di seases, strike. Norma l ly, in plantation agri - culture, one or a few var i et i es or cult i vars of a parti cu l ar crop plant are cultivated. Thus, a potential pest or pathogen has unimpeded access to innumerable potential victims - crop plants - under conditions favouring their multiplication and activity. It happened with coffee during the rust epidern c; it happened with tea when the blister blight fungus, . Exobas i di um vexans, arrived in this country. It happened with coconut when or cric mer Chants Smuggled that 1 l legal immigrant, Promecotheca cuming it into the island, and it is happening now as Corynespora cass i i col a ravages the prized rubber clone, the hope of many years of patient research, RRIC 103. The ability of crop plants to withstand such attacks is not always adequate - they succumb to the

Page 53
pressures of pests and pathogens. In such situations, appropriate methods have to be adopted to combat the problems posed, and one of these methods is recourse to agrochemicals, effective in containing or controlling the agents encountered and respons i ble for the crop damage. The more desirable alternative, of course, is the cultivation of var i et i es res i stant or tol erant of economi ca l l y 1 mportant pests and pathogens . The search for such var i et i es and the breeding of new ones is a continuous research activity. Yet, pests and pathogens are deadly adversaries. New forms or more virulent strains or variants may arise or be introduced, able to attack the res i stant or to 1 erant Cu ) t i vars . It is in thi S context that agro- chemicals must be considered as a necessary and useful protective measure, with a place in plantation agriculture, as wel 1 as in other forms of Crop husbandry. However, that recognition in no way implies justification of the fri volous reSO rt, to chemi cal s , their un regu lated application or the aggressive marketing practices commonly adopted.
In the perception of a concerned layman observing the use of agro- chemicals in the plantation sector, their role has not been regarded as purely protective and beneficial. The alarm has been sounded in a troubled mind, the entry of chemicals into the Third World seen as an invasion. Yes, "invasion" is, in this context, a word almost synonymous with another cruder word, "dumping", which signifies a stark reality in Third World countries. For the Third World is the dumpi ng ground of great loads of refuse and sub-standard produce from countries in the great West as well as the Far East in the realization of unconscionable profits for industrialists, regardless of the privation that such greed may cause. The multinationals operating the sick industry flood this Third World country, l i ke others, with an assortment of po 1 I l s , capsul es and drops, not all pure or potent or safe. In the case of agro-chemicals too, the so-cal led Third World, is the dumpi ng ground of a var i ety of products including thCoSe of quest i onable composition, and others prohibited in "developed countries", which are freely exported to the Third World countries by the giants of the great free world, which the agro-chemical industrial i sts are ever wil ling to produce, se i l and export . It is big business and the stakes are high. Even in the country of origin concerned scientists and organizations are striving to influence the formulation of rational polices

91
and practices in the use of pest ici des. Those : who recogni se the health hazards associated with toxic chemicals, who are alarmed by the wholesale destruction of innumerable living species, necessary to maintain some kind of biological balance, by the excessive use of pesticides; who are conscious of the emergence of pesticide resistant biotypes and strains consequent to the widespread application of chemicals; who are concerned about the adverse effects of pest ici des on the environment, these SC i ent i Sts and organizations are fight ing an unequal war. That is true of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States; it is true of regulatory bodies in other countries too. There is a pesticide mafia which has few scruples. The wolves are on the prowl, ever ready to pounce. The pest cide mafia has bought politicians, bureaucrats, policy-makers, administrators, di rectors, de ans, doctors, researchers, entomologists, plant pathologi sts, Weed Scientists, toxicologists, journalists, media men and the lot to satisfy its greed for enormous profits that agri-business can secure. Even lawyers are hired to persuade judges and Jury that the villains are the "conservatives", or inept farmers who do not Know how to use pesticides, correctly.
In the United Kingdom, the safety precauti ons scheme of the Ministry of Agriculture, has been described as a "toothless watch-dog" by the environmental group, Friends of the Earth, which researched Britain's agro-chemical industry. It accused the industry of using unscrupulous marketing methods to oversel 1 insecticides, fung ici des and herbich des . In a twenty-five year per i od from 1 94O to 1975 , pest i ci de sal es rose dramatically in the UK from about 1 O million pounds ster i ng worth to 143 m i 1 1 i on pounds ster l ing worth. By 1976 , about half the se sa les were to markets Over Seas.
What I have tried to stress is that given the monoculture situation of plantations and the vulnerability of crops, to attack by pests and pathogens under cond It 1ons favourab le for their activity, pesticides have a role in the system of crop protection ; also, that pest ici des constitute a lucrative commercial enterpri se in which manufacturers often adopt un scrupul ou s methods to se l l the 1r products, and that pesti ci des banned in deve loped countries on account of ther health hazards are freel y avai labo le for sal e in the underdeveloped wor 1 d.

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Sri Lanka too is a developi ng economy, yet, it will not be correct to persuade ourselves that the country is invaded by chemicals. The word "invasion" signifies aggression, an act executed without the participation or consent of the victim. Chemicals, for the most part, enter a country with the knowledge and acquiescence of its government and with the part i c i pati on , col ! us i on and involvement of its nationa 1 s. An episode from Alex Haley's book "Roots", is illustrative.
"Why do we count only those taken away by the tou bob?" . . . . "We must count also the burned baobabs where villages once stood. He has killed more in fires and in fighting him than he has ever taken away!"
"Tou bob could never do this without help from our own people. Mandinkas, Fulas, Wolofs, Jolas - none of the Gambia ' s t r i bes is without its s latee trai tors . . . . . "
"For tou bob money, we turn against our own kind, " . . . . Greed and treason - these are the things toubob has given us in exchange for those he has stolen away."
What is happening in Third World countries today is mere ly a variant of what happened in the African continent with the Slave trade. Money and greed are powerful motivators; and the entry of and broadcast use of agro-chemicals in Third World countries takes place with the help "from our own people." The rol es of the tri bes of The Gamb i a — Mandinkas, Full as, Wolofs, Jolas - are played by bureaucrats, technocrats, regulators and distributors in Third World countries It is well to recognise the underlying causes of our ills, in Sri Lanka too.
The fact is that Third World countries like ours are trapped in the mires they have walked into and are caught up in the consequences of tine i r own i nd I scret ons . Third Wor 1 C Countries are poor countries. Their people breed too fast. The i r rulers have squandered nat i ona l resources. There are chronic food shortages, even starvation. They are immersed in
debt. The remedies are prescribed - grow more food to feed the starving millions; produce more agricultural commoditiest for export - to earn valuable foreign exchange. There is no
dispute at all that these are wholly laudable objectives. Yet, the Crucial consideration is expressed in the word that

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has recently come into prominence - "modalities". Increased crop production is not synonymous with bathi ng plants with pest icides, soaking the ground With them, polluting the waterways, and poisoning the environment.
Some components of the defence system against this invasion by chemicals:
(1) The correct order of national priorities.
Agriculture, industry, health, educat i on , Air Lanka, stadiums, state drives, a make their claims. Those who hold the destiny of Third World countri es i 1 ke ours, cannot
abandon their obligation and responsibility to think , p an and provide. They must rot delegate that responsibility to "money-lenders", to those with vested interests in our agricultural sector, or to those who may not or cannot appreciate aspects relevant to our situation, both in the short term as well 1 as in the long term. Let pr 1 or i ti es be determined with a concerned awareness of our condition, and sens i ble strategi es evo 1 ved to meet the problems confront i ng us. Here the record is a disma one. We have been "lotuseaters" i n ou r i s l and paradi se . A deep concern for the essentials to ensure the well-being of our agr7 cultural system has been wanti ng . Status symbols and grand i ose schemes seem to have precedence over institutions and acti v i t i es v li ta for our economic surv i val and soc i a we l1 | - being. Agriculture is the corner stone on which the economy of this country has to be bu i } t . The ag ri cu tural ente r por i se must be sustained by research and services which must be adequately supported and wisely administered. The motivation of those engaged in these tasks must be stimulated, the 1r morale sustained and staff stability ensured. In such a situation, it will not be beyond the ingenuity of our researchers to fash i on crop protect 1 on measures which w 1 l 1 not rely so heavily on hazardous pestic des. The chemical invasion Can be stal ed. It is not enough to compo i li e statistics of the foreign exchange earned by export of agricultural commodities, or of the foreign exchange saved on account of the food produced local Iy obv i at 1 ng the need tor imports. A part of the weath thus generated must be returned to the agri cu tural enter por n se, to ma nta in the agri cu ltura sector i n a buoyant conditi on , to prov 1 de the fac n } i ti es it needs, and to reward the "geese that lay the golden eggs"

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These things don't seem to register, only when catastrophe Strikes do the supreme powers address themselves to matters long neglected. A crop devastation by pest or disease, an earth slip or flood, or ethnic strife and terrorism are catalysts that trigger reactions.
Let me illustrate with examples relevant to the present chemi cal concerns. The presentati on to Par l i ament of the "Control of Pesticides Law" was delayed over many years - because this legislation received such low priority. Even after the passage of the law, deficiencies in implementing it including the technica 1 capabi l i ty td provide back-up services remain. The Government Analyst's Department, which has the responsibility to conduct chemical analyses, is hopelessly constrained by inadequate laboratory space and facil ities.
(2) A greater emphasis. On strategies and techniques that could reduce the opportunity for the invasion by
There was once a balance in nature until man, ( the most ar rogant an i ma to co on i ze the earth ) tampe red with the systems that nature had orda i ned. Yet, even in re il at i vel y recent times the farmer in this country had recognised ways and means of overcoming the consequences of tampering with nature, when his food production activities compelled him to adopt practices of monoculture. Let me illustrate: We, in the Division of Plant Pathology at the Central Agricultural Research Institute, research on po i ant di seases. One of my younger colleagues has obtained some interesting results in recent work. The ol der generat i on of farmers ( they were wi ser too), traditionally used specific plants as green manure for particular crops.. We have now di scovered that some princip le in Adhatoda Vasica, a plant used as a green manure, inhibits the growth of a Seed and so - borne pathogen , Phytophthora y ignae, and suppresses the reproductive activity of another pathogen , Pyth i um. but le ri, which causes damping-off of many plant species. In other studies, it has been observed, that so i l - inhabiti ng saprophytic fungi such 3S Species of Aspergil lus, Penici 1 1 1 um and Tri choderma have an i nn i biti ng effect on Species of seed-borne and soil surviv i ng Alternaria, a pathogen which attacks crucifer vegetables and other crops. An investigation into the death of onion

95
seedl i ngs in nurseries yi el ded SO69 very interesting information. The affected seedlings were heavily colonised by the soil-dwelling fungus, Pythium. In the preparation of the nursery beds, a fungicide, Morut, had been applied to control di seases that might occur i n nurser i es . It did not . On the contrary, it induced a problem. Morut contains two chemicals, fenaminosulf and quintozene. The former is effective aga inst Pythium but is a rather unstable chemical. The l atter li s ineffective against Pythium but kills other organisms in the soi ! microf ora. Pyth i um was one of several fungi in the so i of the nursery beds, which interacted one with another. There were competitive and antagonistic effects among them. The effect i ve chem i ca i i n Morut , qui nto Zerne , had e i mi nated or reduced the population of the competitors and antagonists from the microf 1 ora. Fenami nosu 1 f, rendered ineffective by instability, had not been able to check the Pythium in the so i l . Instead, more favour ab l e cond i tions were created for the rapid increase of the Pythium population. This pathogen was produced in abundance as a consequence of the application of Morut and attacked the oni on seed 1 i ngs 1 n the nur ser i es . So a chemi cal treatment, instead of controlling a di sease,
actual ly preci pitated it. What no CS true o for tre i Inter -- relationships between pathogenic fungi and non-pathogens, holds true for pests too. Indeed, with insect pests, the
situation is expressed more dramatically as the widespread and ind scriminate application of pesticides destroys natural enemies such as predators and parasites, which check the population of pests damaging to cultivated crops, and stimulates the development of pesti cide resi stant forms. So the prescription, the use of more deadly pesticides and greater frequencies of application do not cure the ills. Instead, they put up costs of crop production, increase environmental pol 1 uti on, and may even cause effects to destroy an industry, as happenend with cotton in northeastern Mexico.
Intens i ve research must the refore , be di rected towards the development of alternate systems of crop protect on that take into account aspects which chemical control methods largely ignore the kn | li ng of non-target species , disruption of any poss i bol e bo i o l og i ca i ba l ance i n nature, the po i 1 ut i on of tne environment, health hazards to agricultural workers as well
S consumers, and also, costs of production.

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( 3 ) The di smantl i ng of " security cordons" around dech sion
makers.
When things go wrong, the responsibility is laid at the door of the Government of the day; the Minister in charge of a particular subject area is blamed for a calamity. Yet, what Ministers do and what Governments deci de are often influenced by the security cordon consisting of advisers, bureaucrats, technocrats and academics, etc. Some of them are great poedd ers of "dead- ropes". Tone syndicates of tne pri vi legentis ia, frequently air-borne, 8 Te η Ot, as much concerned about the country's interests as their own. So a trusting Minister can be persuaded that the stench ari si ng from rotten potatoes is an act of God, or that Kaha rogaya, a yellowing condition of rice crops that occurred in the Hambantota District is caused by a virus. Worse, the Cabinet may be advised to adopt measures dictated by falsehoods. In the case of "Kaha Rogaya", a yellowing condition of rice crops, the Cabinet approved Rs. 15 million to spray 50, OOO acres of paddy in the Hambantota District, which according to a report in "The Island" of 15th December 1984, was "to counter the yellow di sease now positive 1y identifi ed as a vi rus spread by brown plant hopper". This positive identification was made by a pressure group in which the key figures were a plant-breeder, a plant physiologist and a soil chemist. Dealers in agro-chemicals would certainly have been cheered by the prospect of the sale of Rs. 15 million worth of agro-chemicals, although the effects of this chemical in the Hambantota District would hardly have been for the greater good of the people there or the environment. A more "open" approach by top policy makers and highly placed decision-makers is necessary so that more information from sources other than the "security cordon" would be available to make more objective decisions. It may be argued that top advi Sers incude SC i ent i sts, qualified and experienced. Unfortunate ly , no longer can scient i sts or administrators Or any other category be regarded aS reliable ad V i sers . Qualifications alone don't guarantee the character of the indivi dua 11 . It was Professor Karl Eri c Knutsson who remarked that the kind of persons required are not those with minds only but with hearts as well. Alas, sometimes it is Only after an individual is rushed off to a hospital with a suspected heart ailment or when he kicks the bucket that conf i rmat i on i s obta i ned that he had a neart at a 1 ] !

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( 4 ) Preventing situations leading to chemica li nyas ions.
When a pest or disease strikes, the immediate reaction is to reach for the chemical that might "control " the causa agent - curing the ills if indeed they can be cured. But why is it that the prevention of such ills is played on a very low key? Right now, rubber is being devastated by a leaf disease caused by the fungus Coryne spora Cassi icola. It is a worrying thought as to whether this fungal strain is a variant that arose in this country or whether it has been introduced from elsewhere. If South American leaf blight were to be introduced here, the rubber industry will probably be doomed not only in Sri Lanka but in the Southeast Asian region as wel 1. The agro-chemical lobby might come up with a bright idea - fungicides might be sprayed to control the fungus. Why not modernize plant protection by securi ng aircraft for the purpose? Why not indeed ! Another por i vate enterprise can be born But such a course is simply not a practical propositi on .
At Batalagoda, the country's premier rice breeding station, a bacteri al di Sease, bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae, has broken out in epidemic proportions. We have had this disease for a long time but our strains of this pathogen have not been damaging. The bacterium is seedborne and easily spread in irrigation water. Has seed been introduced to Batalagoda carrying a bacterial strain which can cause serious damage to local rice varieties? R1. Ce blast, caused by the fungus Pyricularia oryzae, once caused serious damage to our rice CropS. Although there are fungicides that can control the disease, adopting this option will be hopelessly unrealistic. A sustained programme to develop res i stant var i et i es which Can Withstand the disease has resulted in the problem being brought well under control. The need for fungicides to combat the disease is minimal. But strains of the blast fungus present in Pakistan, if introduced to Sri Lanka, can dramatical y change that situation with the introduced strains attacking the varieties local li y cult i vated. Fungi c i des to control the di sease wi l l then be sought. Such a situation will usher in a prosperous era for agro- chemical marketers but it will be a catastroph for rice production.

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Plant material, with the potential for crop destruction is entering the country as assuredly as drugs and illicit arms. Citrus is a favourite of illegal introducers. The importation of citrus vegetative material is prohibited by law. Over 15 virus and vi rus- i ke di seases, including the devastati ng di sease Greeni ng i s transmitted in vegetati ve tissue - in bud wood and plants. Greening has ravaged citrus in the Southeast Asian region. There is nothing left of a model citrus orchard in Thail and which had over 3O, OOO trees. But i legal attempts to bring in citrus vegetative material into the country continue and there surely are successful introducers. Plant introducers imperil the country's agriculture because pest and di sease agents not preval ent in Sri Lanka, or strains more devastating than those present in the country may be introduced with such imports. The entry of dangerous pests and pathogens might herald an economic boom for the agrochemicals trade but cause catastrophic consequences for the country ”s agriculture. The chemical invasion into Sri Lanka is a distinct possibility Plant quaranti ne is a defence strategy that might hold such invasions at bay. Unfortunatel y , Sri Lanka” s Plant Quarantine Service i s al so il i ke a "toothless watchdog".
(5) Banni ng some weapons of the invasion.
An invasion requires weapons. And there is a dazzling array of them now. The same principe, that not all deadly weapons invented are used, must be applied in selecting chemical S to combat pests, diseases and weeds. Some should not be used at all.
The International Pest icides Action Network (PAN) based in Malaysia composed of non-government groups from 16 countries have identified a "Dirty Dozen" of chemical pest Cides. PAN International has called for a ban on "their manufacture, Sales, use or trade". These 12 pest ici des have been se lected "not only for their toxicity but also for the hazards they pose to people in Third World countries". The 12 are:
2, 4, 5-T, Aldrin (including Die drin and Endrin), BHC/L-1ndane, Camphechlor, Chl ordane (Heptach or ), Chordimephorm, DBCP, DDT , Ethyl ene D i bromi de , Para quat, Parath i on and Pentachlorophenol. Now some of these are known in the local scene - Aldrin, Diel drin, Endrin, BHC, DDT , Paraquat, Parathion - although some of them are no longer recommended in Sri Lanka.

However , Paraouat formulated as Grammaxone is used in the plantation sector and elsewhere. Just as much as it is standard practice in some places to di po vegetab les in insectici de solutions before dei very to the muda lali, it is a practice adopted by some traders to treat green gram with the DDT formulation Gannaxene. Is it not time to Slam the ban on them in Sri Lanka?
Even if properly used, according to instructions, pesticides are not without their hazards. The bottle glass on my spectacles, aids after two eye operations, may well be the demonstration of the hazards of pesticides encountered by researchers with chemi cal s. Some chemical s are particul ar 1 y hazardous , the cumulative poi sons, those that Ea re car C i nogen i C or mutagen i c. When mercury fung ici des were manufactured in Japan and human contami nati on occurred, several years el apsed before the Minamata di sease appeared in its terrible form. It may take 20 - 30 years before cancers appear in persons exposed to Carcinogen i C agents; mutations are detected generations after exposure to a mutagen. It is an i nescapable respons i bo i l i ty to ar r i ve at deci s n ons arnd implement schemes taking into account all the information avai 1 ab 1 e . Think al so of the wretched of the agricu ) tural earth, the plantation and estate abourers and the farm workers, lowly mortals, who will be most exposed the chemical pesticides - whose task it is to apply them. The consequences of the hazards they are exposed to may not be immediately fel t; but they will be experienced years later i n is i ockness , infirmity and premature death. There can be little so lace for the bereaved in invoking the blessings of the Gods after men are dead, whatever the cost of the ceremonial.
The perceived invasion demands the utmost commitment on the part of the potential victims - to hold the enemy at bay. This is true in the case of chemicals too - the invaders in the topic given to me for this address. And that invasion must also generate the response appropriate to the dangers i mp 1 i ci t in an invas ion , which more than a 1 l e 1 se must be determ i ned by a commitment to humanity than by less honourable considerations, the huge profits that they generate for the barons in the pesticide industry.

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RESPONSIBILITIES OF ESTATE MEDICA ASSISTANTS
by
S. S. Rajendran
Estate Medical Assistants attached to the plantation sector are expected to carry out both preventi ve and curat i ve work in the areas of community medicine, family planning, housing, maternal and child health, immunization, ante-nata and postnatal care.
These officers face several problems in the course of their work. The estate di spensar i es not only have a 1 i mited stock of drugs, in many instances, they do not have even the essential drugs. Due to the shortage of drugs and lack of other facilities many of the patients are transferred to nearby government hospitals without prompt treatment.
A study on the use of pesticides and the occurrence of occupational and other forms of poisoning, was carried out by me in thirteen estates in the Hatton region. Some of these estates Were managed by Sr ii Lanka State Plantations Corporation and others by Janatha Estates Development Board. The study revealed that:
1) 1 O estates had qualified Estate Medical Assistants and the
other 3 remaining estates had Junior Estate Medical Assistants,
2) records with regard to poisoning cases were scanty,
3) there were only 18 cases of deaths in the plantation sector due to pesticides. These deaths were suicides. There were no records or reports of deaths due to occupational poi soning,
4) management in the plantations knew very little about the dangers of these pest ici des and the seriousness of prolonged exposure to these pest icides, particul arly during spraying and other forms of handling.

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The following data were col lected duri ng the study in the use of pest ici des :
a) Grammaxone or Paracquat - as a weedicide b) Methyl Bromide - for soil preservation or fumigation c) Copper oxychlori de — for B l i ster b 1 m g ht .
Other pest ici des were also used. The labour employed for spraying was one man per 1 O hectare.
Incidents reported from 13 plantations from use of pesticides since 1980, were:
a) Poi soning due to sui ci dal attempts 67
b) Deaths (suicides) 47
c) Deaths due to contamination and exposure
at non-occupational level 8
d) Deaths due to poisoning when spraying
occupational - (no records were available)
e) Cases reported at out-patients departments
of government hospitals with a history of poi soning 19 O
f) Treatment at estate level 49
No deaths of workers due to pestic des have been reported or recorded in the course of the 1 r work ( occupat 1 ona l ) .
The average age group of persons who used pesticides for sui ci dal purposes was between 15-25 years. The exceptions were 2 adults of the age group 3O-45.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
All the plantations in Sri Lanka use pest ici des extens 1 Vely.
There has been a 50% increase in the use of pesticides when compared to the 197O figures. At an interview with the Super intendent of an estate it was revealed that the pest problem had aggravated due to deforestation and other

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ecological changes, and therefore they had no alternative but to use pesticides.
The field survey of the use of pest ici des in a few pli antations revealed that :
a) selection of labour for spraying is done by the field
officer and there is no pre- requisite qual i fication,
b) in many instances the labour force involved in spraying were not given a proper training or were not properly instructed on the methods of spraying. However, a few labourers were able to explain the dilution used and the adverse effects of bad handli ng ,
c) no proper protective clothing were worn. A few labourers wore thick khaki coats and caps made of denim cloth. Most of them wore shorts but no foot-wear,
d) 9 spray units out of the 16 used by the labourers were found to be defective. Most of the spray units leaked from the rubber hose,
e) one labourer in this group of 16 labourers was given the task of mixi ng the pest i c i des with the di luent ( general ) y water). He was not a trained person and he wore no protective clothing. He was given a plastic measuring cup and a 20 gallon container containing the pesticide. He used his unprotected left arm to mix the pesticide with the diluent and later washed the arm with cold water. He did not use a stick for mixing,
f) the water was taken from a streamlet which subsequently flowed past a row of line-rooms where there were 12O dwel 1 ers ,
g) there was also a supervisor at the time of spraying, although he too was not better informed than the labour force in the safe use and handling of pestic des. Neither did he wear any protective clothing,
h) the sprayi ng started around 7 : 45 a . m. and ended at 1 2 : OO noon. The abourers were not provided with soap a though the previous management had done so,

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i) the pesticide sprayed more often was Grammaxone, a
weedici de banned in some countries,
j) when the labourers were asked whether anyone felt sick or had any uncomfortable feeling, they answered that on some occasions they had a feeling of dizziness or nausea which di sappeared when they rested for a while.
STORAGE AND ISSUE OF PESTICIDES
Most of the plantations stored the pesticides with other general stores like paints, electrical goods, tools and so on. In one case the pesticide was stored along with food items. Storing pesticides in this manner was due to lack of space. The Management had instructed the storekeepers not to issue pesticides to persons who carried empty green leaf bags from the factory to the Divisions, but this was generally not observed as it was convenient to carry out the dual task on one trip.
DATA COLLECEO FROM ESTATE MEDICAL ASSISTANTS
Many Estate Medical Ass i stants had few or no pati ents with complaints of:
nau se a and vom 1 t i ng
g i ddiness
dim Vi Son
ack of concentrator
a bodom i na l pa i n .
These are symptoms developed when exposed to pesticides. The persons who had these symptoms were either treated at the estate level by giving some form of antidote or sent to the nearest government hospital. There were 32 such cases from the 13 plantations investigated and 9 of these cases were referred to government hospitals.
SUGGESTIONS
From the study of the 13 plantations it was found that there was very little awareness of the dangers of pestic des at a levels in the estates, therefore, there are a few suggestions which would be beneficial :

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1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
1 O)
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A 11 Estate Medical Assistants, Field off cers and Trade Union leaders and Management be made aware of the dangers, particularly the long term effects of pest cide poi soning.
Regular seminars and workshops should be organized to educate the people working in the estates on the correct use and the dangers of pesticides.
A basic training on use of pestic des in the area of handling, mixing and spray 1 ng given to estate supervisory staff so that they could give correct instructions to the abour force.
It is advisable that the Assistant Super intendent be present when the dilution and mixing of the pestic 1 de is carri ed out.
Protective clothing recommended by the Labour Department should be provided and every effort must be made to get the sprayers to wear these.
An Estate Medi cal Ass i stant and a T rade Un 1 on l e ader from i each estate may be appointed to check whether the requirements are met. They may visit the estate at regular intervals.
Separate stores facilities should be provided to store pesticides. Pest ici des should never be stored with foodstuffs.
Sufficient stocks of antidotes and drugs needed for an emergency should be supplied to estate di spensa ries.
Regular checks should be carried out on spray equipment for defects or leaks. No defective equipment should be used.
Pest ici des should be transported with care. They should be so wrapped in polythene pouches to avoid spillage during transport from stores to field. Pest 1 c 1 des should not be transported with green leaf (tea) from the field, or with foodstuffs.

11)
12)
14)
15)
105
Extension officers in the Department of Agriculture who are also Authorized Officers under the Pesticides Act snou l di v i sit the estates .
All Estate Medical Assistants Should get themsel ves involved in additi on to their normal work, to advise the estates on the proper handling and use of pesticides.
The Advisory Committee which has been formed as a result of this seminar should advise the estate staff.
The "Poison Centre" set up by Dr. Rav indra Fernando in the General Hospital Colombo, will be very useful to the staff -' particularly Estate Medical Assistants.

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