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LANKA
。
Vol. 19 No. 8 August 15, 1996 PriC
P.A.: GRAND All
MERI
CHAM su CHANAKA CLAF
bam
 

4WTRUCe VAM IRJAYA SURIVA
AND conviction 'D464/4/
ITICS OF DIFFEReno 4YASUR/w4
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WOW A
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“ “SRI LANKA: THE DE
ICES 13:
Introduction by Regi Si Towards Effective Devo Solne Thoughts on the Laksh Ina In Marasinghe Devolution and Power S Development, by Bertra Devolution of Power, Th Neelan Titl10H1elvalIIl Towards A Compromise Breakthrough in Sri La Control of State Land - Sunil Bastian The Structure and Con Chloices aIld PTUoble IIIs Conltcxt of Devolution I
Prcsidcnt Chandrika Kl August 3, 1995 Text of Gowel Il II eIt's D Text of GowerInIIle Ilt’s D January 16, 1996 A Commentary on the l Government January l The BaIldaraInalike – Chel The Senanayake-Chelva Annexure C Text of the Indo-Sri Lal
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MNORITIES,
The Fate of Minorit
Neelan Tiruchelvam
hen the Uniwersal Declaration
of Human Rights was being debated in the General Assembly, it Was pointed out that the Organisation should not remain indifferent "to the fate of minorities". The Coltission on Human Rights andits Sub-CommisSion On PrgVention of DiScrimination and the Protection of Minorities Could not effectively advance these concerns.
However in recent years there hawe been significant international and regional developments with regard to the protection of minorities. The General Assembly in 1992 adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. At the Helsinki Summit of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe on 10th July 1992, the ಙ್ಗ ing states decided to establish : : High : CommisSioner of National Minorities, as an "instrument of conflict prevention' at the earliest possible stage. In 1995 the Council of Europe rectified the lack of powers directly concerned with minority protection in European human rights legislation, by adopting a FrameWOrk Con Weltico Cor National Minorites in 1995. The Framework Convention has been described as a unique piece of human rights legislation which lays down principles on the protection of minorities, but leaves it to the state parties to chose the Ways and means in which to implement them. These developments, which were partly fuelled by the impending disintegration of Yugoslavia, and the revival of ethnonationalist in Central and Eastern Europe, point to the increasing importance that is being accorded to minority protection questions in the international and regional humans agendas.
Establishment of the Working Group
The Norwegian member of the UN Sub-Commission played an important role in the establishment On the UN Working Group on Minorities. Norway had played a similar role in the
2
establishment of Group on Indigen Asbjorn Eide as its played a significar SLJCCeSS, Eide Wa 3 years of study a Sub Commission r de experts on the the UN Declaratio Set of reCorter Corrission's 19: addressed Ways ar ting the peaceful resolution of disput ties.
Опе оf these rec ted to the establish Group. He argued on Human Right establishing a Wor rity issues, whic access to repres governments and ni date of the group
o the situation in dif
World aid to dew, guidelines for the thē 1992 Declarati Commission and
should thereby ber for all , UN activities respective mandat voice for the gro Would Serveto facili between minorities ard to develop T ESOLtior Or dirBC into peaceful chan
As a consequen mendations, the Human Rights in eStablish a reW LOn Minorities. The Working Group v Tembers of the draWrifror each ir Was to -
a) review the pror rEElization of t on the Rights ol to National or and Linguistic

ries
the UN Working ous population and first Chairman had It Contributior to its s also engaged in ld CJISLultation With members and outsiimplementation of in. He submitted a dation at the Sub 33 meeting which ld Tears of facilitaand constructive es involving minori
OrmsTendationS relament of a Working
"The COTrission is should consider king Group on Tnimoh should provide entatives of both TimОrities. ThЕ Папlight be to examine ferent parts of the elop more specific
implementation of on Minorities. The its Working Group made the focal point Sundertaken within es. By providing a ups. Concerned, it tate Cornmunication and governments lethods for Conflict tion of the conflict
els.
Ce of these recomCommission on 1994 decided to JN Working Group Composition of the Was to include 5 Sub Commission egion. Its mandate
notion and practical he UN Declaratio FPersons belonging Ethnic, Religious Minorities:
b) examine solutions to problems involving minorities, including the promotion of mutual understanding between and among minorities and governments;
c) recommend further Teasures, as appropriate for the promotion and protection of the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic religious and linguistic minorities.
The role of the Working Group
The first meeting of the Working Group took place in Geneva on the 28th August 1995. In his opening statement, the High Commissioner for Human Rights Jose Ayala-Lasso called upon the Working Group to suggest "concrete, constructive and peaceful solutions to minority situations". He further argued that close cooperation between the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Working Group was required for effective protection of the rights of persons belonging to minorities. Several mernbers of the Working Group also emphasise the importance of focussing not only on concrete minority situations and problems but also on possible Solutions and the framing of constructiWe proposals. They argued that the Working Group should therefore endeavour to engage government and minorities in a constructive dialogue.
At least one observer argued in favour of a step by step approach in the realisation of the Tandate of the Working Group. These steps were identified as: (a) the consideration of national legislation (b) practical measures in building confidence and (c) the promotion of relevant rights included in the declaration. He argued that the emphasis should be on studying the experience of different states in promoting understanding and tolerance and accommodation of minorities. At least. One member of the Working Group felt that there was a need to go beyond approaches which were based on mere tolerance and acceptance. The issues

Page 5
of minority protection must be assessed. Within a broader framework of a multi-Cultural Society and in Strengthening the values and institutions which promote cultural diversity. In this regard, Working group should focus (a) on the analysis of national legislation, (b) the role of education at the international, national and community levels in maintaining culture, language and other characteristics of minorities, (c) the relationship between the media and the issues of minority protection. The Nordic countries seem to have argued that the Working Group should more
sharply focus on the norms and stan
dards erThbOded in the UNDEClaratiOT) and be a monitoring Techanis in for the protection and promotion of the rights of persons belonging to minorities.
The Chairman-Rapporteur-concluded that the role of the Working Group should be viewed in the context of Article 7 of the Declaration, which stated "States should cooperate in order to promote respect for the rights set forth in the present Declaration". He pointed out that the Working Group should serve as a forum for dialogue and mutual understanding based on the factual information. Submitted in a concrete and specific manner. The actual experiences of minorities should provide ideas and proposals for constructive group accommodation. It was further important that the Working Group should not seek to overlap with the Work of other UN institutions ad organisations which are empowered to address the problems of groups such as refugees, asylum seekers, and migrant workers,
The Working Methods of the Group
A threshold question which was addressed at the first meeting of the Working Group related to participation, Should participation be limited to nongovernmental organisations With conSultative status with the Economic and Social Council or should it be opened to all non-governmental organisations, The Working Group on Indigenous Population had adopted the practice of open participation which had considerably enhanced the effectiveness of the Group. As Douglas Sanders pointed out "For the first time indigenous people had specific access to the United Nations. They had their own
interTlational forUTo able to exercise influ content of the agen Group on indigel Their participational Ved groups to ad Nations directly, an testimony on their E accordingly argued cipation to all non-g nisations Would en ange of information pect of the situatior ties of the locallew Working Group We convinced of the IT wing the widest po in the Working Gro
Second categor which was empha: scholars and profes Who Were familiar of ethnicity and coul insights into mimorit resolution of Tinor Chairman-Rapporte marised that partici king Group meetir four categories of by government ob provide the Working Tlation on steps tal principles of the C furnctiOr1 of the Gri experiences on Suc by United Nations & and agencies which Working Group W their activities in international ard mɛ mental organization Tinority issues as . te; and finally, by se Sionare SearcherS mic institutions wh Search in the field group accommodat provide the Working fic insight into th exploring".
It was also pointe should be encourag Communications or Wolving minorities: resolution. The in Organisation and U share information respective organis relating to minoritie Rapporteur also po

NGOs Were also
Jerce on the actual Ida of the Working Tous populations. lso enabledaggriedress the United d to provide direct Experiences. It was that opening partiJoWernmental orgacourage the exchparticularly in resis of ethnic minoriel. MerTibers of the re therefore easily portance Of achiessible participation шpппеetiпgs.
y of participation sised was that by isional researchers with the problems d therefore provide situations and the ity problems. The Ur therefore i SurTpation at the Worngs would include observers - "first SerWers who could g Group with inforken to promote the eclarationaS One oup was to share h Tatters; Second, und regional bOdles could provide the it information on he field; third, by ational non-governIs Which deat With art of their mandacholars and profesattached to acade10 Carried out re
of minorities and ion and who could Group with scientile issues it Was
dout that observers ed to SubmitWritten the problems inand their possible ternational Labour 'NESCO agreed to compiled by their ations on issues S. The Chairmaninted to the impor
tance of taking note of information contained in the relevant reports of the Secretary-General, the-Commission of Human Rights and the Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission and the Commission. Wherever special studies of specific minority situations were required, the Working Group agreed that it could commission studies by the United Nations Research Institutions for Social Development or by the United Nations University.
The Promotion and Practical Reali
zation of the UN Declaration
The main task of the UN Working Group was to promote the implementation of the UN Declaration. In doing So, it could also take into account specific obligations undertaken by states from time to time including the League of Nations and those undertaken in more recent years. These Would include several bilateral treaties adopted by several states in Europe within the context of the Stability Pact adopted at a meeting of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Paris in March 1995. Article 8 of the UN Declaration states that "Nothing in the present Declaration shall prevent the fulfillment of international obligations of States in relation to persons belonging to minorities. In particular, States shall fulfil in good faith the obligations and commitments they have assumed under international treaties and agreements to which they are parties".
The first step in promoting the practical realisation of the UN Declaration Would be to review the constitutions and legislations of nation states with a view to examining the extent to which there is effective protection of the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic minorities. During the first session of the Working Group held in 1995, the Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia stated that the Constitution and other laws guaranteed national minorities "all rights derived from international norms and standards". Similarly Slovakia represented that it had ratified the European Framework Conwention for the Protection of National Minorities, and "incorporated its norms into national legislation". Second, goWernment and non-governmental organilsations should bê encouraged to periodically submit reports on the situation of national or ethnic minorities

Page 6
Within their country, their geographical distribution, numerical size, history and the measures and policies that have been implemented, designed, preserWed and safeguard their identity, characteristics and rights, Austria Tade reference to the "Federal Gover II let General Report on the Situation of Ethnic Groups in Austria" which sought to describe the concrete situation of ethnic groups and the measures toWards their protection. Third, the Working Group could commission a study om special measures including the affirmative action programmes designed to protect historically disadvantaged and marginalised national or ethnic minorities. Such a study Would enable the Working Group to identify situations in Which such Special measures Woluld be appropriate and the legitimate limits of affirmative action programmes. In this regard, Article 8.3 of the Declaration states "Measures taken by the States to ensure the effective enjoyment of the rights set forth in the present Declaration i shall not prima facie be considered contrary to the principle of equality contained in the Uniwersal Declaration of – Human Rights".
Fourth, the Working Group could commission academics and experts to Undertake studies which Would elucidate the basic concepts and ideas which are eTOdied in the UN Declaratio. Such studies should include concepts such as the right to existence, the right to identity (including culture, religion and language), the right to education, the right to participation, the right to association, the right to cross-border Contacts. With other Terbers of their group, the relationship between individual rights and those rights which can only be exercised in community with others. Such studies Would enable the Working Group to issue comments on specific articles in the Declaration, and in the preparation of a manual which explains the provisions of this Declaration. One observer urged the Working Group to pursue a more ambitious standards setting project and to considEr the Elaboratiol Cof a draft COWEtion on the rights of national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. No member of the Working Group or Observer has Commented om this idea.
4
WALLIC:lle, Col Sald, may be But stray miı To tյftt:1 still
Ships don't k Mine sweeper Safe seas We
But in your E
So the "Willi
011 to BOIlba
And clopping Colobo See As you tried And mingled
Your boat Wa Asler six year A last contin Twistful P He had kepl. Gratefully fed The first of I
OI 1 Lhis jou TT
Cross again.
Sirens tot y OIl to Adel,
Port Said, all Turning your
Susiliciently r To be snapp Shaking hain Who put all At Newport a (Talk of Ceylc Tellādē
Whıisked oT.t To betray ap

Waiting - 27 Voyage Out
lobo's Chicf. Post laster
the War is over
les still lurk in seas you have to cross we have report, of all mails lost eep to Convoys now 's II lissa II ille or two
canno talk about :yes, I see no seat of doubt,
lel Castle" sailed, ly, big city spite its cows
horse traps, street corner flowers. led so suburban and bare - 圭 a konde maale in your hair
with Mother India's multitude.
is P & O. Once more 's of troopship duly gent from Singapore unjabi major led off the ship at Bombay you people (already tired of the liner's English fare)
on rice & Curried dhal any casual farewells hey whеге paths hardly ever
au fron Asia's last outpost the Red Seas heat, mails at Suez, - d the Mediterranean, then Biscay
SOIllach5-Iside OLt.
-
2covered at Southampton ld in saree, shivering without overcoats is with the lady from Colonial Office safe on the train to Newport gain, Colonial Office and Press on's Independence being much in the news)
over to the College Head,

Page 7
CHANAKA: Farewell to
Anura Bandaramaike, M.P.
We hawe i gathered - here this evening to bid our final farewell to our friend Dr. Chanaka Amaratunga. It is an occasion of bewilderment and sadness. It is an occasion of sadness because we have lost a dear and faithful friend; a great liberal democrat; a fiercely independent politician and an absolute gentleman to his fingertips.
It is also an occasion of bewiderTent because no one present here this Sunday evening would have imagined a week ago, that We will gather here this evening to say farewell to Chanaka.
His Was a life filled. With success and achievement, disappointment and betrayel. And, he treated all those imposters just the same. Rudyard Kipling Would hawe been proud Of Charliaka ATlaratungal
Academic Success at St. Thomas Collge, Oxford University, and at the London School of ECOOTICS Carte easily to Chanaka. Whilst in the United Kingdom he distinguished himself as a scholar of repute and a debator par excellепсе.
Om his return to Sri Larka, Charaka plunged into the World of politics, forming his own Liberal Party, with it's own vision for the future. For a idealistic young an returning from Oxford, to a country where the two party system was firmly entrenched, it was no easy task to Culi another Party; another vision. But, Chanaka undertook this daunting task with a missionary zeal. He fought for what he believed was right, irrespective of What others might think of him,
The success of a political party does not solely rest with the number of members they have or the number of times they hawe Won an election. It also rests with the principles they stand for and how sincerely and articulately they are placed before the people.
Wher Charlaka SpoOke Or Wrothe did so with passion, clarity conviction
and zeal. He may have been atmost
times alone; a voice in the Wilderness,
but that Thade Char and Tore deterTTir1E
| hawe personally Presidential Election Were tryimg to puti of different forces, y at his best: arguing, But I Chamaka bein gave in and finally and outvoted he a of the majority. With de Tocrat that Wa: tunga. He firmly an in the very essence freedom of choice. lip service unlikes practiced the very e! to the letter.
Chalaka Was the ral in it's truest forn lessly for the right the opressed and espoused their cau COWiction. None W. ľT10ľE SilCBľB ľTlaľ
CLSE.
As I Said at th speech, Chanaka's with disappointmen in 1988 and 1994, C a seat in Parliar occasionShe Was threWirtself into enthusiasm and wig lies in all parts of til of his hard Work Wi The disappointmer ewer mora bitter bH laced with personal rkablething was tha a grudge or said them; he laughed it this makes hits' amongst those polit of him and finally if Chanaka had in Tenthe Would ha tantially and addec that august asserml
Chahakalike T10: best that life offere
the cinema, food pleasure to spend

a Liberal
laka TOTE COherert d.
Witnessed before the Is of 1988, When We to-gether a coalition where Charaka Was cajoling, persuading.. g: Charaka, rarely
Whe out shouted ccepted the Verdict grace. That was the s Charaka ATmarad sincerely believed of democracy, the He did not pay mere OThe politicians, he ssence of democracy
quimtessential Liben. He argued relents of the Tinorities,
the Voiceless. He ses with dignity and Would hawe f0Lund a 1 to respouse their
e beginning of this life was also filled t and betrayel. Both Charaka WaSASSLUTEd Tertad Eliot petrayed. Though he lese campaigns With gour, addressing ralhe country, the fruits as reaped by others. it for Chanaka Was ecause betrayel Was treachery. The rematè SWEfhäLIsès a harsh Word about away with irony апсi land tal and proud icians Who made use let hit down For deed entered Parliave contributed subs| colour and style to bly.
st others, enjoyed the d. Book, the theatre, and Wine. It was a an evening with him.
The conversation ranged from Bosnia to Burundi, to the Dalai Lama and Miss World, to the devolution package and the latest Andrew Lloyd Webber musical playing in London's West end His breath of vision was unique and for this alone We shall. ThisShirT.
Personally for me, Chanaka's death lea WeS a Woid not easily fillad. He Wa:S a close friend. It sought his advice on sensitive political issues before made up my mind and his advice was always balanced and sincere. He may have had serious dis-agreements. With the political stands taken by the Party represent; yet, he gave me his unstinted Support and cooperation, which was purely perSonal.
The cherubic and portly Chanaka has left us never to return. We shall miss him and miss hirTigreatly. His untimely demise has left us poorer. When the World lay before him, this nation has lost an outstanding Son.
Kahlil Gibran, the great Lebanese poel and philosopher, whom Chanaka quoted often Wrotein his Tour tental Work The Prophes:
"Yeti| cannot tarry longer, The Sea that calls all things unto her
Calls Tel & Tlust eTibark, For to stay, though the hours burn in the night, is to freeze and crystallize and be bound in a mould, Fain would I take with me and all that
is here. But how shall I? A voice cannot carry the tongue and
the lips that gave it wings. Alone must it seek the ether, And, alone and Without his nest shall
the eagle fly across the sun"
And, Chanaka has flown across the sun alone, leaving us with sad memories,
of a lifelived to the full.
드
offer my heartfelt condolences to his mother whose entire life was devoted to the well being of her only child and the courage and fortitude with which she has taken her son's death is indeed, admirable. Our hearts go out to her in her hour of grief.
5

Page 8
THE WELFARESTATE
Reclaiming Sri
Laksiri Jayasuriya
Introduction
It is a great privilege and honour to be invited to present the sixth J.E. Jayasuriya Memorial Lecture. This address and its there is intended as a tribute to an outstanding scholar and gentleman, and on a personal note, as an expression of my gratitude and thanks to JE (as he was known to all of us), and also Delicia (not just his wife but accomplice and ally in his many endeawours) for the warmth of their friendship and collegiality. His
It is now nearly 40 years since my Wife and I Car Tieto knoW JEI and Delicia as new comers to the beautiful campus of Peradeniya as it then was. I wividly recall, as a young academic in Perademiya in 1956, - the vibrant social and intellectual life and remember with affectionate nostalgia, many friends, colleagues and students of years gone by. Peradeniya has indeed many pleasant memories and, of all these, I rate highly Thy good fortune in being closely associated with two outstanding academic colleagues, both perSons of high personal and intellectual integrity, driven by the pursuit of Scholarly excellence in their respective fields of expertise, and above all deeply imbued with a sense of moral and Social purpose, publicly acknowledge that one of these was none other til UE.
The theme of my lecture: The Challenge of the Welfare. State in Reclaiming Social Democracy in Sri Lanka, I believe, reflects JE's deep and abiding commitment as a liberal intellectual to the pursuit of Social goals - those of equality and justice. As a dedicated scholar, his was mot an ivory towered distinterested search for the truth. His credo may be admirably surned up in the Words of North Chomsky that "it is the responsibility of intellectuals to speak the truth and to expose lies' (1967). Letime recall these Sentiments, in JE's Own words:
See the Preface to his excellent review and Critique of Sri Lankan education in Jayasuriya
(1969).
Lanka's
it is necessary it Commitments unc education and Take. Il art-dée frleal Of a syslg guarantees genui tunity to all childre ethnic origin, sc class, and religic tions, larTI also the defence of th and thinking frc Seemed deterri freedom by the e) We Control over School and Unive
lecho and empha sentinents and CO acadêmics and in tE leSSy in the pur COWictions.
Let me tum to my Inding the trials and mporary Sri Lankat and 1977 Stad Out landmarks. Equally. Will rank as a new a reW-Selse of d as Sri Lanka enters As it is widely re. has an unenviable Third World Socia established in liber tionS SLJch as the . rL. civil Society, and ele ssing a high degree tiOr, and - rimost ir entrenched in a Wel to equity and just these hawe been dismantled in there and it is in this ci the reclaiming of principles and Walue Social derToCratic government is - dire highly on the politic: Coalition governmer add that this Tarldi incorporate a Soluti Ethic: COfictid
 

s Social Democrac
Opoint out that two derlie my approach to the assessments bly committed to the rt of education that ime equality of opporan irrespective of their }cial and economic LuS 3rd Other affilideeply committed to a freedom of learning Til the for Ces that ned to destroy this cercise of an excessithe community of rsity teacher.
atically endorse these
Tether to a allectuals to act fearsuit of their moral
the Tle, understatribulations of conteghe years, 1931, 1956 aS epochal historical | || believe, 1994 too 2ntful year, ushering estiny and direction the next millenniuti. Cognised, Sri Lanka record as a pioneer | democracy, firmly al der TOCratic institutle of law, a dynamic ctoral politics, posseof political participaimportantly, SeCLIrely fare State COT1ritted ice, Regrettably, Fall severly fractured or cent immediate past, ontext that believe
the lost traditions, as of the Sri Lankan State to Which this ect their, i mLJStrate al-agenda of the new ht, Let me hastel to ate must necessarily on to the damaging violence which has
ravaged the Country over the years, but Tore intensely since 1983.
Admittedly, the political agenda of all parties seem hopelessly confused and overwhelmed by the gravity of the ethnic Conflict. In the process, it has, I believe, been driven to piecemeal, fragmented and discordant public policies - economic and social policy. These pragmatic and populist responses are characteristic of a dull and arid political culture. Regrettably, the intellectual community too, barring. Some notable exceptions, appears to be afflicted by the same Thalaise. It is in this context that We need to re-think and re-state the walues and funda Tental principles of social democracy-those of freedom, equality and justice - which have been seriously damaged in the recent past. We need to reinstate and articulate these values and principles in a mariner relevant and meaningful to the present circumstances of Sri Lanka - viz.: a plural society umdergoing rapid economic change in a period of globalisation.
in brief, the burden of my argument rests on a two-fold assumption: first and foremost is that reclaiming social democracy is fundamental for the future well being of the nation, its political social and economic development in the foreseeable future; and, secondly that the distinctive feature of Sri Lankan social democracy, indeed, its most outstanding achievement has been the Sri Lankan Welfare state as it existed at its peak in the 1960s. This has all but collapsed along with Social democracy in Sri Lanka. Hence, the Crisis of the Welfare state is synonymous with the crisis of social democracy in Sri Lanka; or stated differently, the dismantling of the welfare state has also witnessed the rejection of Social democracy.
The decline of social democracy applies equally to developed and develo
The aLihoLir is Emeritus Prosessor University ar
Mg5Sigrir ALISfisi,

Page 9
ping countries, in that the 'social contract" of the post War period is being renegotiated on terms that increasingly depart from the social democratic notion of Welfare. In the case of Sri Lanka, What we observe is that the Orthodoxy of the Keynesian Welfare state - a legacy of British liberal political thought-nurtured in the unusual environment of a for industrialised, partially modernised economy of a developing Country - has been rejected by the neo-liberal regimes of the post 1977 period committed to urladulterated: froms of Plaissez faire capitalism, an economic individualism, a social philosophy of greed, and a market economy hostile to the principles of a Welfare state. In the language of Galbraith, the public policies of this period were characterised by private affluence and public squalor. Against this background, a Central feature of Tly argument is that a priority consideration should given to the justification of the Welfare state. This requireS a restatement of its value base, its rationale and policies. This must be viewed not just S a defECE I of the Welfäre Statė būLul as a response to its philosophical rejection by neo-liberal Conservative goveTITITE TLS.
The challenge of the Welfare state, as a basis for reclaiming social democratic ideals lies, as I shall argue, in its ability to refashion the Welfare state in a manner that it will be able to accommodate the economic imperatives and political realities of an opem market economy committed to rapid economic growth. In short, to use the political rhetoric (i.e. structural adjust tent with a human face) of the current Centre Left Coalition government in Wanting to humanise Capitalism, We need to recogmise that Social-policies cannot be formulated without reference to economic policies for the simple reason that Social policieS i are i dependent Om the economy for their implementation. Hence, a primary consideration Tust be the functional integration of economic and Social policies.
In developing the broad lines of this argument, shall first endeavour to briefly identify the political fate of the Social democratic state in Sri Lanka in recent times as one which involves not just the 'dismantling of democracy” (Tham
biah 1992) but, in ntling of the Welfa more than the form to the de Tise of Following this, the presentation rewolwe tion of a policy rati the CriticiŠľT1Š Of Welf we critics of the Sri L In reconstructing thi argued that oneh into account thep economic realities. on the proverbial
about Welfare by
rationale as Well a able to realistically Of Wglfare in the f will be argued that
S COTE tOE
Socialismo based O of citizenship and : hopefully provides a for the Sri Lankar social de Tocracy in Cortbilation of marl cal citizenship whic TUnitarian ideas, a tiss in not only enshr a revitalised Social
a Welfare state but attraction of respor of Sri Lankar deT the need to the iCC pluralism Within th state, brief, this terms of citizenship Socialism enables Welfare state by pr fOL IndatiOr Which ir But reconstruction cannot be comple building a new poli recognises the divi various COTT Luriti
Contextualising Social Democrac
It IS TOW COTITÖr has an outstanding ment as a post Colc in the liberalden Western dBITOCraC polity, its institution hawe eWolwedi Ower exercise of Luniversa wide acceptance a political culture of politicised COTTLuri

articular the dis Ta"Sitte. The att er has been Central social democracy main focus of the Saround an exposimalenthe light of arism by conservatiankan Welfare State. e Welfare state, it is as to also to take resent political and his exposition bears "TES-en" debate identifying a policy is a policy Strategy frOtteleEdS preseeable future. It the practice of what known as "Tarket a radical concept Societal corporatism, defensible rationale Welfare Statė land late 1990s. The Ket Socialism, a radih incorporates Comnd societal corporaines the essence of democratic state as also as the added lding to key issues Tocratic politics, viz. irporate diversity and e Social de Tocratic conceptualisation in ) theory and market us to restructure the widing a democratic Corporates diversity. of the Welfare state sted LIrtil We start itical community that ersity of interests in S.
Melfare and
у
place that Sri Larka record of achieveInial Society moulded nocratic tradition of ies. The T democratic sand practices that
six decades of the il suffrage has gained nd forms part of the a highly literate and ity. Although the vici
ssitudes in the evolution of this fascinating Experiment in liberal democratic politicSB in a post Colonial Society hawe been Well documented and dissected by political and social theorists, the record of the recent past, especially of the last four decades remains relatively unexploredor examined only superficially. Ower the last two decades, these accounts have understandably been heavily focused in understanding the sub-plot of Sri Lankan politics, namely, minority politics. The escalation of ethnic politics into violence has transfor Ted this sub-plot on to the centre stage of not just Sri Lankan politics but all aspects of Sri Lankan developments - political, social and economic. This has, unfortunately distorted a balanced and proper appreciation of the achievements and shortcomings of the Sri Lankan experiment in democracy, and in particular, its outstanding record in social development as a unique example of a Welfare state in the Third World.
What is perhaps most regrettable about this literature is that it is heavily biased towards one theoretical paradigm, namely, a culturalist explanations of ethnic politics. These are deeply immersed in a brand of anthropological theorising, stemming from One particular tradition of Americal cultural anthropology, which focuses on an idealist interpretation of culture (Jayasuriya 1992). Within this research framework, the topics of religion and selected aspects of "Sinhala lationalis T" hawe been given undue prominence. Given the limitations and controversy surroundirig this Tode of Culturaltheorising, and also in the absence of a critical examination of the logic of this discourse and its evidence, it is most regrettable that this mode of discourse has become the orthodoxy of Sri Lankan social theorising. Interestingly, these shortcomings are beginning to be appreciated by scholars. Spencer (1995), in a judicious carefully Worded review of two recent publications On Sri Lankan culture and ethnicity, characteristic of this Orthodoxy, politely admonishes the Writers for having singularly failed to pay heed to 'the social and political context of the arguments' advanced by them in portraying the tragedy of 'unhappiness' in Sri Lanka. It is not my intention to enter into this emerging debate except to use this

Page 10
occasion to urge Sri Lankan researchers to adopt alternative perspectives in looking at Sri Lankan politics and its political and social development. More appropriate explanations for the ongoing ethnic conflict are more likely to be found in the logic of political institutions than in any ideological Conception of culture.
Intracing the Evolution of Sri Lankan social democracy, with its commitment to the achievement of freedom, equality and justice, it is important to note that OVer and above the influence of the liberal tradition of politics, coming from the British colonial past, the single most important force which has sustained and Taintained social democracy in Sri Lanka has been the Sri Lankan labour movement (Jayawardena 1973) and concurrently the impact of the associated left political parties. The Social democratic tradition of politics, unlike the orthodox liberal democratic form of government is committed not only to the protection of individual liberties and freedoms (civil and political rights) but more importantly to the pursuit of equality of opportunity and distributive justice as regards resources allocation, Inshort It is the commitment to the pursuit of equality and justice as a collective responsibility which confers a Walid interwentionist role for the state in fashioning public policy, even to the extent of imposing on individual freedoms for the sake of the public good. These principles of social democracy Were fully articulated in public policy terrns primarily by the Left coalition governments of the post 1956 era which Were responsible for the consolidation of the now defunct or fractured Sri Lankan Welfare state.
Unfortunately, the social policy record and performance of social democratic governments of the post 1956 period, particularly the social and economic Consequences of Welfarism hawe been poorly researched. Whenever examined, social policy has been viewed Terely as an adjunct of economic policy, and never in its own right. This is likely to change largely because the regime change of 1977, which saw the emergence of a neo-liberal Conservative gowernment, introduced dramatic changes in all aspects of the political, economic and Social life of the counrty, including the dismantling of the Welfare state. These changest-served to bring about the
disjunction between policy which herald Sri Lankan Welfares in the 1960s and cally, the Social pol ced in the post-1 unbridgeable cha post-1956 and 1977 sharp relief the nat of social policy. turning point in the has been the role has had a profoun Social structures.
Wetherefore in the 1994 regime ch tions for a liberal de Cormitted to the democracy (Jaya,Su mining influence issues affecting W SEWere political Cri: present governmen ethnic conflict lead a civil War and democracy which 19705 Wa5 intarisif 1983. This led to the rule of law, the executive authority, the judiciary and bur all, the curtailment imposed by section: Who Wigorously pl. policies. All these in and political rights.
One of the justific; neo-liberals of the the infringements ( SuSpėmision of civilli rights as well as democratic process dom, and rights of a: WaStati COStituti Straints Were neces To quote Hayek (19
When an externa When rebellion or broker OL ut, or a requiries quick a Tears can be: Compulsory orga body normally pc. nted to somebody
Whatever be the depicted as chample

economic and social d the demise of the late as it has awolved 970s. More specificy changes introdu77 era Create an st between the era, and thrOWS into Jre and significance deed, the critical
post-1956 regimes f social policy which i impact in shaping
ed to contextualise ange and its implicanocratic government principles of social riya 1995). A deteron the substantive elfare concer the is inherited by the t. The escalating of Ing to i conditions of the dismantling of began in the early ed, particularly after serious violations of exercise of arbitrary
the politicisation of eaucracy, and above
of the civil society s of the political elite Irsued authoritarian fringed on basic civil
ations offered by the post-1977 era for of the rule of law, berties and citizens' the denigration of such as press freessembly and protest, onal and legal resary and inevitable. 379):
enemy threatens, awless Violence has national catastrophe ction by Whatever ecured, powers of lisation. Which noISSESSES 3 mLust gra* (1979, 124).
neo-liberals (usually ons of liberty) defe
nce of "regimes of exception' - either as a defence of authoritarianism or of dictatorship - based on a doctrine of a just war or for reasons of state, as Loveman rightly points out, they tend to 'make the unthinkable not only thinkable but doable and to result in tyranny" (1993, 404). There is no doubt that the post 1977 governments, as "regimes of exception' in Lowerman's sense, established a constitutional foundation for an oppressive anti democratic regime and helped to secure what Giddens has aptly called "the шпhappy neo-liberal marrlage of marketprinciples and authoritarianism (1995, 32).
The restoration of the democratic processes of the state requires not just the return to the rule of law, and the removal of oppressive and discriminating legislation and emergency provisions, but also the reconstruction of Sri Lanka's battered 'civil society'. Above all, it requires the grant of adequate representation of the minorities in the de TOCratic state with equal rights and the fullest degree of participation in determining the destiny of the nation. The envisaged model of constitutional reforms, guaranteeing devolved power to constitutionar ly defined "regions', territorially demarcated as areas of ethnic concentration, is as I have suggested elsewhere (see CDN 14/08/95) a first step in the right direction. We need to recognise the multiple allegiances that citizens may hold in a political community. Constitutional reform must recognise these Tultiple sources of loyalty.
This, among other considerations, needs to be entrenched in a reaffirmation of the values and principles of social democracy based on a conception of citizenship rights, which explicitly recognises the politics of difference' (Taylor 1992). We need a radical view of citizenship which acknowledges that "when a society is socially differentiated, then citizenship must be equally so" (Philips 1992). This task will be facilitated, by re-conceptualising social democracy within a radical view of citizenship theory which is capable of incorporating issues of diversity and pluralism as well as welfare. In other words, citizenship theory has significance for questions of minority politics and welfare politics,

Page 11
The TWO Lears
Regi Siriwardena
thB - 1950S, PE:teTBTOok directed
a famous production of King Lear on both stage and Screen...I never had an opportunity to see the stage Wersion, but I did see the film. What was pervasive in Peter Brook's production was a Sense of the meaninglessness of the human condition and the ferocity of the destructiWe impulses of human beings. There was a lot of controversy at the time about whether Brook had been, as they say, “tгшe to Shakesреаге". lпопе ѕсепе, Gloucester is blinded before the audiece. But in what had becote the standard text of the play, two of the servants, even though they assist in the blinding, are, when left alone, full of compassion for the old man. At the end of the scene they Want to put eggwhite on his bleeding eyesockets and have LLL L00LLLLLLL LaLLLLS LLLLL LaLLLL LLLLLL out that coversation between the Serwants, and for this he was roundly rebuked by some critics who said he had changed Shakespeare's humane view of people to suit his own pessimism.
This gawe me one of the starting-points formy play The Blinding, performed in Colombo in April and June 1995. There the director Ajith also wants to cut the Conversation between the servants after the blinding of Gloucester - but not for Peter Brook's philosophical reasons. Ajith rejects what he calls the "moral consolation' that Shakespeare offers because he thinks it contrary to the actual behaviour of people during the Sri Lankan violence of 1988-89. He says: "I Want to Flub the OSBS Of the audience in the blood and the guilt, and not let them get away with a little soothing eggwhite'. But he is talking not in the sixties but in 1995. So on stage there's a Scholar, Premila, who to begin with defends Ajith's right to do whatever he wants with the text. But near the Erid of the argument she discloses, to Ajith's Surprise and delight, that Shakespeare had probably made the same cut himself in a later, revised version of the play.
This paper is based or a task given fo the English Association of Sri Lanka.' F.
My talk today. i postScript to that p. I shall try to an questions. Ils it like геvised Кїпg Leага rinces? Ifhe - did, ir change the play? A We learn front the about Shakespeare as a playWright?
But before car stions, Illust first As in the case of have no Tianuscri Shakespeare's har the earliest printed tWO of ther. One of this play, publish re Was living - t iS ksOW ES the Fi is the text of King first collected editic plays, known as was brought out seven years after in 1623. I must ex Folio are just printe page-sizes; a Folio sheet of printing pa a Quarto foldedtwik of King Lear deri another from these
texts.
The Cuart text of King Leardiffer w; The Folio Cuts Out are in the Quarto, a huldEd that are edition. In addition, assigned to differe tWee -- Cuarto and Huldreds Of Wari Words.
How do we expla Unti 1986 a edit aSSLumed that there manuscript of Kir Shakespeare — по Cuts in the Folio ITutilations made in time = in performan recocile this with it
 

is really a kind of lart of The Blinding, iswer the following ly that Shakespeare fter its first periorTПаWhat Ways did he di further, what Carn
case of King Lear 's Tethods of Work
answer these queoffer you some facts. his other plays, We pt of King. Lear in d. All We hawe are
editions. There are
is a separate book ed While Shakespeaat is, in 1608. This 'St. Lart. The Other Lear found in the of Shakespeare's he First Folio. This by his fellow-actors his death - that is, blai that Cuarto ard "S" ter TSG for different page has a standard perfolded once, and ce. Every later edition Wes in one i Way or : two earliest printed
and the Folio text astly from each other. nearly 300 lines that ut it also adds about lot found in the earlier
Some speeches are it characters asteFolio, and there are EtioriS in Idiwidual
in these differences? ors of Shakespeare was a single original ng Lear written by W lost of course. The Were explained as the theatre, to Save Ce. - BUt-then, how he fact that the Folio
added a hundred lines not found in the Quarto? EditorS answered this by Conjecturing that those hundred lines had bееп there iп Shakespeare's пnanuscript but had been dropped out of the Quarto by mistake. There were various theories constructed to try to explain how such ar 8 TOT COLuld hawe OCCLUTEd, but I don't intend to spend time on them. What's more important is to realise that behind the practice of editors, there were certain assumptions about the ways in which Shakespeare's plays were transmitted from manuscript to theatre to printinghOLSE.
In particular, two assumptions, First, that behind the printed texts, there was one and only one authentic manuscript in the author's hard. It Was the task Of the Gditor to rēCÓStrLCt as i får aš possible the text of this manuscript. In the case of King Lear, it was believed that this could be done by conflating the two original editions in effect, adding from the Quarto the lines Cut from the Folio and making choices between other variants.
The second assumption Tiade by editors Was that once the supposed authentic manuscript left Shakespeare's hand, any changes it underwent could Only hawe been a process of Corruption. Its Virginal purity was thought of as violated by the rough hands of actors and theatre-managers, cutting, interpolating and altering, and of semi-literate compositors in the printing-house misreading the manuscript they were Working from.
Editors were right about Elizabethan printers, but their picture of the fate of Shakespeare's plays in the playhouse came from nothing more solid than the Scholar's prejudice against the popular theatre. To illustrate this, shall read you la paSSage: from G. K. Hunter'a distinguished scholar, editing King Lear for the New Penguin Shakespeare. About the cuts in the First Folio, Hunter Says
These cuts have an extraordinary
9

Page 12
persistence in the stage tradition, and one must presume that they preserve the theatrical fabric to the satisfaction of the stage, however abhorrent they are to literary connoisseurs.
These are the behind the textual in 1986 by the Ox that is, the Corps Stanley Wells an
is formidable-looking
To contrast the play as it existed to the satisfaction of the stage' with the play as perceived by "literary connoisseurs' is surely entirely wrong for Shakespeare. Shakespeare didn't Write for literary connoisseurs. All the evidence We have suggests that he took no interest even in the publication of his plays because he was content to communicate with his audience through the medium for which the plays were created - the theatre. It's the academic and critical industry that has turned Shakespeare into a book, a set of printed texts for study in the classroom and for the Weaving of critical webs round them. Shakespeare would have found this metamorphosis of his work bizarre. He was a complete man of the theatre who began life as an actor and continued to be one, while becoming the most popular playwright of the most successful theatre company of his time. He was a shareholder of that company and made a lot of money out of it. Like Charles Dickens, Charlie Chaplin or Louis Armstrong, Shakespeare was a popular entertainer who was also a great artist, and like them, he is a permanent reminder that the two roles aren't at all incompatible.
As anybody familiar with theatre knows, plays often undergo changes in rehearsal or after first performance, if the scholars rejected this possibility in the case of Shakespeare, it was because they must have felt that it detracted from Shakespeare's genius if one suggested that he couldn't get it right first time. But if we see Shakespeare mot as the Ionely genius bLt as a man Working in the collaborative art of the theatre, there's nothing improbable in theirTage of him trying out his creations in rehearsal or performance and modifying them, when necessary. Whether a particular change was initiated by Shakespeare himself or by an actor is irrelevant. What matters is that all Such changes would hawe emerged from the theatre as part of a collective process of production in which Shakespeare participated.
O
table is the Oxford for in which it. Wi. - large, heavy ar since been reprintet me paperback, wł more manageable.
in Contrast. With Shakespeare, the the View that their as close as possi performed in the the obliged them to possibility of postproduction revision. found that in äll, t Which hawe Come printed versions di from each other. In concluded, One Ver author's manuscript behind it a pl: representing the pl The Oxford editors as closer to the S theatre. But most str trealment of King Lé and Folio versions Wells and Taylor to distinct versions Wri at different times. ACI Shakespeare prints separate texts of the ging the editorial 0 was one and one c text of KIпg Leаг, hawe in the Same E the discussion of th the textual problem be discussed only t only had the = nece: also had aCCESS II b Cuarto and the Fo Only expensive but ordinary person to misprints in the orig spelling and other the longs's which We hawe in the Oxfc tWO texts, With the and the Spelling moc of us, if We are ir them and make up

fundamental ideas revolution launched ird Shakespearee Works, edited by Gary Taylor. The plume sitting on this Shakesреаге, in the published in 1986 it expensive. It has also in a three-voluch is cheaper and
all earlier editors of Oxford editors took usiness was to get ble to the texts as atre of his time. This take seriously the omposition or postThe Oxford editors Iere were six plays lown in two original ffering substantially all these cases, they Sion Carne froman ard the other i hāS yhouse transcript ay in performance. regarded the latter Shakespeare of the iking of all was their lar. Here the Cuarto iffer so widely that ok them to be two ten and performed :ordingly, the Oxford mot One bout two play. While challenthodoxy that there mily Shakespearean the Oxford editors reath democratised is question. Earlier of the play could scholars who not saгy expertise but facsimiles of the o, which were not also difficult for the iad because Of the |al editions, the old such obstacles as look like f's. NOW di Shakespeare the misprints corrected Inised, so that any Brested, can read ur Own minds.
if it can be shown that Folio Lear – With Cuts, additions, substitutions and al-Isabetterplaythan Quarto Lear, then the case for saying that it is the product of a revision that Shakespeare carried out, or in which he participated, is greatly strengthened. But I am now in the same position as Premila in The Blinding, who says of the two versions of King Lear: "There are lots of differeT1Ces between-thëT1.3|Can't talk about all- of the T noW". There is ir facta 500-page book titled The Division of the Kingdons, written by a group of scholars about these differences, as well as several other learned papers published elsewhere. I can't even try therefore to cover this ground in the time I have. What I have decided to do is to concentrate on two Scenes and to demonstrate from them how Shakespeare Worked as a reviser. The two scenes are, in what was until 1986 the standard text, numbered Act IV Scene 3 and Act W. Scene 7. In the first of these scenes Kent and a Gentleman discuss the condition of Lear and Cordelia's emotional state before their reunion. In the second of these scenes that reunion itself and Lear's restoration from his madness are eПасled. .܂ ܒܡܢܝ
The first thing to say about the differences between the two versions in respect of these scenes is that the Folio drops entirely the first of them - that is, the conversation between Kent and the Gentleman. For earlier editors this was an unauthorised out in the theatre that had to be compensated for by restoring it from the Quarto. If we accept, like Wells and Taylor, the hypothesis that Shakespeare revised the play for later performances, then we can try to think of reasons why Shakespeare droppedit While rethinking the play, suggest that he may have found this scene both superfluous and inferior.
In that scene, as I have already indicated, Kent and the Gentleman talk about Lear's shame and guilt about his earlier rejection of Cordelia, and her continuing love and devotion to him. But in the later of the two scenes that as in discussing, these feelings of Lear and Cordelia are enacted on the stage by father and daughter themselves, in action and dialogue, sn't...it likely that

Page 13
Shakespeare, on returning to the scene as a reviser, felt that the earlier scene - a scene of reporting and not of draratic enactment-WaSur receSSay and should be eliminated?
But it's not only because of the less
dramatic quality of Act IV Scene 3 that
would argue that the quality of its Writing is inferior to the general level of the poetry in King Lear. Take, for instance, the passage in which Kent talks about Lear's recollection of the Wrongs he had
done. Cordelia:
these things sig
His mind so werhormously that buming SETE Deir5 hir from Cordelia.
Guilt as stinging and shame as burning - these are Well-worn and unrerTarkable images. Very different is the effect of the lines given to Lear in the reunion
SETE
a bound
Upon a wheel of fire, that mine own tears D SS| kg FIOCIl Bld.
This too is derived from a traditional image of the purgatorial fire, both punishing and purifying, but renewed in poetic power in its dramatic context.
In the scene between Kent and the Gentleman let's look also at the latter's account of the Way in which Cordelia received the news of Lear's sufferings:
„..., patieniçe, and SÖTÜYW strOY9 Who should express her goodiest. You have SEET
Sunshire and rain at once; her Smiles and le ELTS =
Wara lika a better Way; thise happy Smiles That played om her ripe lipo semed mot to knoW What guests were in her eyes, which parted thence As pears from diamonds dropped.
The imagery here is pretty, decorative and full of artifice, especially in the pears and diamonds at the end. So the Scene as a whole falls short, both in dramatic and in poetic power, of the best things in the play; and Shakespeare probably decided on these grounds to drop the entire Scene in revision.
Let's consider now what he did to
the reunion of Lea W. Scene 7 in the hit in reshaping it the Several years ago. in an essay, The P that has been repr and 72. should liki What I said then, at
it may have been dropped in revision. Studied the hypoth
"WIT LEBET E mlight of the -- SI restoring sleep at first address
areWere CE
HOW does fare'S YOLJr Mä
For Lear, OW of power and E have meaning he appalls Co her. Ha hlasd ("You do new of the grave"), Ces are like th to make Seni World...... The
and broken, as to be recors in those wery
OWestlets exploring Con: TOWestent is
Cition for that here the langu towards purg pride and it self-knowledg:
Newer before On Such as intensity poet simplicity and erotional trut
LEAR: Pray do no
I am a very foolish, FOLJITSCOTE - Edup Wä
Ardito d3alail,
fear I am not in T. MMehirk:ğG; shLilick
Yata doubtful foi
What plaCB | hisis; la Remembers it thes
Where il did lodgå lä Foir, B5 I BIT a man, To be my child Cor.
ORDELA
 
 

Lr and Cordelia (Act therto Standard texts) 5ECUn time OLInd, discussed this scene ure Water of Poetry', inted in Na Wasilu ' e to begin by reading a tirTe Wher hadn't esis of revision:
merges from the dark Dirit, Woken frOrnithis by music, Cordelia ES ir With CererTOas King and father:
my royal lord? How jesty?
ever, the hierarchies ven of age no longer : later in the scene rdelia by kneeling to ied and been rebOT Wrong to take me out
ad his fir St Lutefarose of a child groping se of an unfamiliar blank werse is halting if language itself has ituted; yet it follows tentative rhythms the of the seeking and
sciousness. And the
ER in the opposite direof the mad speeches: age marks the striving til of tred" ård owards a humbling
Shakespeare written cale and with such ry so austere in its yet so Tasterly in its
נוח
Tock, TB. londolid man, i
"d, maar hur Tife: Or ISS:
perfect mind. Fi OW WCL, and kry, this Tam; ir TTā ir igrant
da lhe skilhar
egarTents, nor known si right, Dostlaughatre,
I think this lady |a|3.
And so I am, I am.
As Lear had abrogated the passions, so Shakespeare, in his own act of
renunciation, has cast off complexity, is verbal richness, metaphor, all the
common appurtenances of poetry. All that remains is the pure, transparent, pellucid Water of the bares, most elemental Wellsprings of human utterance." And so I am, art, I am - What could be seemingly more commonplace than Cordelia's line? But it is part of its strengh that she speaks to him in the tones of another soothing a troubled child, so that the parent-child relationship is reversed. And its wery simplicity, its avoidance of all emotional Ostentation, is the mark of the purity of Cordelia's love. Bearing as it does all the selfless generosity of her nature, and with the whole. Weight of the play, which has been moving towards this TIOment, behind it, the line is in fact one of the peaks of Shakespearean poetry is that it is language charged with meaning to the utmost possible degree. If so, then surely Cordelia's line is great poetry."
In revising the scene Shakespeare did very little to its words, which in their perfection indeed demanded few chart ges. He did cut the concluding prose dialogue between Kent and the Gentler man, which is merely informative, so that in the Folio the scene ends or Lear's closing lines:
Pray you show, forget Arid forgive. I am sold and foolish.
With this cut Shakespeare ended the scene on an emotional highpoint, avoiding the drop in intensity which the original conclusion involved.
But the main changes that Shakespear re : Seems to hawe made to this Scene in revision concern its staging. To match the powerful simplicity of the language, he apparently decided to give the stage action an equally expressive simplicity.
Moder EditioS i Of Lear" hawe in Act IV. Scene 7o some such stage direction as this: "Enter Lear in a chair carried by servants.' This direction derives from the Folio, and therefore presumably belongs to the revision. There is no corresponding direction in the Quarto. What has therefore been conjectured is that when Shakespeare wrote his first version of the play, What he envisaged
11

Page 14
was that Lear should be revealed (or, to use the technical language of the Elizabethan stage) discovered', asleep in bed by the drawing apart of curtains. The change in the Folio to him being brought on stage in a chair is more effective because the chair reminds us of his throne, from which he started the tragedy in the first scene by his division of the kingdom. In the Quarto, and in modern conflated texts, the Doctor says to Cordelia, "Please you draw nearthat is, to Lear in bed. This goes Out in the Folio. because when Lear is brought in in a chair, it could be set down where Cordelia was.
In Quarto Version of this: Scene - We hawe om stage, besides. Lear and Cordelia, Kent, a Doctor and a Gentleman. The Doctor manages the awakening of Lear from his restorative sleep with the command "Louder the music there!' Music is, of course, often in Shakespeare a symbol of restored harmony; it is used in this way in the stage action in The Winter's Tale and The Tempest. No doubt Shakespeare provided for a similar use of music for Lear's awakening in the first productions of the play, But in revision he seems to hawe abandored this for a simpler effect. In the Folio version the Doctor disappears, so that attention is wholly concentrated on Cordelia as the agent of Lear's recovery. Ald there is no music, so that there
is nothing to distract the audience from
the Words in their una dormed, austere strength. It's very likely, too, that Shakespeare revised King Lear after he had LGLLLLLLLS SL aS LLLLaSYLLLLLLL S SLLLa S SSYL Tempest, so that when he came back to Lear, he didn't Want to repeat a theatrical effect he had already used in the other plays.
An interesting point arises here with regard to Peter Brook's production of the play, to which have already referred. In this production the Doctor and the music Were both excluded in the reunion scene, and as already mentioned, the conversation between the two servants at the end of Act IW scene 3 Was Cut. All these cuts correspond to excisions in the Folio, but it's unlikely that Brook
12
Talde them -- On a te, in the sixties ther textual scholars lar incorporated Shake revision of the play ble that Brook look and took ideas from Of course, Brook in of his own: in the is of Gloucester, he the end of the scene indifferent to the man. But this see the 'sixties, basing Conflated text, as a speare, Can n-OW be development of the version. This raises of What text i a diri producing King Lea the play passes ir director today, it be Creative act, ard th of interpretation - i - can't be circum: But there rerThair hS tI text he should sta With the conflated seems likely, is nic Construct by genel suffering from a Brook's example sh may find the Foliot fruitful, which isn't st probably evolved ir Shakespeare's own Brook was unaware
| hawe been able from a small part of and Folio Lears TIL" distinct Wersions. Th differences betweer no time to discuss fact that the Folio of Albany and Kent of Edgar; that it moralising speeches ral, the Folio versio But I want to end W on the impact of the speare text on the image of Shakesp Work as a playwrig clear at this point respect of King Le Shakespeare gives

ual gгошnds, since Wasino School of uing that the Folio peare's lastik OWr However, it's possild at the Folio text it for his production. oduced innovations ene of the blinding ad the servants at moving the furniture, ight of the blinded by some critics in themselves on the wiolation of Shakeclaimed as a creative Scene in the Folio he general question Ictor should use ln on the stage, When to the hands of a omes part of a new director's freedort In fact, of re-creation cribed by any text. he question of what rt i from, Why i begin ext, which, as now thing more than a rations of Scholars misapprehension? OWs that a director 2xt theatrically more Irprising since it was the theatre under direction', though of this.
he play that Quarto it be treated as two зre are maпy other thêT that | hawe - for instance, the iminishes the roles and enhances that auts a number of : and that, in geneis darker in tone. th 50IThe COrThrillents Tew Oxford ShakeOresent and future are's methods of it. I must Take it at it's not only in r that the Oxford s a text wery diffe
rent front that to which we have been accustomed. As thentioned earlier, there are six plays of Shakespeare for which We have two original printed texts which differ substantially from each other. In all these cases, one text seems to derive from an author's manuscript, and in the other there is the presence of a playhouse transcript. What editors before 1986 did with each of these plays Was to conflate the two versions. It is arguable that in doing so, they produced a text that never existed in Shakespeare's time, either in manuscript or in stage production. In all such cases the Oxford editors give us texts that can be taken to approximate as closely as possible to the text as acted in its latest stage of revision. They carry through this principle even if it means relegating to ап appепdix some famous lines, as, for instance, one soliloquy of Hamlet.
At this point wish to anticipate a question that may occur to some listeners. In the first Collected edition, the First Folio, there are 36 plays. To these We have to add two plays that are partly by Shakespeare — Pericles and The Two Noble Kinsmen - making 38 in all. So you may feel like objecting, "You say Shakespeare probably revised six plays after he finished their original manuscripts. Six out of 38 - that isn't a large proportion. So revision couldn't have been so frequent or so important in his work as a playwright'. But such an argument Wouldn't be sound. To decide whether or nota play was rewlsed after first composition was completed, we need to have two original printed texts that we can compare with each other. But this condition is satisfied only with 8 of the plays; for the other twenty We have only one text. In the case of these twenty Shakespeare may have revised none, or some, or all of them - there's no way of telling. So the real proportion is that among the 18 plays where we can judge, Shakespeare Seems to hawe rewİSad Six of ther Th. And anong these six, there are three where the revisions were very extensive, and these are among Shakespeare's acknowledged masterpieces - Lear, Hamlet and Othello. So the process of revision appears to have played a more signifi

Page 15
cant role in the making of his art than the simple arithmetic Would indicate.
When the Oxford Shakespeare appeared nine years ago, orthodox scholars were shocked by the novelty of its conclusions and the unfamiliarity of several features of its text. But in these nine years, there has been a noticeable shift in favour of its argument that Shakespeare did revise some of his plays. To some extent, I believe, that shift was due to the essential soundness of the case made out by the Oxford editors. However, there are probably also other factors that have helped. In the intellectual climate of post-modernist literary theory and literary Criticism, people Ike to think of a text as mot being fixed or finally defined. Of course, the process of what Gary Taylor called "reinventing Shakespeare' in his Witty and penetrating book of that name has gone Or ever since his time, We knoW that the plays have been subject to continual transformations and re-interpretation by editors, critics, directors and actors. But now there is evidence that even in Shakespeare's own time and it his own hands the plays existed in a process of flux. As Gary Taylor Writes;
What happened when Shakespeare finished King Lear?. According to the traditional story, he never revised his Work, and SO after he had Written the last page of King Lear he closed the book & and that was that. But fewer and fewer critics believe in closure. Shakespeare may at so the point have closed the book, but he could reopen it again whenever he wanted. There is no Last Judgment anymore.'
There is, however, another fact that has helped in the ascendancy of the theory of Shakespearean revision, and that is the financial power and academic prestige of the Oxford University Press through whose imprints the new image of Shakespeare is being disseminated. Certainly, if Wells and Taylor had edited their Shakespeare for a less prestigious publisher, their innovations would have had much less impact. And the texts of the Oxford Shakespeare are now
being distributed 2 paperbacks - a b the World's Classic safe to say that already strong riv English-speaking Репршіп Shakespea popular - versions ш universities. As G adults:
Like IBM and the and the RSC, experiment, beca tions are subsidiz leaders. The Oxf afford to experir know that the prestige of OUP support of their shocking edition i: in turner powe business interest: Presso
Another sign th: have begunto cham about Shakespear fresh series of the is going to fall in You may know thi this century there W Shakespeare; ther 'fifties, there Wasth spвагв. Now We аг of the series und The general editor, announced that he: Wiew that some of existed in more th that Arden 3 Will fact. Solar incli the first decade of hypothesis of Sha Will be Well esta favour, and that edi prepared on this generally acceptab Si85 Of Orle tirT18:V the Orthodoxies of
MOLES
should like to a
less to the edit spēäre – and oth

lso through cheap ook to a play - in Es Series. It seens these editions are als throughout the World to the NW ire, hitherto the most sed in Schools and iary. Taylor himself
3 EEinEr EnSETE OUP can afford to use its risky innovaed by its safe market ord editors, too, Carl ment, because they
global power and wi|be mobilized in experiment. Their sempowered by, and rs, the multinational s of Oxford University
at Wells and Taylor ge academic thinking e's play is that the Arden Shakespeare line with their view. at in the first half of as the original Arden l, beginning in the e New Arden Shakee to hawe a re-editing er the title Arder 3. Jonathan Bate, has strongly endorses the Shakespeare's Plays an Ora WerSiOn, Band take account of this ned to think that by the 21st century, the kespearean i revision blished in scholarly tions of Shakespeare basis Will becote Ie, As ofter, the herewill probably become another.
cknowledge my indebtedIS of the Oxford Shake
ËT Scholars Who have
O.
promoted the textual revolution in Shakespeare for many of the leading ideas in this paper.
G.K. Hunter (ed), Shakespeare: King Lgar (1972: Penguin Books), pp.45-46.
Stanley Walls and Gary Taylor (eds.), William Shakespeare, The Corpsesa Works (1986: Oxford University Press).
Gary Taylor and Michael Warmer (eds), Tha Division of the Kingdoms (1983: Oxford University Press).
Act IV Scene 6 in the Oxford Shakespeare's editing of the Folio text.
The misapprehension, as indicated in the earlier argument, is that the integrity of a Shakespeare's play, orca it left his hands, would have been violated in the theatre by actors doing what they liked with it Without frang to him.
The Elizaberthan and Jacobean theatre didn't have a recognised institution of a theatre director, but somebody would have had h0-Instruct the Factors and decide. Om Tatters of stage business, etc. In the case of Shakespesara's play, who would hawe been better suited to do this than the playwright-actor-Tember of the company who, it is plausible to suppose, would normally, until his retirement to Stratford, have been there on the spot
This six plays ar Krig. Laar, Hamle, Geo, Richard, Frg Herry Vand Troilus and Cressia. It's only in the first three, however, that the revisions are 50 substantial as to Take a diference to the general structure of the play, and in King Lear they are so extensive and so far-reaching as to justify the Oxford editors in speaking of two distinct versions.
Gary Taylor, Reinventing Shakespeare (1991: Winlage), p. 361.
Gary Taylor, Rainwarring Shakespeare (1991: Wintage), p. 321.
13

Page 16


Page 17
DECENTRALISATION (2)
Implications of The Fed
Hartmut ESerharS
Problems of the distribution of legislative powers in a federal system
All federations have as one as their primordial tasks to defend the security of the body i politic against | enCroachments from the outside. In the necessary distribution of legislative powers, foreign policy and military affairs belong to the federation. This basic link through which the state preserves order and security implies that civil rights, penal laws, the organisation of the legal structure and similar matters have to be dealt With at the federal level. Wherever due to historiCal circumstal Ces there exist als 0 Statė human rights bills, they have to be in conformity with the federal legislations which overarch it. There is no uniforn citizenship if citizens of different states enjoy different rights to any noticeable degree. The exception to be mentioned here are statutes relating only to the Very private domain of personal law and, here as already shown in the Indian example, not on the basis of territorial division of the citizens.
As well, federations are normally associated with the attempt to pool econoinc resources in order to complement the market With the capacity to influence it on the own territory against vagaries or undesired results of the World market. Foreign economic policy and the currency are normally attributions of the federal level. Foreign economic policy especially with its instruments of controlling foreign trade and transborder capital flows allows to differentiate conditions of profitability of investment and employment in the i doTestiC - ard - to influJérCé the pattern of specialisation, the level of employment and the rate of long-term growth. The size of a market lower which such influence can be exercised is essential for the results of such a differentiation of domestic conditions of production with respect to levels of profitability of various activities which
Would result from bECEUSE Of the foll tion of technical pi
Vti it Ces in developmen innovation is mad easily reproducible develop a motor C When it is discove for use, it is easy third of th One. The the more important spread the costs o' the number of rep ducts, and therefore cal progress. In in degression, and mc stries are characte stable unit costs c levels of productio market is importan made possible to C high costs of innova mātiðnal mārket - Wf abroad at priceshi Costs but lower th Genтпап рһапппасең abroad than at holl that levels of outpu costs low from Whic benefit also, despite to them being h abroad.
The promotion ( economic diversifi large home marke enjoy economies of cation of competit producers which oth each a monopoly separate Tharket sheltering from the also abolition of a to free Competitior growth will be inve the territory in ar consumers WillaCCE ted market for prod Of establishment foi the country is gua federations hawe migratory movemer organise the mar

eral opt
the World Tarket )wing basic condiogress: Technical of investing resourit which once the e exploitable are it is costly to If a ппасһіпе, but fed and Tlalde" fit to build a second a larger the market the possibilities to f ar immo Wation Om ilications, i.e. proto cheapen technidustries with cost st inrlDWative irdLrised by achieving inly at rather high n, the size of the t especially if it is ompensate initially tion by a protected sich alsoWS to Sell gher than marginal an average costs. jticals are cheaper T3 With the reSLut t are high and unit hhortle consumers the prices charged igher than those
lf productivity and cation through a it. Which allows to Scale and intersifiion ( bestWeem ' local erWise Would hawe on a territorially requiries not only | World Tlarket bLut lill-iriterra barriers 1. As the resulting triably spread Over I. Unewen Thanner, apt such an integraJcts only, if freedom all citizens allower aranteed, as most experienced vast its. The rules Which ket are therefore
ion
invariably federal and if there are state legislations as in the United States, federal rules hawe i to complement it : as Was the case With the labour laws, the laws of contracts etc., in brief: The organisation of equality of business before the market in analogy to the equality of people before the law are domain of federal legislation. But not all economic regulations will be uniform over the territory of a federation, Migration is not the only way to deal with uneven regional development. In all nations there are regional policies which try to balance regional backWardleSS ir Ordet to Take i eCOTÓTIC opportunities for all citizens in the whole territory of the federation at least comparable, Constitutions even mention the obligation for the federal government to provide for compensatory mechanisms. Such rules can be federal in principle, especially where limits to subsidies and promotional activities are concerned. The principle of subsidiarity implies, however, that the legal frameworks for positive action may be federal, but the detaillistic propositions and rules may be a responsibility of the state, especially as Such rules imply the use of tax payers' money. So that the lowest unit near those who are intended to benefit should be responsible for the efficiency of such operations. There are therefore areas where federal and state legislations coexist. A division of tasks can he achieved by listings of items reserved to one or the other level, but it is equally possible to reserve for the federation the establishment of frr:WorkS Withir Which the State le WÉ
SalloWedi t0 takE COCTEte actior ard
a SSLLLLL S SLLL S LL0L S LS S LLLLLLLLLL Competences.
The balance between state and
federation is actually shifred in Western states in favour of the federations because, whithin the area of simultaneous competences, more and more the federation extends its regulative power by passing from general rules to more detailed prescriptions. This is
15

Page 18
the reason for the actual rejection of (Washington) big government in parts of the United States public opinion, but such developments occur also in other federations especially With the actual ebb of statist tendencies in the West. Areas of legislation which are reserved to the state such as education in Germany contribute to reinforce the states in all other areas as they provide the political elites in the state institutions with a genuine field where they can secure allegiance from their body politic. The tendency to guarantee uniformity of basic conditions over territory of the federation will make itself felt here nevertheless. Although education is a state matter in Germany, no German state government has endeavoured to depart in a fundamental way from the structure of the education system and the requiriements for exams especially the ones relevant for gradation in the labour market or for access to higher education, and this despite wery serious divergencies in educational matters between major political forces subsequent to the students' unrest in the late 1960s.
Enlarged autonomy in administration
The principle of maintaining uniform LuleS i Withir a federatio ir Order to have equal rights of citizens and equal opportunities of labour and capital can have important repercussions for the pattern of application of rules. Two Systems for the execution of law can be distinguished. At a first glance it Tay Seert to be logical that each level executes the laws it has statuted. This will lead to a multiplicity of administrations and offices active Within the same area of concern. The other model consists in having purely federal areas of legislation executed by federal administrations, All other areas would then be left to state administrations which then simultaneously execute state and federal laws. This system ls in vigour in Germany. It has led to a close Cooperation between both levels and the divestment of the federation from administration in a variety of activities Where the federation Was entitled to create it. A large variety of settings for maintaining the chain of command is possible,
In the great majority of cases, the
16
federal level add for their administra are binding on si Control its exercis Whichthe potenti appeal. With resp of laws concertin of atomic energy, found it sometime mandatory instruct Strations in Statė goverTiments.
In the very s financial laws, the many provides for of federal taxes. has reserved its organisation of res We bodies and thi office holders, b reported.
Federal tears trunk railways or Ways) are an im the creation of a equal opportunities ties Over the Who many, the federa delegated this task tions OWEr Wich detailed control or and projects to be
The cooperation tion and the state Tultiplicity of fort by pragmatical cor torical circumstar particular arranger ised. This leads Where both levels blish formal rules nsibilities but to e. ties which execut grams. These are from joint Venture organisations whe and SOThétines les pool resources.
Participation of
federal decisic CeSS: The Conti
Systems of Co can survive only il respect each other When each le Welli it assumes tore Conflict can be ex teггitorial represen| lewel may - well ta

s to its laws rules tive execution which ate administrations. ed by the courts to al beneficiaries i Carn ect to the execution Ig the peaceful use thfederation has s necessary to send iOS to State adrimiS. With anti-nuclear
ensitive domain of COStitutiOri in Gerstate Collection also Here, the federation agreement on the spective administratienomination of top ut i Conflicts i are not
of transport such as trunk roads (motorportant ellement for national Tarket and ; for economic activile territory. In Gertion has, however, to state administrait can exercise a levels of spending executed.
between the federais takes therefore a is largely influenced siderations and hisC8S: UTCdër Which a nent has been orgaeVe to al area decide i not to estaof partitioning respostablish joint authorie agreed upon proз поt Vегy different S between business re sometimes equal sequal and partners
the states in the in making si prorol of the purse
operative federalism f the different levels 's financial strength. s free to raise taxes quire, Constitutional pected where some lativeS attē federa ke the federation's
view in case that they expect their regions to benefit from the increased revenues at the federation's level. The richer regions which become net contributors will become alienated, a result that probably nobody really strives for.
Fiscal problems require state participation in order to increase the Commitment of the richer states in the endeavour if the federation pursues extensive economic and social programs. The less the federation attempts to use its budget for redistribution, the less the necessity to cooperate With states and Vice-versa. A more welfarist state will therefore have a higher degree of cooperation between the different levels in financial matters than a more free-market oriented one.
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Page 20
SAFTA
-
Can Small Produce
Mallika Wanigasundara
The South Asian Free Trade Area (SA choices of goods for consumers, b producers be able to survive the con
The South Asian Preferential
Trade Agreement (SAPTA), whichis expected to transform itself into the South Asiam Free Trade Area (SAFTA)
by year 2000 or 2005, gives Sri Lankan
Small and mediu-scale industrialists the jitters.
A certain level of preferential trade Under SAPTA was agreed upon in December 1995 by the seven-nation South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) comprising India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, the MaldiWeS , 3rd Sri LarkĒ.
During a second round of talks by SAARC in Colombo in March 1996, tariffs between the seven countries Were lowered on 226 items. This Teant that trade was liberalised on these items, but it is estimated that some 5,000-6,000 customs lines, relating to at least 35,000 items, remain,
Under SAFTA, all tariff barriers and Om-tariff bär rie:TSG Such as reStrictionS through import licences, quotas, etc. will be Eliminated.
Small and medium-scale industrialists have nightmarish visions of anavalanche of Indiam goods swamping the local Tarket and wiping them out. Low-priced Indian tiles, buckets and saucepans, batteries and light engineering spares, electrical accessories, rubber and leather goods, and a million other items manufactured with India's highly developed technology Could enter Sri Lanka freely.
As it is, under Sri Lanka's present BCCIIIIlic: climate, the smal and mediul industrialists are facing mamy rewerses. The community is strapped for cash, has few reserves, is dragged down by high interest rates and unable to pay back
T TLLkekS SL C MGOLL LLLLMMMLL LLH HH LLTLeLeLee MM MM MCLG LLeMkkSY TkkkkLLL LLLLLe uL L
LLLLMMMMMMMM MMMMMTTMCMMM CMLLLLLLS LLLLL MCL LLHkkLL
bank loans, and fac irn SorThe irStarCBS.
In addition, the is suffering severely power cuts-scal half hours a day f hours. Fuel costs generators are muc city, but industrialis to keep the creditor
The trand is Om ASEAN, the Europe can and Pacific ag of the game is eff are being told that down to produce a globally accept effective and at Co
This seems a ta man hedged in b although the Sri La been successfully interTlatiorial markel and also in the sh InTiports under Sri La and liberalised tradi exports light engin items, boats, house of food items, rubbe CeramiCS, garments
TFE trés (1 frg seemsinescapable. free or liberalised Lanka's STäall man, ETCEed and Sti|| Ur together?
The message fror rities is Clear: SAF it is a challenge. producerSwill hawe WES for it. SOTE W Will benefit enormo the government of naike Kumaratunge about-face sinceth
embraced the free
the United Nations Environ,Tental PrograTrung (UNEP's
the private enterpris
€kba57 award
18

rS Survive
AFTA) promises lower prices and wider ut I will the small and medium-sized
mpetition?
;esdwindling markets
whole industrial base because of the daily EddOWrito five ald rom the earlier eight
for the running of ch higher than electrists are Soldiering on away from the door.
the Samme lir-SS an Union, the Amerireements. The la The iciency. Industrialists they have to buckle goods. Which are of able Standard, Cost mpetitive prices.
| Order for the small y Tiany constraints, mkarnindustrialist hlas
competing in the t in a variety of items Ome Tarket against Anka's opem economy ng system. Sri Lanka eering and electrical hold goods, a variety 2r and leather goods, i, and packeted tea.
er trade is On, and The question is: how should it be for Sri
struggling, inexperiable to put his act
Ti government autho*TA is mot a threat;
Manufacturers and,
to prepare themselill go under; others usly, Spokesmen for Chandrika Bandara, which in a complete e 1994 election has market ideology and ie system advocated
by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, urge the advantages of free regional trade. “ܨܒ
Economists take the wiew that preferential trade agreements, though they hawe their uses, tend to be outdated and loose. They believe that tighter, more unified trading agreements are necessary to Expand trade betweer Countries in the region and to meet the de Thands of modern Competitive markets successfully.
Dr. Garnini Fernando, Chairman of the Peoples Bank of Sri Lanka, which has funded thousands of small and mediumscale industrialists and put them on their feet a couple of decades ago, says: The region has a population of 1.2 billion people and the market potential is Tassive. There is a Rs 100 crore Tarket Out there and Sri Laka has to bile imto t".
The Peoples Bank cannot afford to ignore the fate of these industrialists Whom they have funded With Small loans of Rs 5,000-10,000 (USS 100-200) to begin with. Some industrialists have since then developed and taken loans running into several hundred thousand rupees. Some loans have been rescheduted and the Bank is at the Sarthe time trying to inform, educate and guide its clientele towards the SAFTA process.
There is of course enomous potential for trade between SAARC countries and this is not being exploited. Only around 3% of total trade of these countries is between SAARC mations.
Kingsley Wickremaratne, Minister of Trade and a prime advocate of SAFTA, says: "We can make sizeable profits in this massive market without even being noticed. Even 0.005% of that market Would be good enough for a small
COuntry like Sri Lanka'.
fi Indika Gurmawarderne, Minister of Fil
sheries and Aquatic Resources, says:

Page 21
The Soviet bloc industries collapsed because they could not compete in the global market. Even Vietnam has joined ASEAN and has agreed to abide by its policies'. This is surprising coming from the son of one of Sri Lanka's best known Marxists, the late Philip Gunawardene, and himself a reputed leftist.
For consurers SAFTA Would be a bonanza - lower prices and wider choices of goods. They will no longer accept substandard goods in captive markets and governments are no longer prepared to shore up inefficient, loss-making industries,
Many food items from India such as potatoes would cost one fourth the price or less if they are let into the country. But then what would be the fate of the Sri Lanka farmer? The Ministers of Agriculture and Trade find themselves locked in an argument about the import of potatoes from India. In Sri Lanka they cost anything between Rs 30-60 a kilo. in India they are Rs 3-6 a kilo.
Consumers do not usually pay high prices out of patriotism; it is a question of price and preference, says Minister Wickremaratre. "Which would you prefer - the Indian potato or ours which is so costly?" The same applies to Sarees from India, he says,
Chandra Kannangara, an entrepreneur from Lakpa, says: "Let's face it. SAFTA is here to stay. Let's not fight it...Let's Take inroads into leSS-known markets instead of the Toei Sophisticated ones'. He has seen Lakpa rubber slippers and Sri Lankan tyres selling in Madras. The Lakpa rubber slipper weighs 400 grams while the Indian one weighs 565 grams. "Which would the consumer prefer?" he asks.
But the fear of dumping is real. There is antarangement under SAPTA which enables countries which find that imports are threatening their local industries, to appeal to the SAFTA authorities for adjustments. How effective such a process would be in the face of tirtle lags and prewarications over negotiations is not difficult to envisage and the prospect seemspessimistic,
Besides, India for instance has its own way of dealing with these matters. India did agree to a duty reduction on the import of clowes, but then she has a system of import licences to restrict imports. This has been brought to the notice of the SAPTA secretariat.
Manufacturers are for protection, says th Central Barık, A S protected matches for did we get for it. Or substandard pencils about competition fror se pencil, and asked Cition.
"We asked him. S "If We Cammot. EWET quality pencil, how c in fact WB koWBredthé He now produces a and even exports it'.
BLIt BCrOSS thS bO and medium-scale sking foris not prote
LETTER
Images of Am
I was pleasantly Images of Sri Lanka Eyes, being subje analysis two deca publication to ma Bicentennial-- an both the New and latter of Which Jea born. (Lanka Gar 15 July). When the was enthusiasticall wed by discerning E three printings in si Who both read and wed the Collection in of its compilation travellers' tales spar In my introduction breast of the genes purpose of the anth as a modest COTip grew into a 442 pa plates and a spec cover painting by the limited time atr printing schedules affable. Ambassad ment of mounting the u Tiber. Of Chr: thirty-six.
In 1993 Jeanne T its author. Wher S
 

all the time asking he Governor of the Jayawardene. "We 70 years and What e Tanufacturer of complained to us masuperior Chinefor greater prote
ays the Governor. produce a good an We survive and
Import duty further. high quality pencil
ard, What the Small industrialists areaction but assistance
erica Through
surprised to find through American cted to a critical des after its first rk the ArTerican d by a citizen of Old Worlds, in the nine Thwaites Was dian 011 July and book appeared it y received, revieyes, and went into even years. Those reviewed it perceithe letter and spirit as a collection of ining two centuries. had made a clean is, alim, Scope and ology. What began limentary SOLJVenir ge volume with 22 ially commissioned stanley Kirinde. In ny disposal to meet and to saWe the or the embarrasscosts, cut doWn apters from fifty to
hwaites discovered he returned to Sri
- Incentives, lower interestrates (which now range around 20%), duty concessons on the import of raw materials, lower up-front costs, technological knowhow and market information.
The official message is: adjust and buckle down and We will help you. But producers - feel they hawe to stabilise themselves at home and get their act together before they can think interns of battling in a regional Tarket.
SITla and medium-scale industrialists particularly feel very frustrated and uncertain about the future: beyond the Indian Ocean there is indeed a gold mine, but do they have the capability to mine it?
- Third World Network Feasures.
Expatriate Sri Lankan Eyes
Lanka on a Fulbright-grant and in the course of both personal and Written inquiries, I was happy to fill her in further on the mode and contexts of how I had approached this congenial task for a special occasion. I thought had made it abundantly clear that | was in no Wise attempting a Franz FUnion - Alme Cesaire - Albert Memmi Ariel - Caliban interpretatlom of either the psychology of the Colonized or, that of a master-race Tission. That is a Whole separate ball game to which hawe made frequent reference in more relevant writings. I was merely offering a delectable choice of aperitifs, hors d'ouevrés, hamburgers, "patties and Sandwiches" and a few choice slices of love cake for which Ms. Thwaites Confesses to a more than ordinate passion. The quantum leap in 160 years from Newell's Saving Souls in Ceylon to Merton's finding salvation at Gal Vihare is quite a spread, and, perhaps, goes to the heart of the matter,
As for Edward Kennedy (Duke) Ellington, my wife and heard him with profound respect and attention in the enormous Gymnasium in Peradenya in 1963, and had the good fortune to be living in new York when he died
19

Page 22
in 1974. The funeral service We attended in the Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine was one of the more memorable events in a crowded sabbatical year. In fact it was the stimuli of that time which prompted the 1976 book at the invitation of an American Ambassador - a scholar and humanist, whom had the pleasure of meeting again in my home in September last year.
I want to keep this contribution brief and will end with two appropriate quotations - on adulatory, the other hyperbolically Shawian. When the book was re-printed in 1983 was allowed
to add a brief Posts Ction. The derTland Within seven years, tribute to the peripa sported his travel Sleeve for two hur the point of this Long before the ub псу апd the secdш there was the pass chose his intellec framed his percept own sensibility anc success of this bo to the enduring ch: his Obserwators". was born all of 7.
EBOOKS
Exploring Confrontation: Sri Lanka,
By Michael Roberts, Chur, Switzerland; Harwood Aca
Reviewed by Chandra R. de Silva,
(Professor of History, Department of History, Indiana Stafe University, Terre Hausa, IN 47809, LISA)
his voluntner consists of a
collection of essays. About half the book consista of articles and chapters which hawe never been published before and many of the others have been amended or updated. While the subjects of the essays range in Scope from Sinhala history and culture to the current ethnic conflict, they are strung together by several themes which pervade the collection. First, there is Robert's consistent attack on What he terms the "instrumentalist' interpretation of history (p. 42) and in this book, he assembles a wide range of evidence through which he seeks to introduce the 'emptive' element into the reconstruction of history. In a fascinating early chapter he deftly uses photographs to document how the Marxist political leadership gradually gravitated towards ceremonial attendance at Buddhist temples and, perhaps correctly,
2O
he cautions US agai as a purely politica Roberts retumst
"Asokan Persona'i specifically in four
the Collection, but
references througho argument here is
Sinhala Society and hierarchic traditiona are peculiarly Sri Lu this hierarchy and hierarchy and auth prevail in the mind. Sri Lankan leaders
followers. This is COTiplete and elab Robert's theory of t na'. The book is also ry on Michale Rob Conversion from historian to a Self-rel gist, and of his C having been a m Sinhala society. He in a confessional n his old friends and
find that casual ref made to the author WOwen into the Rob

:ript to my Introduor a third printing, of this idiosyncratic etic Américan Wh0 r's heart. On his ired years proves Vocative exercise. quitous travel agetive package tour onate pilgrim who ual citinerary and ons relying on his
imagination. The ok is a testimony urm and quality of And in the year I i yearsago, H.L.
Politics, Culture and History
Mencken (who needs no introduction) in his essay On being an American had this to say: "The United States is essentially a commonwealth of third rate men - that distinction is esay here because the general level of culture, of infort nation, of taste and judgement, of ordinary competence, is Solow ... Third-rate men, of Course, exist in all Countries, but it is only here that they are in full control of the state and With it all of the national standards."
H. A. I. Goonetileke i
demic Publishers, 1994.xxvi, 377 p. ISBN 3-7186-5506-3.
st interpreting this move. Secondly, his theory of the n Sinhala culture, apecific essays in also in scattered Lut the Wolume. HiS
not merely that
Culture has been lly, but that there ankan elements im
that respect for ority. Continues to s of contemporary as well as in their berhaps the most Orate defence of The 'Asokan Persoa auto-COTimentarts himself, of his eing a positivist lective anthropolown perception of irginal person in sometimes Writes Ode and some of acquaintances will rences they hawe
have been deftly erts' Interpretation
A] [ s 69
of the Sri Lankan reality. The book:
as a Whole, however, also contains some of Michale Robert's best Work. For instance Chapter Seven (p. 149-181) which is a reworking of his essay on "Noise as Cultural Struggle" explores how the different ways in Wlich British arid Buddhists WieWed shabdha (noise) impacted on the events which led to the riots of 1915. A reprint of his 1978 essay on 'Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Barriers to Accommodation' testifies to his perspicacity. While his use of the Word "progrom' to describe what are generally termend ethnic riots in Sri Lanka is certain to arouse controversy, his essay on 1983 reflects his deepening aversion to the violence Which has spread in the country of his birth. This is a volume which embodies the research and mature reflections of one of the premier historian-anthropologists of Sri Lanka. It will amply reward the discerning reader.
(Available at Vijitha Yapas Bookshop and Lake House Bookshop at Rs. 875/-)
[チéー

Page 23
Wil privatization mean
he end of the Union represent HOW WilII e interess of my members be protected
-Trade Unionist.
 

F.
Privatization will in no way dilute or reduce the
powers and rights of your union. British Airways was privatized in 1987, and the unions remainto protect worker
interests just as before. Some of the world's largest, most powerful and vocal unions exist in the private sector. For example, the United Auto Workers (UAW) represent over 100,000 workers at the three biggest American car
Companies, none of which are state owned. In fact, there is
every likelihood that working conditions will actually improve
in privatized companies, since there will be substantial
investments made to upgrade facilities and training You can
look forward to representing a considerably more
prosperous Union.
It is important to realize privatization is a means to
an end. It is a means to improve our living standards, foster
technological progress, create employment and take our
nation into a more prosperous tomorrow, In order to
achieve these aims, privatization has to be executed in the
appropriate manner.
That is the task of the Public Enterprise Reform
Commission (PERC). Its mandate is to make privatization
Work for Sri Lankans today, and for generations to come,
Every privatization is a carefully considered decision
that takes into account the interests of all sectors of Society,
the general public, the state employees, the consumers, the
suppliers, as Well as the Country's overall economic vision.
PERC's mission is to see that privatization works.
In doing so, your interests are always being well looked
after.
With privatization everybody has a stake.
WATCH FULIN THE PUBLIC INTEREST
PUBLICENTERPRISE REFORM COMMISSION,
Erik af Ceylan - 3th Floor, Mali, PC) Box 2001, Bank gf Ceylon Mawah.
Tibol, Sri Lanka.

Page 24
INTEREST FREE CRE
CONVENIENT RE
Yes. All and benefits are
CEYBANK
Contact the C
CEYBANK C
Bank Of
No. 4, BANK OF C
COLO
BE WISE CARD - WISE
BANK OF CEY
Rankets to the UNation
TELEPHONE: 447823 – Ex. 41808. 41

DIT?
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OWEST JOINING FEE?
many more 7ours with the
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entre Manager,
ARD CENTRE, Ceylon
EYLON MAWATHA,
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35